For architects, freehand drawings are an

important means of illustrating their work. BASICS

They train the ability to imagine space and
accompany the architect in discovering
CONSTRUCTION
STEEL
ideas and, equally, in the later design and
concretisation process. Basics Freehand
Drawing explains how to develop perspec-
tive illustrations, from the instruments
CONSTRUCTION

FREEHAND DRAWING
and drawing substrates available to the
different types of drawing and to the Katrin Hanses
later processing and editing of the image.

FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESENTATION
DESIGN
FUNDAMENTALS OF PRESENTATION
CONSTRUCTION
PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE
BUILDING PHYSICS AND BUILDING SERVICES
BUILDING MATERIALS
LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
URBANISM
THEORY
BASICS

www.birkhauser.com
Katrin Hanses

Steel
­Construction
Katrin Hanses - Sebastian El Khouli
Bert Bielefeld

Entwurfsidee
Steel
­Construction

Birkhäuser
BIRKHÄUSER
Basel
BASEL
 Contents
Foreword _7
Introduction _8
Building material _9
Material properties _9
Production _12
Cross section profiles _14
Fire protection _19
Corrosion _22
Surface treatment _23
Construction methods _27
Linear elements _27
Spatial elements _37
Special forms _40
Planning principles _45
Hall construction _45
Multi-storey construction _47
Lightweight construction _48
Bracing _53
Transport sizes and assembly _55
Connections _56
Building parts _59
Corners _59
Feet _59
Support _64
Assembly or site joints _67
Nodes _69
Roof _70
Composite constructions _71
Facade _75
Thermal separation _76
IN Conclusion _78
Appendix _79
Tables _79
Standards and guidelines _89
Literature _91
Picture credits _91
The author _92
 Foreword
Since the start of industrialisation steel has been one of the most
important materials in architecture. It allows wide-spanning structures
to be built using a minimal amount of material and is therefore highly
­efficient. There are classic areas where steel is widely used such as shed-
type buildings and roof structures, but it also offers an enormous range
of possibilities for a wide variety of designs. It makes possible open
spaces in which the walls are almost dissolved away; steel can be used
to build a wide range of slender spatial structures, creating unusual
­spatial constellations.
The use of steel (and other metals) is thus closely linked to its tech-
nical characteristics and possibilities for construction. Only when armed
with knowledge about the particular qualities, the various steel profiles
and the principles of fitting together a steel construction, and with an
awareness of the material’s limitations is the architect in a position to
develop creative solutions in steel and constantly to burst through the
established limits.
It is at this point that this new book Basics Steel Construction begins
and gives the reader an understanding of the particular qualities of steel
and the possibilities that it offers for different kinds of constructions. By
providing knowledge about the building material and its complex con-
structions and applications it enables architecture students to reflect on
creative solutions, including those outside the standardised systems
­offered by the construction industry. Alongside material research, much
of the progress in steel construction has been achieved through innova-
tive and unconventional ­designs by architects, who have set challenges
and provided encouragement for new developments and applications.
This book is intended to stimulate its readers, equipped with the know­
ledge they have gained, to explore the possibilities for their own designs,
and perhaps even to ­develop new approaches to steel construction.

Bert Bielefeld, Editor

7
Introduction
Ever since humanity has been able to make steel from pig iron, build-
ing in steel has grown in importance, in both economic and architectural
terms. At the 1889 World’s Fair in Paris at the latest the ability to erect
pioneering constructions in steel was impressively presented. Before this
at the first world’s fair, the Great Exhibition of 1851 in London, a number
of attempts had been made by Joseph Paxton, among others, to build
steel architecture in a way suited to the nature of the material. The con-
struction of the Crystal Palace had already demonstrated the typical of
the material. Constructions with large spans could also be easily disman-
tled. But the destruction of the Crystal Palace by fire in 1936 showed the
dangers of this material as well. In planning steel architecture both the
positive and negative aspects should be taken into account.
In the meantime, an entire method of building has developed out of
the specific qualities of the material, and steel has revolutionised both
architecture and civil engineering – for instance, in high-rise buildings
and transparent building envelopes, large halls and filigree constructions.
In addition, steel is used as reinforcement in concrete, as facade clad-
ding, and in lightweight building. From highly polished scales to a rough
surface finish, corroded surfaces and perforations, facade design also
has no boundaries for the use of steel.
Its many uses demonstrate just how versatile steel is: from light-
weight and small-scale to solid, large cross sections, every kind of struc-
ture is imaginable. The dissolution into filigree frame constructions with
enormous spans shapes the character of architecture built of steel.

8
 Building material
Steel is a very versatile material that can be used in a wide range of
areas. There are very many different kinds of steel and also many stand-
ards and regulations for all the parameters of the material, whether in
connections, forms or surface treatments. A further factor in the com-
plexity of this field is the very high level of development achieved by pro-
duction processes and material qualities, which makes this construction
material both highly innovative and extremely complex.

Material properties
In contrast to composite materials such as reinforced concrete, steel Constructional
has a very high compressive and tensile strength, even when not com- properties

bined with other materials. It is almost equally strong in both these ­areas.
A weakness of the material is its susceptibility to corrosion and thermal
deformation, which makes fire protection most important. Consequently,
when it is combined with concrete, for instance, special measures must
be introduced in order to ensure adequate cover and protection of the
steel.
Metals are divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. With a car-
bon content of less than 2%, steel belongs to the ferrous metals. In gen-
eral, metals have a high density and strength, a high melting point, and
good conductivity for heat and electricity.
The many different kinds of steel are classified according to a sys-
tem of material numbers and letters. > Fig. 1
Position 1 is particularly important for identifying the kind of steel.
>  Tab. 1 The other positions describe various material properties, the
method of production, areas of use, and methods of use, and are of
­importance primarily for the steel industry. A “G” in front of the letters
indicates a cast steel construction part.

position 1 position 2 position 3a position 3 position 3b position 4

main symbols additional symbols

material main method of production – area of use type of

type property additional mechanical properties product

Fig. 1: Concept of the designation system

9
 Tab. 1: Abbreviations for the kinds of steel most often used in building

S Steels for general steel construction

L Steels for pipe work construction
B Steels used on concrete
Y Prestressing steel

Structural steel The designation system used for steel was fundamentally altered by
the introduction of the European Standards. Two kinds of steel are par-
ticularly important for construction: S235 und S355.
What is called fine-grained steel is a particular kind of structural steel.
It has high strength and toughness, making it particularly suitable for
welded connections. Fine-grained steel achieves these qualities through
a reduction of the grain size by using particular elements as alloys, a low
carbon content of < 0.20%, and special rolling and heating technology. It
has a low weight combined with high strength and is particularly suit­able
for bridge building. Further grades include high strength and ultra-high
strength fine-grained steel, which have even greater elasticity and stress
levels.
Weather-resistant Weather-resistant structural steel can be used outdoors without cor-
structural steel rosion protection. It forms a strong, dense covering layer that protects
the building part against corrosion. A development of weather-resistant
steel is known as Corten steel, which forms an even patina on the sur-
face and is often used externally as a design element. Building parts made
of Corten steel can and should be used in a pre-weathered state so that
an even surface can develop. Otherwise, depending on the environmen-
tal conditions, irregularities may arise.
Rustproof steel Rustproof steels are distinguished according to their uses (corrosion-­
resistant steels, heat-resistant steels), their structure and the essen­tial
alloy elements. The short designation begins with an “X”.
Corrosion-resistant steels are generally combined under the term
“stainless steels”. Under normal conditions they form a protective ­passive
coat and therefore generally require no further surface coating. They can
easily be used again through melting down; however, a high temperature
and much energy are required for production using the arc welding pro-
cess. >  Chapter Building material, Production Stainless steels can be brushed,
­polished, etched or sandblasted. They can be made as loadbearing build-
ing elements, but this requires building approval.
Shaping When metals are subjected to high stress, plastic deformation takes
place (creep). Therefore, in using steel it is not necessarily the failure
load that is decisive but the stress at which an expansion of 0.2% is
reached. To assess strength, plasticity and elasticity, a stress-strain
­diagram is usually drawn. > Fig. 2

10
 tension σ

fracture
tensile strength
plastic range
yield point
boundary stress

flow range elastic range

fracture elongation

elongation ε

Fig. 2: Typical stress-strain curve of steel

Steel can be used for both the primary and secondary construction. Insulation
In both cases care should be taken to ensure that there are no gaps in
the insulation plane. As steel has high heat conductivity > Tab. 2, there is a
particularly great danger of thermal bridges and loss of heating energy
at points where the primary construction penetrates, at corners or
through gaps in the secondary construction. According to the demands
made on the building and building part, individual areas must be ther-
mally separated. > Chapter Building parts, Thermal separation
In addition, condensation forms more quickly on the cold surface of
the steel than on other materials. Here, ventilation and back ventilation
play an important role and can help prevent condensation causing dam-
age to the construction. It must be possible for the water to run off
­unobstructed and places where condensation could potentially emerge
must be identified in advance and avoided. ◯
As regards preventing the spread of impact or footfall sound, steel Noise insulation
composite slabs behave exactly like a normal reinforced concrete floor
slab. Footfall sound must be subdued by a floating screed or resilient

◯ Note: For thermal protection of steel frame buildings

in summer, the ceiling/floor slabs generally offer the
only possibility of accommodating thermal storage
mass in the building. Even a 10 cm layer of top concrete
at floor slab level produces a noticeable effect. Combi-
nation with building part activation is also possible.

11
Tab. 2: Properties of steel

Bulk density Thermal conductivity Tensile strength Fracture elongation

Cast steel 7850 kg/m3 40–50 W/mK 380–1100 N/mm2 7–25%
Structural steel 7850 kg/m3 48–56,985 W/mK 340–680 N/mm2 17–25%
Stainless steel 7920–7960 kg/m3 14.5–15 W/mK 500–730 N/mm2 45–50%

constructions. The same applies to airborne noise insulation, which in

lightweight steel walls can be improved by low rigidity and flexible facing
shells with a high weight per unit area. In general, attention should be
given to ensuring complete sound decoupling, above all in building parts
such as staircases on which special demands are made in terms of pre-
venting the transmission of impact sound.

Production
Iron Raw materials for the production of steel are coal, coke, iron ore and
scrap iron.
◯ In the production process iron ores, which are rich in oxides, are
mixed with lime and then smelted in blast furnaces to form iron through
the introduction of energy (with coke as the source of energy). > Fig. 3 This
produces pig iron, which has a high carbon content (3–5%) and contains
phosphorus and sulphur. Pig iron is very brittle and not useful as a raw
material. The melted pig iron is placed in a converter where oxygen is
blown in (“blow”) and further materials are added. This reduces the car-
bon, sulphur and phosphorus content. In producing many kinds of steel,
different alloy elements must be added in order to achieve the requisite
quality.
The electric arc process > Fig. 4 allows steel to be produced from scrap
iron and additives. The arc produces extremely high temperatures so that
high-quality alloys can also be smelted and a good steel quality achieved.
Steel can be 100% recycled in this way. The process makes extremely
sparing use of resources but the high amount of energy required means
that it is not particularly economical. Nevertheless, it is used for most
steels that must meet high demands in terms of quality.

◯ Note: Primary production is very energy-intensive.

In recent years, however, it has proved possible to
increase the efficiency of the production process
greatly. Once produced, steel is 100% recyclable and
after its initial production has a low demand for raw
materials, as scrap iron can be melted down again.
However, recycling also has a high energy demand.

12
 200 °C
pre-warming zone furnace gas
drying
pre-warming
breaking up

400 °C
reduction zone
indirect reduction
through CO barrel

900 °C electrodes
carburising zone belly
direct reduction
by C oxygen supply
bosh
wind 1400 °C electric arc
scrap
melting zone hearth slag steel roller bearings
1600 °C
pig iron
slag

Fig. 3: Sketch showing the principle of the blast Fig. 4: Sketch showing the principle of the electric arc
f­ urnace furnace

Alongside cast iron, steel (structural steel and fine-grained steel) is

the most commonly used iron-based material in architecture and civil
­engineering. Drain pipes, radiators, bath rubs, sewer covers, hydrants,
metal fittings and keys are made from various kinds of cast iron. Cast
iron is gradually declining in importance and being replaced by better
­developed material.
Just as there are different ways of manufacturing steel products, Shaping and further
there are numerous different methods of processing these products fur- processing

ther. A distinction is generally drawn between hot and cold forming. A

number of methods can be used in both processes. > Tab. 3 Hot forming
generally improves the qualities of the steel and makes it easier to work.
Cold forming, in contrast, produces greater strength.
In casting, steel is poured into sand forms. Cast steel parts can be
welded but they must first be heated. Cast steel, just like rolled parts, is
standardised and designated. Any kind of form is possible, so the scope
for design is therefore enormous.
Forging is carried out by hand or machine using hammer and anvil or
press moulds. Here, too, a wide variety of different forms can be made.
The structure of steel is changed by forging it; the coarse-grained struc-
ture is transformed into a fine-grained one, and the strength improved.
Rolling improves the structure of the steel. A system of rollers and
drums forms the section under high pressure. This process can be car-
ried out at different temperatures. Rolling is a further development in

13
Tab. 3: Forming processes

Hot forming Cold forming

Casting Drawing
Hot rolling Cold rolling
Pressing Pressing
Forging Forging
Machining processes
Folding
Cold profiling
Deep drawing

processing the cast steel part. It allows consistent cross sections to be

achieved and elongated products with a smooth or textured surface.
Pressing through an opening can also produce the cross section
­desired. This process is not so suitable for steel and is more useful for
non-ferrous metals (e.g. aluminium).
Extruding is generally used for sections that cannot be rolled on
­account of their geometry. A heated block is pressed through a matrix.
Rods, reinforcement bars and wires are produced by drawing. The
material goes through a series of stages in which it is made increasingly
thinner. As this is a cold forming process, the products have good
strength.
Deep drawing is a method of shaping sheet metal using dies, clamps
and matrices. Generally, this process produces sections that are open
on one side, troughs or similar products.
There are many other shaping methods, for instance, through
­mechanical processing. Here, too, there are numerous possibilities.
­Examples include milling, boring, filing, sawing, turning, bending, stamp-
ing and folding. These further processing methods result in what is called
a semi-finished product, which then can be worked to form the building
part. > Fig. 5

Cross section profiles

Steel products, i.e. the actual building elements and products, are
divided into a number of different groups. In the building industry the
terms listed below have become established. Given the variety of prod-
ucts, only those main groups of relevance for steel construction are men-
tioned in order to give a clear overview.
Flat products Flat products are generally made into semi-finished products, as they
have low stability in their original form. Sheet metals are also described
as coils but here, too, a distinction is drawn according to thickness

14
Fig. 5: Semi-finished products

flat metal sheet

lined in strips

grooved metal sheet

micro-profiling

trapezoidal profile

corrugated profile

Fig. 6: Profiled metal sheets

Tab. 4: Sheets and bands according to thickness

Heavy sheet > 3 mm (e.g. chequered plate)

Thin sheet < 3.0 mm (e.g. sheet steel)
Ultra-thin sheet < 0.5 mm (cold rolled)

­between hot rolled and cold rolled coils, sheets and bands. > Tab. 4 By fold-
ing in trapezoidal and wave forms the necessary stability can be produced
along the direction of folding. The building elements remain uniaxially
loadable. > Fig. 6 The form is generally given after the coating has been
­applied. The profiled metal sheets are suitable for multiple layer construc-
tions as both outer and inner shells. At the design stage it should be
­ensured that the sheets can still be stacked after forming and do result
in different transportation sizes.
Flat products are available as corrugated sheets, roof tile shaped
sheets, sheets with structured surfaces (chequered, nipple, diamond-
patterned or perforated metal) and many others. Profiled metal sheeting
is often used to create anti-slip surfaces, and perforated metal sheet is

15
Fig. 7: Flat products

used for facades (e.g. for sun protection). All sheets can be shaped fur-
ther by folding, and it is possible to combine structured and perforated
● metal sheets. > Fig. 7
A further flat product is expanded metal, which is produced by draw-
ing apart a sheet in which staggered slits have been made. > Fig. 8 This
produces a mesh with diamond-shaped openings which, depending on
the angle from which the mesh is viewed, make the surface appear to
shift between open and opaque. Different degrees of transparency can
be achieved using this effect. Expanded metals can also be formed and
folded and are often more economical than wire mesh or perforated
metal. They also offer a certain degree of stability.
Cables Cables are used above all in bridge building and high-rise construc-
tion. A distinction is drawn between running cables (on rolls, discs,
drums) and standing cables (carrier cables, cable slings, guy cables). They
consist of cold drawn wire and are generally formed of several wires
placed around a core or wire bundle. > Fig. 9
Concrete Reinforcement steel is used together with concrete. As concrete
­reinforcement steel ­handles compressive stress well but tensile stress badly, steel is inserted
into it as reinforcement. >  Fig. 10 The concrete protects the steel from
­corrosion by means of sufficient concrete cover. The two materials thus

● Example: Metal sheeting is often used in industrial

building for sandwich panels for roofs and facades.
These consist of two profiled steel sheets with insula-
tion between them, and they form an insulated final
outer skin that is generally highly economical.

16
Fig. 8: Expanded metals and perforated metals

parallel wire rope stranded rope locked coil rope bundle of parallel
stranded tension wires

Fig. 9: Suspension cables (tension cables)

Fig. 10: Reinforcement steel

augment each other extremely well. The reinforcement steel generally

provides tension reinforcement in the form of bars, mats or fibres. It is
usually warm rolled and has longitudinal and cross ribbing to produce a
better bond with the concrete. Prestressed concrete can also be made
with steel and is particularly efficient. Short, specially formed steel wire
pieces are used as steel fibres and added to fresh concrete. They can re-
place bar reinforcement and are particularly useful in composite ceiling/
floor slabs. > Chapter Building parts, Composite constructions Here, they are used as
shear reinforcement and to prevent cracking.

17
 incorrect

correct

Fig. 11: Correct positioning of holes Fig. 12: Steel profiles

Profiles Profiles or sections are known as longitudinal products. They are

generally produced by rolling and are available as solid or hollow sec-
tions. Solid profiles can be made as round, square, octagonal or flat
­sections, but for the efficient transfer of forces large and small sections
in letter form are normally used. The most commonly found are I, H and
U sections (channels) with rounded webs and flanges. I and H sections
differ in the width of the flange. > Appendix, Tabs. 8 to 17 Wide-flange beams
(HE) are used as columns or beams to handle large loads, whereas nor-
mal sections (IP/UP) are generally slender and therefore suitable above
all for taking bending stress, for example, as beams. Due to the danger
of buckling they are generally not used as columns.
Other sections include angles, T sections, bulb flat sections and vari­
ous special profiles, for example, for door and window frames. With the
standard I or H sections, holes can be made in the web to allow pipes or
other services to run through them. These holes should be made only at
structurally unimportant places. > Fig. 11
In addition to rolling, profiles can also be produced by extrusion. This
process can also be used for thick-walled special profiles. Hollow pro-
files can also be made in this way. Cold-formed profiles are made by cold
rolling metal sheets of low thickness (0.4–8 mm) or by folding. Above all,
C and Z profiles are also used as cold-formed profiles. Lips and corruga-
tions ensure better stiffness of the profile. > Fig. 13 Here, too, there are
­innumerable variations to meet different demands and for different build-
ing parts. Cold-formed profiles are particularly suitable as composite
building parts.
Hollow sections are drawn seamlessly, rolled or welded (longitudi-
nally or spirally welded) or, occasionally, made from flat products. Hol-
low profiles are suitable above all for columns and trusses and can have
different wall thicknesses. They achieve a high resistance to buckling,
but are expensive and sometimes difficult to connect to other building
parts, as they do not permit flat surface connections to be made.

18
 lip

corrugation

Fig. 13: Lips and corrugations Fig. 14: Trapezoidal metal system roof

Trapezoidal profiles are made from thin metal sheeting using roll pro- Trapezoidal profiles
files. The shaping gives them a degree of stiffness and they can even be
made (uniaxially) loadbearing. > Fig. 14
Some meshes can be made from round or flat rolled wires, rods or Mesh
cables. Different weave patterns can be made and the mesh can be pro-
duced in the form of rolls or single areas, or to meet individual ­demands.
The factors that influence the design include the mesh width, the wire
dia­meter, mesh thickness and mesh fineness. Flat layers of wire that are
welded or pressed at the junctions are called sheets. Mesh is ­often used
to make sun protection, for facade elements, in railings and suspended
ceilings, and also as sliding metal curtains.

Fire protection
Steel is generally non-flammable; it does not conduct fire and does Building-related
not release any poisonous gases when exposed to fire. However, at high fire protection

temperatures it radically changes its properties. This applies to its ­tensile

strength, yield point, modulus of elasticity, and the metallic structure.
Planning must respond to these qualities of the construction material. A
number of different areas can be identified regarding fire protection and
prevention. > Tab. 5
Because of steel’s tendency to deform radically when subjected to
heat, as mentioned above, particular attention must be given to protect-
ing steel building parts.
This form of fire protection serves to prevent a fire from reaching the
construction in the first place, or delays the heating-up process for so
long that there is a fire-resistance period before failure. The protective
measures should be to restrict the fire, protect from it, or to divert
the heat.

19
Tab. 5: Types of fire protection

Building-related fire protection Escape and rescue routes planned, the spread of fire
minimised (fire compartments), use of non-flammable/
low-flammability construction materials
Technical fire protection Fire alarm systems, sprinkler systems etc.
Protective fire protection Direct measures to extinguish and restrict a fire
(here building-related fire protection plays a major role)
Organisational and operational fire protection Preventive measures to avoid fires (e.g. training users for
rapid escape and firefighting)

Encasing is one solution. Steel can be encased in sprayed plasters,

concrete, or panels and claddings made of mineral fibres. > Fig. 15 The clad-
dings are generally prefabricated box or profile elements that clad the
elements flexibly.
Care should be taken that the corrosion protection and encasing
­harmonise with each other in order to avoid causing damage. Concrete
generally combines well with steel and can be used as a fire protection
measure with a friction-locked connection. As well as classic concrete
with steel reinforcement, spray concrete can be used to provide fire pro-
tection to a steel column or columns can encased in concrete.
Coatings that form a fire protection layer include paints and foils,
which foam chemically in the event of fire. This kind of fire protection
forms a protective layer around the building part and is particularly suit-
able for steel construction. There is no direct contact with the fire and
the building part is screened from the heat for a longer period. This ­effect
only lasts for a certain time and only delays the process of failure.
Protection by means of coatings offers a variety of visual, flexible
possibilities. They can be used as part of a colour concept and they also
prevent corrosion. A fire protection coating differs from a “normal” coat-
◯ ing or varnish only by the roughness of its surface.
Technical fire protection measures consist primarily of fire alarm and
sprinkler systems. In addition to the standard measures, water can also
be used inside hollow sections to lead away heat. A distinction is made
between profiles in which the water stands and those through which ­water

◯ Note: A coating of this kind is composed of a corro-

sion protection primer, the protective coating, and the
final coat. Today, a fire resistance rating of F90 and
even up to F120 can be achieved using this method.

20
 cladding e.g. using plasterboard
or mineral fibre

encasing with sprayed plaster

intumescent coatings

filled with concrete,

encased in concrete

Fig. 15: Fire protection measures

flows. Sections with standing water must be protected by valves against

excess internal pressure, and resist heat only for a certain time. Profiles
through which water flows can lead the heat away constantly and could,
theoretically, be filled with water only if fire breaks out. Generally, how-
ever, hydrostatic pressure develops inside a hollow section through which
water flows. This should not be underestimated, as it can affect the struc-
tural strength of the building part.
In individual cases the elaborate fire protection measures often re- Proof in the individual
quired in steel construction can be moderated somewhat. On the one case

hand it is possible to reduce the fire resistance period required. With

­lower buildings, for instance, we can explain why in the damage resulting
from a fire is less serious, or how firefighting measures can be intro­duced
particularly rapidly. On the other hand, active measures such as sprink-
ler systems or similar can increase the fire-resistance period of the build­
ing parts. It is also possible to make a precise structural calculation of
the behaviour of the building in the event of fire. What is called a natural
fire curve (in contrast to the ISO standard fire curve, which is generally
used) can be calculated, which depicts the actual fire load. Then the pre-
cise point at which the loadbearing structure will fail in the case of fire
can be discovered. A precise analysis of the behaviour of a loadbearing
structure during a fire often makes it possible to dispense with a number
of extensive fire protection measures.

21
 Corrosion
Iron is a base metal and, as is widely known, its corrosion process
involves rust. In the corrosion of metal, a certain amount material is lost,
which permanently weakens the structural strength of the building part.
The thinner the building part, the more dangerous the rusting process is.
As a rule, corrosion starts at a relative humidity of 65% and so building
parts made of steel must be given special protection against the corro-
sion process.
In addition to its effect on function, rust is also undesirable for ­visual
reasons. It suggests a poor quality building part and means the construc-
tion is often viewed with distrust.
In buildings it is principally electro-chemical corrosion that is of
­decisive importance. We distinguish between:

—— Surface area corrosion (hollows, hole, gap corrosion)

—— Contact corrosion

Corrosion process Corrosion is an electro-chemical process that takes place in the air,
in the ground, or in water. First of all, a compact rust layer builds up, which
later becomes loose and flakes off. The loose rust layers also allow con-
densation to collect at these places, which further encourages the rust-
ing process. Indoors there is no electrolytic moisture film, which is why
rust does not occur there. Where, due to corrosion, the surface of the
material wears unevenly, we speak of hollow, hole or gap corrosion,
◯ ­depending on the appearance.
By contrast, contact corrosion occurs where different metals touch
and where an electrolyte (e.g. water) is occasionally found. Then the more
base metal begins to disintegrate. In high-rise buildings this happens
above all with facade fixings and roof elements in which different metals
meet each other.

◯ Note: A simplified description of the electro-­

chemical process: small corrosion elements form on
the surface of the steel, each consisting of an anodic
and a cathodic area. At the anode an iron ion (FE++) is
freed, setting electrons (e-) free. They naturally wander
to the cathode. There on the surface they encounter
water (H2O) and oxygen (O2), creating hydroxide
ions (OH-). The rust develops at the point where the
hydroxide ions meet the iron ion and, in connection
with oxygen, ­oxidise (see Fig. 16).

22
 hydroxide ions
oxygen water
O2 OH–
H2O oxygen
O2

rust
e

Fe iron ions

electrons
anode e cathode
e
steel

Fig. 16: Schematic depiction of the electro-chemical process

Tab. 6: Corrosion protection

Active Passive
Design: functional design of the construction and choice Keeping aggressive materials away from the surface of the
of materials building part: artificial covering and protective layers,
metallic and non-metallic coverings
Intervention in the corrosion process. Removal/ Paints, coatings, coverings, enamelling, galvanising, zinc
influencing of aggressive materials, intervention in the coating
electro-chemical process
Reduction of areas for potential attack by corrosion to
an absolute minimum

In processing steel, an electro-chemical reaction can also occur in

the building part. This happens, for instance, at welding seams or bent
areas, or because of alloy elements. Other materials can accelerate the
process. These include, for example, chloride near the sea, or sulphur in
industrial regions.
Corrosion can be avoided by proper design. Essentially, the steel con- Corrosion protection
struction should be as flat and unarticulated as possible and easily
­accessible for execution, checking and maintenance to prevent corro-
sion. Deposits of dirt and water should be avoided. Gaps, slits and joints
should be closed, while open voids, hollow boxes and hollow building
parts should be given suitable corrosion protection internally and must
be ventilated. > Tab. 6

Surface treatment
There can be a number of different reasons for treating steel sur-
faces. In addition to design aspects, the need to provide protection
against corrosion and fire is decisive here. As regards corrosion protec-
tion surfaces, a distinction is drawn between metallic coverings, ­coatings

23
 or a combination of coverings and coating (duplex systems). Surfaces
can have very different demands. These can extend from tactile qualities
such as roughness, smoothness and hardness to properties that protect
the function such as lubricant adhesion or corrosion protection. > Tab. 7
The treatment generally consists of a number of different work processes,
often involving both coating and removal operations. In all cases the sur-
face must initially be cleaned and prepared.
Coating A coating always acts “passively”, i.e. it prevents rust and provides
a screen against the atmosphere (or the ground or water). The primer
coat is the passive coat, while the final coat provides the screen that also
protects the primer. Generally the different layers also have different col-
ours so that cover can be ensured. There are also production coatings
that provide protection against corrosion during transport, storage and
treatment. They do not, however, offer permanent protection.
Before each coating the surface must be properly prepared and freed
from any form of dirt, by blasting, pickling, grinding, brushing, and scrap-
ing manually or with a machine. The important thing is that the surface
should be clean.
No coating is 100% impermeable and it must therefore be applied
sufficiently thickly and on a properly prepared base. This can be done by
painting with a brush (above all for the primer coat), by rollers or by spray-
ing. The application should be done in dust-free, unchanging conditions,
and should be allowed sufficient time to dry.
Coatings are generally based on organic polymers. They can be well
adapted to particular situations (corrosion protection) or possibilities of
treatment. They are economical to use and offer a wide variety of design
options as regards choice of colour and the degree of shininess of the
surface. They generally consist of binders, pigments, fillers, solvents or
dispersants, and additives. Polymer coatings can become chapped over
the course of time and lose their stability.
Metallic coverings The coatings described above augment the steel surface in an addi-
tive way, whereas a metallic covering reacts with the steel surface and
becomes one with it. To achieve this, the steel must be covered with a
reactive metal (e.g. aluminium or zinc) to allow the electro-chemical bind-
ing. The metal most commonly used here is zinc, which absorbs CO2 from
the air, forms a firmly adhering layer, and offers excellent protection
against corrosion. As the galvanic layer wears down over the course of
time, a sufficiently thick layer should be planned so as to guarantee long-
term protection against corrosion.
Steel building parts can be galvanised in a number of different ways.
In batch galvanising, the building parts are immersed in a zinc bath and
afterwards dried. The size of the pieces must be considered at the plan-
ning stage, as there are limitations to the size of the zinc baths. The stand-
ard bath size is around 18.0 × 2.2 × 3.6 m (l × w × d); however, long build-
ing elements can be immersed from two sides so that they can be twice

24
Tab. 7: Some examples of surface treatments

Mechanical treatment Sandblasting Sand is blasted against the building part using pressurised air.

Shot blasting Grainy material with different grain sizes is sprayed against the
material using kinetic energy.
High-pressure water A form of spraying that also removes splinters
jet treatment
Brushing Surface cleaning, resulting in a polished surface
Grinding Removal of splinters by an abrasive action using grit
Polishing No removal of splinters, upstanding material burrs are
smoothened, creating a gleaming surface.
Thermal treatment Flaming Cleaning of the surface
Annealing Cleaning of the surface
Chemical treatment, Chemical deburring Fine deburring and smoothening
non-layer forming
Etching Surface treatment that removes layers; can be used to create
visual effects
Pickling To remove rust and improve adhesion
Burnishing Strongly oxidising solutions create a dense film on the surface.
Chemical treatment, Phosphating Creates a moisture barrier, a good primer and protection
layer-forming against corrosion, particularly with organic coatings.
Chromate coating Formation of chromate layers with aluminium and zinc materials
Metal spraying Application of thick metal layers, protects building parts
exposed to mechanical stress
Plating Covering a steel core with thin, rolled layers of another metal.
Composite materials made of different layers result.
Anodising Creates an oxidised protective layer on aluminium
Enamelling A glass-like non-crystalline enamel is melted onto a steel part
and binds with the surface. Acid resistance, corrosion
protection, temperature projection and much more
Chemical and galvanic More noble metal layers are applied as a surface, e.g.
metalising aluminium, chrome, cobalt, nickel, copper, brass, bronze, zinc,
silver, cadmium, tin, lead
Painting Organic or inorganic polymers combined with binders,
pigments, fillers, solvents, additives and water
Printing E.g. silk-screening
Metallic coverings Galvanising Metallic covering by means of immersion, spraying or similar
Powder coating Coloured plastic particles are permanently bound with the steel
surface electrostatically.
Coating Duplex coating First a metal cover (galvanising), then a coating system
Plasma-vacuum coating In a vacuum, chemical elements are applied to the surface
(aluminium, copper, titanium etc.). For self-cleansing facade
materials, antibacterial surfaces, for colouring stainless steel.
Permanent and resistant to deformation.

25
 as long. Coil coating is the term given to galvanising coils and steel strips
in a continuous hot-dipping process.
Thermal spraying with zinc (spray galvanising) is used primarily for
building parts that cannot be taken apart, or at least not into pieces that
would fit into a dip bath. Spray galvanising is relatively expensive but is
suitable for improvement purposes. It creates a surface that is irregular
and porous, which therefore must always be given a coating.
In electro-galvanising an electric current is introduced into the bath.
This exploits the electrostatic attraction of steel and the coating.
Duplex system If a coating is applied in addition to a metallic covering, the durabil-
ity of the surface is further improved. This is known as a duplex system.
It is often used for visual reasons, to conceal or upgrade the galvanising.
A useful side effect is the increased corrosion protection. By combining
both methods the building part is protected for a period that is consider-
ably longer than the sum of the protection periods of the two individual
measures. A synergetic effect is produced.

26
 Construction methods
Steel as a primary construction offers numerous advantages, such
as light and filigree constructions, flexible floor plans and a high degree
of prefabrication. However, it also makes demands in terms of fire pro-
tection, structural design, and logistics, which must be taken into account
from the very start. On a large scale the material can form the load­bearing
structure of a building or an engineering structure and is also suitable for
filigree individual parts at joints and in secondary structures.
As with every building system, the main function of the loadbearing
structure in steel construction is to ensure stability and suitability for the
building’s function. In this context, stability means transferring all hori-
zontal and vertical forces within the structure as a whole, while suitabil-
ity for function means that the architecture can used as planned.

Linear elements
The use of solid web girders is a very common method of linear trans- Girder
fer of loads in a building. These are girders with a constant cross section,
which in the standard case are subject to bending loads. (See Alfred
Meistermann, Basics Loadbearing Systems, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel
2007)
One variation is the girder with a changing height. This means that
instead of a constant cross section, the form of the girder is adapted to

rigid corner

pin-jointed foot

fixed foot

bearing (jointed)

Fig. 17: Elements of the loadbearing structure

27
 system moment curve

single-span beam

continuous beam

articulated beam

cantilever

Fig. 18: Moment curves according to system

the moment curve of the building part. > Figs. 18 and 19 This of course has a
major impact on the design but can be used to great advantage.
Trussed girders When solid web girders are not to be used, the solid girder can be
broken up to form a truss. This creates a light building element with the
appropriate capacity that saves on material. Within the truss the chords
take up the moments, while the diagonals and posts transfer the shear
forces. > Fig. 20

28
 suitable beam forms

standard parallel chord solid web beam

haunched solid web beam

trussed beam

Fig. 19: Single-bay girders, different forms

top chord

diagonals
posts

lower chord

Fig. 20: Parts of the truss

A distinction is drawn between braced and post frames. The K truss

is a form of post frame. Like the solid web girder, the shape of the truss
can be adapted to the moment curve or the form of the roof. The truss
can have parallel chords, and sloping or curved upper and lower chords.
> Fig. 22
In designing a truss the designer must consider the structural sys-
tem. The junctions of the truss are always assumed to be joints at which

29
Fig. 21: Trusses (from left): fish belly, post truss, angled strut truss

post truss irregular truss

pitched roof truss

strut truss

strut truss with posts lens-shaped truss

K truss fish-belly truss

strut truss to take shear forces arched truss

Fig. 22: Various truss forms

the load impacts. Only normal forces occur. Junctions should be centred
on the axes of the elements so that the elements of the truss meet at a
single point. > Fig. 23 The angles between the elements are between 30°
and 60° to the long axis, creating a triangular joint made up of the indi-
vidual components.

30
 upper chord upper chord

30–60°

ut
ut

str
str
centred, axes meet at one point not centred, axes meet outside

Fig. 23: Axes in the junctions

top chord beam

strut

tension tie

Fig. 24: The parts of a trussed beam

A distinction is made between tension and compression diagonals.

Building elements subject to compression forces can be in danger of
buckling or tipping over. Here, the length and slenderness of the elements
are of particular relevance.
A further variation on breaking up the linear girder is the use of ten- Trussed beams
sion ties. This creates single-bay girders with several components. > Fig. 24
The upper chord is the bending beam that takes the bending moment and
shear forces, whereas the strut and the tension tie provide support. They
are subject only to normal forces and form a hybrid loadbearing ­structure. ◼
In contrast to a truss, in which it is assumed that all junctions are
pinned, the upper chord in a trussed beam is rigid and continuous. The
strut and tension tie are, however, pinned.

◼ Tip: Evenly trussed beams should be used for sym-

metrical loads only. They are suitable for roof construc­-
tions and also for footbridges or small bridges. They
are less suitable for floor loads.

31
 one strut three struts

two struts four struts

overlaying of two systems each with two struts intermediate stabilising bracing

Fig. 25: Different forms of trussed beams

upper chord

strut

lower chord

Fig. 26: Triangular truss

The trussed beam can have several struts and the upper chord can
be inclined. > Fig. 25 Up to four struts (arranged symmetrically) make sense.
The greater the number of struts, the greater the force on the tension tie,
but the moments in the beam are reduced. Several trusses can be com-
bined.
Triangular truss The triangular truss is a special kind of truss. The compression force
in the upper chord is taken by two rods creating a three-dimensional truss
that performs like a single span. > Fig. 26 Here, too, the upper and lower

32
 parallel chords

parallel chords
haunched

haunched close to moment curve

haunched

support area haunched

trussed/cable-stayed

haunched linearly

truss
gerber beam

Fig. 27: Examples of continuous beams: approaching Fig. 28: Examples of cantilevers: approaching the
the moment curve moment curve

chord are made as hinged rods, the two rods of the upper chord divide
up the forces. Given the number of rods that meet there, the junctions
must be designed precisely. > Chapter Building parts, Nodes
If a beam rests on several bearing points instead of just two, this cre- Multi-span beams
ates a different structural system. The multi-span beam extends across and cantilevers

several spans and a distinction is made between a continuous beam and

a Gerber beam. Continuous beams rest without interruption on the vari­
ous bearing points, producing what is called a structurally indeterminate
system (which cannot be determined by the conditions of equilibrium
alone). > Fig. 27 Gerber beams have a joint at each bearing point and so
produce a series of single-span beams. Multi-span beams can be made
as solid web girders, flat and three-dimensional trusses, or as trussed
beams.
If there is no final bearing point at the end of a beam but a projec-
tion, the moment curve changes again. A beam with a cantilever can also
be adapted to the form of the moment curve. > Fig. 28

33
 structural system form structural system form

hinged column column fixed at

both ends

cantilever column column fixed at head

column with fixed foot

Fig. 29: Various types of column

Columns Columns are building elements that are generally subjected to com-
pression forces and are therefore exposed to the danger of buckling. The
point of failure and the efficiency of the building part are influenced by
its slenderness and the material used for the column. It is not only the
size of the cross section that is important but also its geometry. In steel
construction, hollow cross sections are particularly suitable for columns.
Columns also differ according to way in which they rest. > Fig. 29 Most
commonly used is the pin-ended support, which is hinged at the top and
bottom. The end points of the columns, however, can also be fixed or free.
Exactly as with bending beams, it can make sense to adapt the form
of a column to the moment curve. A column can also be broken up into
several elements.
Frame A frame consists of two or more line-shaped parts that are spanned
in a single plane so that they define an area and are connected with each

34
 frame beam

three-pinned frame two-pinned frame fixed frame

corner

frame post

Fig. 30: Principles and elements of a frame

Fig. 31: Selection of different frame systems

two-pinned frame three-pinned frame special forms

asymmetrical frame

central fixed column

Fig. 32: Selection of different frames

other. There are three-pinned, two-pinned and fixed frames. > Fig. 30 There
are numerous design possibilities and frames can also be arranged
­sequentially. > Fig. 31

35
 three-pinned arch two-pinned arch fixed arch

arch rise,
height

Fig. 33: Principles of the arch

tie rod bracing beam tension cable

Fig. 34: Possible ways of bracing arches

Essentially, a frame carries and supports and is a system that is rigid

in its own plane. It can also function as bracing, both for itself and for a
◼ building. The cross sections can be made in different ways. > Fig. 32
Arch The arch is a form-active structure. This means that its form can be
adapted to reflect the flow of forces in the building in such a way that
­almost no moments occur. It is therefore subject only to normal forces
(compression and tension).
To produce exclusively normal forces the individual line of thrust must
be calculated. It later provides the structural form. As with frames a dis-
tinction can be made between two-pinned, three-pinned and fixed arches.
> Fig. 33 In contrast to the cable truss, the arch takes its form from the line
of thrust and uses the same principle of a moment-free method of con-
struction.
The lower the height of the arch, the greater the horizontal thrust at
the foot, which is of considerable relevance for the structural design. The
arch height should therefore be made as great as possible, which in turn
has a major impact on the design and on the clear height beneath the
arch. An arch can be made as a single structure without columns or it

◼ Tip: In designing the corners of frame, as well as

taking structural aspects into account, consideration
should also be given to the constraints of the assembly
process. A general design rule is that the thicknesses
of upright and cross-bar should not differ.

36
can be raised to allow better use of the space beneath it. Arches can also
be broken up into trusses or made more efficient by trussing. There are
almost no boundaries set to creativity.
The arch tends to tilt and buckle (see Alfred Meistermann, Basics
Loadbearing Systems, Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 2007). Various methods
of bracing can be used to counteract the danger of buckling and to
achieve greater stability. These can also be integrated into the design of
the loadbearing structure. > Fig. 34

Spatial elements
A planar structure made out of a number of beams is described as a Beam grillage
beam grillage or beam grid. The loads are transferred in two directions
and it is mostly bending load that develops. The beams are rigidly con-
nected to each other, giving a flat, biaxial effect. In design terms the beam
grillage is extremely flexible. > Fig. 35 For instance, round plans are also
conceivable and a diagonal grid has a favourable impact on the dimen-
sioning of the internal beams.

square

edge support
circular

triangular grid

Fig. 35: Beam grillage systems

37
Fig. 36: Beam grillage on columns, Neue National­ Fig. 37: Typical structure of a beam grillage
galerie, Berlin

basic forms of space frame grid of cubes grid of tetrahedrons

tetrahedron octahedron cube

dodecahedron icosahedron

Fig. 38: Space frame structure

The grillage can bear on pin-joined columns, single columns (fixed)

or on wall panels. Just as with the floor plan, the layout of the columns is
also flexible. They can be positioned at the outer corners, at internal or
edge junctions, with or without cantilevers. > Fig. 37
The loadbearing effect is similar to that of two intersecting beams
that transfer the load biaxially. Optimum biaxial load transfer is achieved
when the relationship between the sides of the beam grillage is 1:1, as
the force always takes the shortest route. In this way the supports are
evenly loaded and form an even, rigid system. The edge beams must be
made particularly stable, as the internal beams are fixed to them.

38
 space frame

space frame node

Fig. 39: Space frame

Exactly as with linear systems, in the spatial context, too, the mas- Space frame
siveness of the construction can be broken up into a frame. Space frames
also consist of rods and junctions with hinged connections to each other.
They form a three-dimensional spatial grid consisting of an arrangement
of platonic bodies. The forces are transmitted only at the junctions, and
the rods are subjected only to compression or tension force.
Forms constructed from triangles are stable without any further
measures, whereas forms based on cubes must be combined with addi-
tional elements. > Fig. 38 Single-plane space frames are those that together
create a flat, planar effect. Structures with low mass and large spans can
also be created in a single plane.
Thanks to its stability the planar space frame works like a plate or a
beam grillage so that no additional horizontal bracing is necessary. It has
a highly filigree quality, and is light and very efficient.
Space frames are generally built using circular sections, although
square section tubes are sometimes used. > Fig. 39 Junctions can be made
by welding, using spheres, or slit metal sheets. > Chapter Building parts, Nodes
Shells and domed structures can be constructed from space frames
that are not planar. One example is the geodesic dome, which is com-
posed of dodecahedrons or icosahedrons.

39
 Fig. 40: Cable structure for bridge building, Brooklyn
Bridge, New York

Special forms
Suspension In suspension constructions, external loads are directed through
­constructions structural elements subjected to tensile force. The design possibilities
of suspended constructions are very varied, particularly with large spans.
>  Fig. 40 The low dead weight and the almost exclusively tension load
­ensures optimal exploitation of the material. The stability is not endan-
gered by excessive compressive loads.
In contrast to the arch, which exploits the ideal thrust line of a build-
ing part, in suspended constructions the optimal cable line can be used
as an approach. It describes the ideal for a structure in which no ­moments
are released and which can therefore be made in a very filigree way. ­Cable
structures are minimal structures and are therefore often used for espe-
cially large constructions, such as bridges or big halls. A cable is unable
to take bending moments and its form always follows the applied loads.
This results in a precise approach to the cable line.
However, calculating suspension structures is a complex process,
and complicated joints and anchorage points can be involved. The ten-
sion forces that are favourable for slender steel elements are very unfa-
vourable for the foundations, which in principle transfer loads to the
ground by means of compression. Elaborate anchoring in the ground is
required at times. In building suspension structures it must be ensured
that the cables never lose tension or droop, as this could result in loss of
stability.
Ensuring stability is, in general, one of the major challenges of a sus-
pension structure. In a suspended roof, for example, stabilising can be
done by means of weight or by using a roof skin with a stiffening shell
­effect. > Fig. 41

40
 shell

pylon
guy cable

stabilising weights

pylon
guy cable

Fig. 41: Stabilising suspension constructions

suspension cable

hangers

pretension cable

Fig. 42: Cable truss

Cable trusses achieve their stability through uniaxially arranged, pre- Cable trusses
stressed, counter-curved cables. Cable trusses consist of a loadbearing
cable and a tension cable, which are normally connected to each by ten-
sion elements known as hangers. > Fig. 42 If these are omitted, then as with
trussed beams, struts must be used. > Fig. 43 These trusses are primarily
endangered by buckling of the struts or twisting of the truss.

41
 cable truss with bracing beam

cable truss with suspension and pretension cable

Jawerth truss

lens-shaped cable truss with compression struts

Fig. 43: Forms of cable trusses

Cable-stayed truss A variation on the cable truss is the cable-stayed truss. Whereas
c­ able trusses are very delicate but difficult to manufacture, the cable-
stayed truss offers greater potential. It contributes to greatly simplifying
production, above all in the case of bridges. Within the construction, a

42
 stay cable

anchoring cable

bracing beam
pylon

Fig. 44: The elements of a cable-stayed truss

pylons at both sides

pylon at one side

central pylon

Fig. 45: Various forms of cable-stayed trusses

slender girder is suspended from cables and works as a stiffening girder.

> Fig. 44 It is subject to normal forces. The cable-stayed truss allows a wide
variety of solutions in the design and arrangement of the cables and
­pylons. > Fig. 45

43
Fig. 46: Cable-stayed trusses in the National Stadium in Fig. 47: Closed cable net
Warsaw with a suspension bridge in the foreground

Fig. 48: Open cable net Fig. 49: Open cable nets: Olympiapark and Stadium,
Munich

Cable net Cable nets function primarily as a membrane. Cable nets are made
of multitudes of anticlastic, stressed loadbearing and tension cables and
in this way acquire stability. A distinction is drawn between open and
closed cable nets. > Figs. 47, 48 and 49 In the closed cable net the cable ten-
sion forces are directed into edge bearings. These are subject to com-
pression and the edge beams allow a usable space to be formed.
Cable nets can, for instance, form the substructure for a light roof
skin. The more densely the cables are woven together, the more the con-
struction functions as a membrane. The elements, which are subjected
only to tension forces, can be rods or cables made of steel.

44
 Planning principles
In steel construction the loadbearing structure is always a part of the
design. From the very start it is important to match design concepts with
constructional possibilities. The structure can be used as a design ele-
ment and made entirely visible, or it can be concealed between the lay-
ers of the construction. > Fig. 50 The relationship of the building shell and
spatial enclosure to the structure should also form a part of the basic
concept of the building.
Having examined the individual elements of the structure, an
­approach will now be made to implementing the principles learned. Par-
ticular attention is given to the influence on the architectural planning.

Hall construction
In general we can differentiate between single-storey and multi-­
storey steel buildings. The possibilities steel offers for large, column-free
constructions that are light but efficient make it predestined for indus-
trial and shed or hall building. > Fig. 51 The loadbearing elements discussed
earlier are often employed precisely in this field.
Generally, large spans are handled by column-beam systems. Primary construction
Depend­ing on the kind of bracing used, these are combined to form a
frame or spatial constructions. The building’s function may mean the
bracing in hall building has to handle wind loads as well as the impact
loads of vehicles or the loads of indoor cranes.
With low distances apart of approx. 6–7 m, roof and facade con­
structions can rest directly on the column-beam systems. > Chapter Planning
­principles, Lightweight construction ◼
If the construction axes in the primary construction are larger, a sec- Secondary
ondary structure may be required as bearing for the building envelope. construction

The main beams, which can also be called girders, can be solid web gir­
ders or trusses. They can also be optimised by adapting them to the
­moment curve. In smaller building volumes, elements with parallel chords
are often used for economic reasons.

◼ Tip: Here, special structural calculations must prove

the ability of roof and facade constructions to handle
shear forces and they must be constructed in a special
way (e.g. bolted). Many manufacturers offer ready-
made tested systems to meet different demands
(spans, profile thickness etc.).

45
 structure visible, envelope inside structure partly visible

structure only visible from inside, envelope outside structure not visible, shell inside and outside

Fig. 50: Position of the loadbearing structure

large spaces purlin

large spans
generally single-storey beam

column

Fig. 51: Principle of hall building

46
Fig. 52: Hall building with primary construction of solid web beams
and secondary struts

In constructing the secondary structure for roofs, use is often made

of purlins, which are placed at right angles to the loadbearing system and
provide a flat substructure for the roof skin or construction layers. > ­Chapter
Building parts, Roof
The same applies to the construction of the walls where posts can
form the secondary construction. As they are less affected by the trans-
fer of loads and weathering they are on a smaller scale. The secondary
construction also requires a bracing cladding in order to prevent tilting
or deformation. > Fig. 52 Consequently, the primary and secondary con-
struction and the external envelope must be designed together as parts
of an overall system.

Multi-storey construction
In contrast to a single-storey hall building, a multi-storey building
connects several structural systems that rest upon each other in
­sequence. > Fig. 53 This produces different requirements for structure, fire
protection, sound insulation and, naturally, also the design. Bracing has
also to be planned. Stacked frame systems are often used with vertical
trusses as bracing.
Multi-storey buildings up to the height of high-rise structures with
steel constructions are generally built as skeleton frames, which are char-
acterised by the flexibility of the floor plans they allow and which reduce
loadbearing building parts to a minimum. The steel constructions, > ­Chapter
Construction methods which are very close to optimal load transfer within the
building parts, make good sense here. The system is made up of a com-
bination of panels (slabs), columns and the appropriate bracing elements.
>  Chapter Planning principles, Bracing The structural elements include beams,

47
 multi-storey
continuous, gridded structural system core
floor slab

columns
or
walls

Fig. 53: Principle of multi-storey building

­columns, frames, panels, or panels broken up into cross-bracing. Solid

panels are generally made up of composite elements > Chapter Building parts,
Composite constructions and can also incorporate additional building services
functions.

Lightweight construction
Lightweight construction comprises light, thin-walled building parts
of steel; the aim is to combine the minimised use of material with other
positive effects. Lightweight building allows speedy progress of construc-
tion work and a high level of prefabrication. It also simplifies the integra-
tion of services and produces high-quality building work.
Frame systems Lightweight construction is often used in individual building parts
such as facade or roof constructions, but is also suitable for the erection
of entire buildings. Here, frame systems are generally used. >  Fig. 54
­Similarly to timber building, the “platform frame” or the “balloon frame”
system can used. These systems differ in terms of construction and as-
sembly. Lightweight construction also allows larger building elements to
be prefabricated and simply mounted in place on site. For example, ­entire
hotel bedrooms complete with the interior fittings can be delivered to the
◯ building site.

◯ Note: The platform frame method describes a sys-

tem that allows a high degree of prefabrication and
element manufacture. The wall elements stand on the
floors, allowing storey-wise construction. The balloon
frame system has continuous, multi-storey posts and
the floor slabs run beside or in front of the posts or
­columns (see Figs. 58 and 59).

48
 beam with U-channel at end
(according to system also with solid floor slab)

upright post

U-channels hold the uprights together

(distribute loads to uprights =
planar structural effect)

Fig. 54: Principle of frame construction

The bracing of lightweight construction buildings must be carefully

considered. Wind loads cannot always be taken by the floor slabs, and
essentially bracing should be provided in at least two directions. The
bracing generally takes the form of cross-struts in the walls in at least
two directions. In some cases measures must be taken in lightweight con-
structions to prevent lifting due to wind suction.
Light facade systems are used primarily in industrial building. Sand- Facade lightweight
wich elements are economical and offer a variety of design options for systems

the surface finish through profiling and the use of colour. They consist of
an external and an internal steel sheet that can be filled with various
­insulation materials. > Fig. 57 While they are suitable for wall and floor slab
constructions, they generally require a secondary construction (purlins
or similar) as support.

49
 loadbearing column
foot plate

U-channel as end piece

head plate

floor beam
edge bearing
vertical metal strips

Fig. 55: Principle of the platform frame construction method

loadbearing column
foot plate
(wall runs in front of floor slab plane)

head plate

floor beam
edge bearing
fixing angle

Fig. 56: Principle of the balloon frame construction method

50
 sandwich on secondary construction

primary construction
e.g. steel column

secondary construction
e.g. cross-beam

horizontal section
sandwich element

foot angle

vertical section
through wall

Fig. 57: Sandwich construction system

Two layer systems with independent shells can be used more flex­ibly.
Trapezoidal metal sheeting is often used for individually designed roof
constructions and can have a uniaxially bracing effect. > Fig. 58 There are
numerous possibilities for roof and wall constructions, with or without
back ventilation.
Profiled liner trays can form the wall, the bracing and the construc-
tion. The elements are built up like a sandwich element and can meet
­different demands for the surface. They can be so stably connected to
each other that they form a construction joint. Here, they are stacked
vertically on top of each other and can additionally be filled with insula-
tion and, for instance, closed with a vertically positioned trapezoidal
sheet. > Fig. 59 The sandwich element made in this way can be used both
vertically and horizontally.

51
 track and clips to secure
trapezoidal metal sheeting metal sheeting
as roof skin

insulation
plane
moisture
barrier

trapezoidal
sheeting

Fig. 58: Example of a roof construction with trapezoidal sheeting

liner tray mounted directly on

primary construction

primary construction

liner tray profile

panels back
ventilation

vertical section
wall

Fig. 59: Liner tray facade mounted directly on the primary construction

52
 Many kinds of metals can be used for facades. Alongside steel, stain- Metal facades
less steel and weather-resistant structural steel, aluminium, copper and
zinc facades (non-ferrous metals) are common. Metal facades are dur­
able, require little maintenance and are often very light due to their low
material thickness.
As metal is almost completely impervious to moisture, care must be
taken to ensure that no condensation forms. Air supply and extract open-
ings in the facade must be planned. In addition, a moisture barrier may
be required on the inner face.
In designing metal facades, particular attention must be paid to the
thermal deformation of the material. Expansions up to a length of
1.2 mm/m can easily occur. To avoid damage due to deformation or con-
straints the facade should be able to move and must be fixed flexibly to
the substructure.
Wind suction forces on the facade may also affect the fixings. The
corrosion protection must be considered when choosing the surface and
placing the building elements and upstands. Water should not be able to
collect or to enter joints.

Bracing
Every building volume and every section of a building volume must
be braced in itself. The bracing serves to take horizontal forces such as
wind loads or earthquake movements. The building volume must be pro-
tected against twisting and displacement, using bracing in both horizon-
tal and vertical directions.

bracing by cores

circular floor plan

bracing by wall panels

Fig. 60: Bracing elements in plan

53
 frame
roof bracing

wall bracing

cross-bracing strut bracing k bracing

Fig. 61: Various kinds of bracing

Bracing by cores Horizontal loads can be transferred, for example, by stiff building
parts, such as circulation cores or sanitation facilities, which are made
of a solid material (concrete) and positioned within the skeleton frame
construction. > Fig. 60 Horizontal forces are conducted from the facade
through the floor slab plates to the bracing core. Lightweight floor slab
constructions of steel, which do not have a plate effect through being
combined with concrete or similar, must be formed as a plate by means
of cross-bracing. The vertical bracing cores, walls, frames and fixed col-
umns then direct the loads into the foundations. A system made up of
horizontal and vertical bracing elements develops.
Bracing by struts In hall or frame constructions the bracing is provided by strutting,
also in both vertical and horizontal planes. > Fig. 61 The bracing must be
arranged in longitudinal and transverse directions and in both wind
­directions. Frames can also be used to provide bracing in the transverse
direction.
There should be at least three bracing elements: their lines of action
should not meet at a point and they should not all run parallel. In multi-
storey buildings, bracing elements must be placed on each floor level.
They should stand axially above each other so that they can transfer the
loads directly.

54
 several vertical bracing elements can lead to constraining
forces

Fig. 62: Possible constraining forces due to two cores

Fig. 63: Profile is raised into position

Particular attention must be paid to preventing constraining forces Avoiding constraining

developing between two or more bracing elements. For example, having forces

two circulation cores within a rigid floor slab leads to an increased risk.
> Fig. 62

Transport sizes and assembly

In assembling steel buildings, elements up to a particular size are
prefabricated in the factory, given corrosion protection or a coating, and
then transported to the construction site. The building parts are then
lifted into position using a crane and bolted together so that, for exam-
ple, the structural design of the bracing must also take into account tem-
porary situations during assembly. With larger building parts, building
stages must be planned for steel construction, too. Both production and
transport sizes are subject to certain restrictions (e.g. bridges under
which the transport vehicles must pass) and these must be considered
at the planning stage. If the measures required for a building part exceed
one of these parameters, then construction joints must be made on the
building site. > Chapter Building parts, Assembly or site joints
Steel construction is generally very precise, which often leads to dif- Dimensional
ficulties when combining steel with other materials that have larger tolerances

­dimensional tolerances. Adapting steel construction on the building site

55
 hexagonal bolt

washer nut

Fig. 64: Principle of a bolt connection

is either not possible at all or possible only to a very limited extent. Bolted
connections allow somewhat more flexibility, through the use of over-
sized or slotted holes and the possibilities offered by assembly on the
building site. In contrast, welded connections are practically unchange-
able and making them on the building site is extremely difficult; there-
fore, where possible, welding work should be carried out only in the
­factory.
Consequently, all details and connections must be planned precisely
and must be able to handle dimensional tolerances. Assembly joints are
also an integral part of the planning. Architecture and structural design
should therefore correspond closely with each other.

Connections
The design and execution of connections is a particular challenge in
steel construction. The function of connections in general is to transfer
forces from one building part to another (tension, compression, bending,
torsion) and to meet particular aesthetic and building law requirements
(e.g. on fire protection or building physics). A distinction is made between
detachable and non-detachable connections.
Detachable Detachable connections include screw, pin and bolt connections.
­connections > Fig. 64 The regulations commonly referred to provide guidelines for the
distances to edges and between holes and the arrangement of the screws
or bolts. For a lighter assembly, for example, at least two bolts per con-
nection should be assumed.
Pin and bolt connections are suitable for connections in which shear
forces arise. In pin connections, pins or studs that fit precisely are placed
in steel or cast steel pieces. This connection is positive and non-positive.
Here, too, the forms and dimensions are governed by standards. Two or
more building parts can be connected with each other.
The difference between pin and bolt connections is that in the bolt
connection at least one part remains movable. > Figs. 65 and 66 A further dis-
tinction is made between bolts with and without a head. In pin or stud

56
 bolt
pin

part 1 part 2 part 1 part 2

Fig. 65: Principle of a pin connection Fig. 66: Principle of a bolted connection (without nut)

connections, all parts are fixed rigidly together. The most commonly used
pins are cylinder pins, taper pins, spring pins, and dowel or groove pins.
Non-detachable connections include welding, riveting and soldering, Non-detachable
and to a limited extent also adhesive connections. Welded connections connections

are best made in the factory, as conditions on the construction site are
not always suitable for this kind of work. They are used, for example, when
several individual cross sections are to be fixed together to form a single
cross section. In fitting individual building parts together, welded con-
nections do not allow the same level of precision as bolted connections.
So that they fulfil the structural function of transferring forces at a
connection, weld seams must be made according to particular require-
ments. Among the various kinds of welds, butt welds and fillet welds are
perhaps the most common. > Fig. 67 A butt weld connects pieces that butt
up against each other on the same plane. The edges that will form the
connection must be prepared first, by grinding, milling, or flame cutting.
A fillet weld is required where two building parts meet at an angle or at
right angles. Fillet welds can also be made from two sides. A distinction
is drawn between coved welds, flush welds and camber welds.
Particularly thick welds must be made in several layers. First come
what are called the root layers, then the filling, and finally the covering
layer. When two materials of different thicknesses meet, the lesser thick-
ness determines the thickness of the welding seam. There are various
forms of seams. I, V, HV, DV and Y seams are particularly often used. ◯

◯ Note: Welded connections may be made only by

c­ ertified skilled workers. There are various welding
­certificates that prove this competence. Companies
holding a major welding certificate can produce all
­constructions in steel building without restrictions.
Those with a minor certificate are subject to certain
restrictions.

57
Fig. 67: Butt and fillet welds

factory head shop head

Fig. 68: Riveted connection Fig. 69: Rivets

Rivet connections are rarely used today. They demand a consider­able

amount of work and are therefore uneconomical. They are used for posi-
tive or non-positive connections and are subjected to shear force. They
should not be subjected to axial tension. In addition, they should consist
of the same material as the building parts they connect. > Figs. 68 and 69
As with welding, soldering also creates a firmly bonded connection
between two building parts. The connection is rigid and tight. However,
a soldered connection is made at lower temperatures. Depending on the
soldering process used, the connection can later be released by apply-
ing heat to it, whereas with welding the surface of the building parts is
permanently changed and they can be released only by destroying the
connection.
The advantage of this kind of connection is that the building parts
are not weakened by penetrations. However, larger areas of soldering are
uneconomical and they require even more intensive preparation work
than welded connections.
The principle of glued connections is relatively young and is, in part,
still at the development stage. The low temperature stability in the case
of a fire represents a problem. Adhesive connections are suitable for com-
posite building materials or sandwich elements.

58
 Building parts
Corners
Frame corners are characterised by their bending stiffness. The
­ ecisive aspect is that the parts that meet should not be able to twist
d
apart under loading. To produce this stiff effect the frame corners must
be made in a particular way, generally by means of special stiffening
measures. > Fig. 71 Frame corners can be welded or put together using pre-
stressed high strength bolts. > Fig. 70 The angle at the frame corner does
not have to be 90° but can be adapted to suit the roof form, for instance,
for inclined roofs.

Feet
A foot must always be planned in detail when a vertical, pointed build- Simple foot
ing part is to transfer the forces to a horizontal building part, generally
the foundation. Making this point properly is extremely important for the
correct transfer of forces. Such vertical building parts include columns
and frame posts.

a b

a beam on column
b eaves hall frame
c beam joint

High-strength bolts are required

for all connections.

Fig. 70: Examples of frame corners with head plates, bolted

59
 beam beam

a beam rests on post (standard case)

b beam is fixed at side
post a post b c–e fully welded constructions

c d e

Fig. 71: Examples of frame corners with stiffening

Feet are generally either pinned (hinged) or fixed. However, there is

a special case when, in structural design terms, the column is planned
with a pinned foot but in reality only tranfers a central compressive load
to fixed structures. In multi-storey buildings this is the case with columns,
for example. The feet are then made with footings and are not pinned.
­Instead, load-distributing footings are made and filled with expanding
mortar. A joint of between 2 and 4 cm should be made between the con-
crete building part and the steel head plate. The mortar ensures the even
transfer of the load to the ground and also compensates for unevenness
and dimensional tolerances in the footing or base plate. To prevent twist-
ing occurring later at the bearing point, the mortar joint must be pro-
duced precisely and evenly. > Figs. 72 and 73 With greater loads or in ground
with poorer bearing capacity, the foot plate is stiffened. > Fig. 74 The intro-
duction of stiffening plates, however, leads to shear loads in the steel
building element and they must be especially calculated according to the
cross section of the profile. If shear force also occurs at the foot it is best
transferred to the foundation by means of shear cleats. Special meas-
ures must also be introduced if moments or tension forces occur.
Fixed foot If the structural situation means a post or column needs to be fixed
rigidly, the foot must be constructed to meet this requirement. This is
necessary, for example, in the case of cantilever columns or frame posts
with fixed feet. The greater the forces occurring at the foot, the greater
the stability of the construction must be. Where high fixed-end moments
occur, foot cross-bars are used. > Fig. 75 They ensure that the moment from
the column is transferred to the foundation. Fixed foot constructions can
also be made with prestressing.

60
Fig. 72: Foot of a steel column

5 5
2 2
1 1

5
2
1

1 footing
2 mortar
3 safeguarding against shear force
4 safeguarding against tension or
compression force
5 column

Fig. 73: Example of a foot plate without stiffening

61
 1 footing
3 2 mortar
3 column
4 4 stiffening
2
1

Fig. 74: Example of a stiffened foot plate

A further way of making a fixed foot is the sleeve foundation. Here,

the steel column or post is placed in a prefabricated concrete sleeve into
which concrete is then poured. > Fig. 76 This construction ensures a high
level of fixing but is not always advisable. The transition from the con-
crete to the exposed steel part is later subject to corrosion. In addition,
the concrete filling makes this kind of fixing more suitable for I profiles
than for hollow profiles. Dismantling is possible only by cutting through
the column.
Pin-ended or With a pin-ended column in slidable structures or frame posts with
hinged foot a hinged joint, the foot is also made as a joint. Here, constructions with
a ball-like centring piece or cleat are generally used. Connections with
real bolts are made only for light constructions and are rare. > Fig. 77

62
 3
1

1 sleeve
foundation
2 2 mortar
3 column
4 concrete filling
4
3

2
1 column 1
2 cross-bar
3 mortar

Fig. 75: Example of a fixed foot with foot cross-bar Fig. 76: Example of a sleeve foundation

ball-like centring piece bolt joint

Fig. 77: Hinged foot

63
 bearing in wall niche bearing on cleat

web bolted connection welded

Fig. 78: Beams on masonry or concrete

Support
Beam resting When a steal beam rests on a wall construction the connection to
on wall materials with high tolerances represents a special challenge. > Fig. 78 The
support or bearing point must be made in such a way that it can transfer
all the loads across its entire area. A layer of mortar beneath the beam
ensures a non-positive locking connection.
Beam resting When beams meet each other at right angles in different planes their
on beam webs can be cut away at the junction and given appropriate strengthen-
ing. > Fig. 79
In exceptional cases, beams that intersect at the same height can
pass through each other. Generally, however, a joint is formed, usually
with bolted connections employing double angles or head plates. > Fig. 80
Beam resting The simplest form of jointed connection between a beam and a col-
on column umn uses a head plate. This can be constructed as a non-sliding system
or as a continuous beam. > Fig. 81
For instance, if angular rotation of the beam is to be expected, this
leads to off-centre loading of the column. Additional measures must then
be employed in making the bearing, for instance, a centring element.

64
 stiffening plates, welded

beam

centring
piece
lower (downstand)
beam

Fig. 79: Examples of notched, intersecting beams

fixing with angle fixing with head plate

Fig. 80: Example of bolted connections with double angle and head plate

beam

head plate

column

Fig. 81: Head plate as bearing

65
Fig. 82: Bearing point at continuous column (reinforced
concrete)

lining piece
may be needed

bolted using angle bolted using head plate

bolted

spacer
spacer

cleat connections with distance pieces to secure position fixing using bolt

Fig. 83: Connection of a beam to a continuous column

66
 There are several ways of connecting a beam to a continuous column Connecting beam
or post. Here, too, angles or head plates are generally used. One vari­ to column

ation is a connection using cleats. > Figs. 82 and 83

Assembly or site joints

The compression forces within a multi-storey building increase con- Column joints
tinuously from top to bottom. The dimensions of the column cross sec-
tion can, theoretically, be adapted to this situation. At the joints, connec-
tions must be made that can balance the difference in size. Where cross
sections are almost identical, butt welds can be made relatively easily.
Hollow sections, in contrast, generally require a flat steel to provide the
necessary bearing area. This is particularly important with joints that are
made on the building site. Maintaining the axes of the two joints repre-
sents a challenge: auxiliary constructions generally need to be employed.
Assembly joints (i.e. assembly on site) are occasionally made using
flange and web straps. Where cross sections are different, filler plates
must be used, as with beam joints. Joints are often made using head
plates. Where different profiles meet a gradual, continuous transition (a)
can be made or an intermediate element (b) can be used; where the ­angle
is steeper, transverse stiffening plates are needed (c). > Fig. 84
Another variation is the use of intermediate plates that take up the
difference in cross section. In the case of bolted joints a head plate is
fixed to each column part. > Fig. 85

a b c

Fig. 84: Joints between cross sections of different sizes

67
 welded joint with head joint between different
plate to stabilise cross sections with head plate

ribs

joint between different cross staggered joint of different bolted joint, two head plates
sections with head plate and cross sections with head plate are needed here
ribs (with cross sections of and ribs (with cross sections
very different size) of very different size)

Fig. 85: Joints with head plates

moment joint, flanges bolted together

shear force joint, webs bolted together

Fig. 86: Beam joints

68
 Exactly as with columns, beams can be butt-jointed and welded, Beam joints
e­ nsuring a largely undisturbed flow of forces. This can be done in the fac-
tory or on the building site. Bolted joints are used exclusively for assem-
bly joints on the building site. Here, strap or head plate joints with high-
strength bolts are generally used. Depending on the loads on the building
part, the straps must be fixed to the web or the flange, or the connection
made by means of a head plate. > Fig. 86

Nodes
Nodes always occur at points where several filigree building elements
from different planes meet each other. In terms of structural design, node
points are always understood as joints, but they cannot always be made
as such. They are generally bolted or welded firmly together. There are
different ways of making the geometry so that the point of intersection
of the element axes is retained. There are ball connections and node
plates but also cast nodes, welded nodes or slit nodes. All these connec-
tions are used mostly for trusses or space frames. They form the meet-
ing point of slender steel rods. > Fig. 87 There are also points at which ­cable
ends must be connected. Here, too, there are special solutions for
­securing the cables.

ball joint, bolted gusset plate, bolted joints, welded

front view

single gusset plate T strut at H upper chord

section

shaped gusset plate hollow circular section

Fig. 87: Examples of node points

69
Roof
Steel and other metals can be used in different ways for almost all
roof pitches, as roof covering or a roof seal. Roof covering here refers to
constructions such as shingles or scales that consist of individual parts
and lead water off. The construction is rainproof but not watertight. The
more open the way in which the individual elements are laid, the greater
the roof slope must be. Metal roof claddings are generally connected on
the long side by seams. The transverse joints are made by overlapping,
transverse seams or stepped falls. The roofing follows the principle of
shingles, although formed shingles are used.
By contrast, a roof seal is watertight. In theory a large watertight
layer can be welded out of steel. However, the temperature expansion
would be excessive and consequently smaller pieces are used with edge
pieces and sealing tapes.
Shaped metal panels can be made from galvanised, rustproof or du-
plex coated steel. They can be trapezoidal, corrugated, with bar profiles,
or in the form of steel shingles. Composite or sandwich panels with ther-
mal insulation can be easily laid as bands.
Steel and metal coverings are very durable and are also suitable for
curved surfaces. The pattern of joints helps determine the appearance
of the building and should therefore be carefully planned. Since the sur-
face is watertight it is often recommended to lay a double layer with a
back ventilation level.

trapezoidal sheet as roof skin

insulation

moisture barrier

trapezoidal
sheet

beam

Fig. 88: Example of a roof construction, trapezoidal metal sheet as stiffening ­element

70
Composite constructions
The combination of the materials steel and concrete has proved its
worth in various forms. In addition to reinforced concrete building parts
with steel reinforcement, combining steel sections and reinforced con-
crete also offers great potential, as it can combine the qualities of both
materials. Particularly with regard to fire protection, these building ele-
ments can make great sense. In addition, they can give lightweight con-
structions mass and speed up work on the building site.
In making floor slabs a combination of concrete and steel beams can Composite floor slabs
be used as the composite primary construction, or metal sheets can be
used together with concrete as a secondary construction. > Fig. 89 Where
steel beams form the primary construction they provide a linear support
system for in-fill concrete elements and lie within the ceiling plane. The
flanges are visible below the ceiling and ­direct the forces into the col-
umns. Soffits without downstand beams are made; nevertheless, large
spans can be covered. Composite floor slabs must be connected with the
beams below in a shear-resistant way.
Trapezoidal sheet steel with reinforcement laid in the corrugations
can be used as a secondary construction. The package is then laid on top
of the steel beams. The trapezoidal sheeting represents a lost formwork.
Some kinds of trapezoidal steel sheeting can even replace the lower re-
inforcement. In the event of fire, the concrete protects the reinforcement,
while the sheeting can trap the flaking concrete.
Composite floor slabs can be produced in accordance with these
­basic principles in a variety of ways. Many manufacturers have exploited
the advantages of steel composite floors and offer flexible products. Dif-
ferent variations include the following:

—— The trapezoidal sheeting can be used just as the formwork and

makes a small contribution to fire protection. Then the steel load-
bearing structure lies exposed below the sheeting, the slab is rein-
forced in the normal way and functions like a ribbed concrete slab.
—— If the trapezoidal sheeting is friction locked with the concrete,
­additional fire protection measures must be introduced, as here
the metal sheeting makes an active contribution to the structure.
Shear forces are transferred from the concrete to the steel by
small projections.
—— The beams and the slab can also be connected. This connection is
made by means of shear studs on the beam flange. Only the layer
above the ribs is structurally effective.
—— What are called “integrated floor beams” or also “slim floors”
­represent a special form, integrating the steel structure into the
construction. There are no downstand beams, the soffit is even,
and the total construction height is greatly reduced. Only the
lower chord of the steel beam is affected in the event of fire. The

71
 reinforced concrete
trapezoidal sheet

beam

concrete combined with beam

bolted connection

concrete combined with trapezoid sheet

stud connection

top concrete layer

precast hollow plants

top concrete layer

beam precast concrete part

Fig. 89: Various systems for composite floor slabs

72
 connection is more stable than for standard composite floor slabs.
Instead of in-situ concrete, precast parts can also be laid on the
lower flange, which must then be strengthened appropriately. The
precast concrete parts can be prestressed or made as a hollow
plank slab, which is particularly light. ◼

When producing beams in composite systems, the open areas in the Composite beams
beam are often filled with concrete and additional reinforcement is placed
in this concrete. In the event of fire it is above all the web together with
the reinforcement that is responsible for the loadbearing capacity of the
building element. Welded shear connectors ensure the bond between the
steel section and reinforced concrete slab. > Figs. 90 and 91
The connections of composite beams to the columns are commonly
made using cleat connections. The connection is without bolts and can
be fitted quickly, and the beam is held in position by the subsequently
concreted slab.
Composite columns generally consist of hollow sections or rolled Composite columns
sections encased in concrete. In the event of fire, a hollow section quickly
becomes very hot on the outside and its structural capacity quickly
­declines. The concrete then provides stability and the steel serves only
to protect it from the heat. Column cross sections filled with concrete
­retain their loadbearing capacity longer than similarly made composite
beams. The forces in a column run along the axis of the building part,
whereas a beam fails more quickly due to the weakening of the flange
and the ensuing bending.
Profiles entirely encased in concrete resist fire for considerably
longer, as they are protected by the concrete. However, temperature fluc-
tuations inside the composite column cause great stresses to develop.
Almost all profiles can be used for composite columns but they must be
relatively solid and have a concrete cover of at least 5 cm. > Fig. 92

◼ Tip: Composite floor slabs should always be

designed in close collaboration with the building ser-
vices engineers as the span direction of the beams,
design of bearings, distances between beams and
openings in the webs for service runs can also have
affect the floor slab design. The general services, for
example, or a hybrid system for effective room cool-
ing or heating can be easily integrated into the
intermediate spaces.

73
 Fig. 90: Effective structural height of the composite
beam

composite beam with bolts composite beam with top concrete layer composite beam filled with concrete

Fig. 91: Steel beam with bolts to secure the slab

Fig. 92: Examples of cross sections of composite columns

74
Facade
In addition to numerous functions as the main loadbearing system
for buildings, steel is also very suitable as a loadbearing structure for the
building envelope. This means elements that support glass facades, for
which steel is almost the ideal material. A variety of systems can be used
(see  Andreas Achilles and Diane Navratil, Basics Glass Construction,
Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel 2008).
The post and beam system is the most commonly used construction Post and beam
for glass facades. In this case the post carries the dead weight of the construction

­facade and the horizontal wind loads, i.e. it functions as a vertical bend-
ing beam. The cross-beams take up part of the wind loads but primarily
carry the dead weight of the glass. The beam can run between the posts
or, like a continuous beam, can run past them. The beam is generally on
a somewhat smaller scale so that the vertical elements are dominant.
The grid of the facade and the size of the glass elements have a major
­impact on the design of the building as a whole.
The system of element or panel facades functions very differently. It
is made up of individual, prefabricated framed elements including glaz-
ing, which then are fixed against the ends of the floor slabs. Regular
­articulation and elevations with double profiles are characteristic of an
element facade. > Fig. 93 They have a high level of prefabrication and can
be fitted quickly.

posts

beams

elem
ent

element facade post and beam facade

Fig. 93: Examples of facade constructions

75
Fig. 94: Articulation of a post and beam facade with
secondary structure and trussed posts

A further facade principle is the separation of the facade plane from

the loadbearing structural system. Here, an independent steel structure
is designed that holds the glazing at a distance. The glass elements are
generally fixed by point fixings that are attached to the structural nodes.
Above all in point-held facades, but also in combinations with other sys-
tems, an independent primary structure for the facade must be made.
This can be provided by, for example, lattice girders in a vertical or hori-
zontal direction. Trussed girders can be swivelled around their own axis
so that they run vertically in the facade plane. Such girders are often used
as a design element with the facade forming the upper chord of the girder.
> Fig. 94
A combination of different systems but also different kinds of glaz-
ing, such as structural glazing, is conceivable in many forms. Under some
circumstances very complex and highly technical hybrid systems can be
developed.

Thermal separation
Due to the flexible layering possibilities in steel construction, the
danger of thermal bridges forming is very high. Various producers there-
fore offer elements for the thermal separation of steel building parts. Just

76
 head plate continuous insulation plane
cleat

steel reinforced
concrete

Fig. 95: Thermal separation of steel from a concrete building

head plate continuous insulation plane

steel beam primary

construction

Fig. 96: Thermal separation for pure steel constructions

as in solid construction methods, the separated modules allow freedom

in designing cantilevers that penetrate the facade or structural systems
outside the building. There are also several options for the connec-
tion ­between concrete building and cantilevered steel elements. > Figs. 95
and 96

77
In conclusion
The building material steel offers an immense variety of possibilities
for construction. Steel buildings provide extremely flexible detailing so-
lutions that can enrich architectural design during the creative process.
Hybrid constructions involving other materials or the building services
open up new perspectives in design.
Compared to solid building parts and materials, steel structures can
be broken up to achieve a maximum filigree quality. Membrane-like ­cable
structures and nets can be just as efficient as large-sized beams. The
precise execution that results from a high level of prefabrication provides
the designer with a wide range of design options. Constant new develop-
ments in material qualities and properties offer exciting prospects for the
future.
Alongside the infinite number of technical areas where steel can be
used, architecture remains a central focus. In their buildings, architects
such as Mies van der Rohe and Jean Prouvé demonstrate a highly skilled
combination of structural awareness and design talent. They manage to
combine these in a formal idiom that is specific to the material. Precisely
this combination of knowledge and creativity must be trained, as it is
­essentially what constitutes steel construction.

78
 Appendix
Tables
Tab. 8: Various kinds of steel profiles

Name Form Use Minimum Maximum

dimensions (b × h) dimensions (b × h)
Wide-flange beams For high loads. HEA 100 HEA 1000
HEA light series Primarily for columns, (96 mm × 100 mm) (990 mm × 300 mm)
HEB normal series HEA HEB HEM
but also for beams. 16.7 kg/m 272.0 kg/m
HEM strengthened Also suitable for HEB 100 HEB 1000
series inclined loading. (100 mm × 100 mm) (1000 mm × 300 mm)
Special aspect. Only 20.4 kg/m 314.0 kg/m
in the HEB series HEM 100 HEM 1000
does the profile name (120 mm × 106 mm) (1008 mm × 302 mm)
match the actual 41.8 kg/m 349.0 kg/m
profile height.
Normal profiles More economical IPN 80 IPN 600
IPN than profiles with (80 mm × 42 mm) (600 mm × 215 mm)
UPN parallel flanges, the 5.9 kg/m 199.0 kg/m
IPN UPN inner angles make UPN 65 UPN 400
them better suited (65 mm × 42 mm) (400 mm × 110 mm)
for welded 7.1 kg/m 71.8 kg/m
connection. Placing
bolts is difficult.
Profiles with parallel IPE: slender profile, IPE 80 IPE 600
flanges above all suitable as (80 mm × 46 mm) (600 mm × 220 mm)
IPE bending beam. 6.0 kg/m 122.0 kg/m
IPET IPE IPET UPE UPE: often used in IPET 80 (40 mm × IPET 600 (300 mm ×
UPE pairs to avoid 46 mm) 3.0 kg/m 220 mm) 61.2 kg/m
asymmetrical cross UPE 80 (80 mm × UPE 400 (400 mm ×
section. 50 mm) 7.9 kg/m 115 mm) 72.2 kg/m
Hollow sections Used almost RRW 40 × 40 RRW 400 × 400
RRW/RRK square exclusively for (40 mm × 40 mm) (400 mm × 400 mm)
RRW/RRK square rectangular round columns and trusses, 3.4 kg/m 191.0 kg/m
rectangular very good for central RRW 50 × 30 RRW 400 × 200
ROR round loading. (50 mm × 30 mm) (400 mm × 200 mm)
RRW = warm made, 3.6 kg/m 141.0 kg/m
buckling resistant ROR 21.3 (Ø ROR 813 (Ø 813 mm)
through compacted 21.3 mm) 0.9 kg/m 159.0 kg/m
corner areas.
RRK = cold
processed. Light and
economical
Round and square Mainly for hanging RND 10 (Ø 10 mm) RND 500 (Ø 500 mm)
steel and tension rods. 0.6 kg/m 1540.0 kg/m
RND The larger cross VKT 10 (6 mm × 6 mm) VKT 200 (200 mm ×
RND VKT
VKT sections can also 0.3 kg/m 200 mm) 314.0 kg/m
take compression
forces (e.g. in
concrete composite
columns)

79
Tab. 9: Dimensions of standard IPE profiles

IPE profiles

r
h
s
t

Abbreviation Dimensions for

IPE h b s t r A G
mm mm mm mm mm cm² kg/m
80 80 46 3.8 5.2 5 7.6 6.0
100 100 55 4.1 5.7 7 10.3 8.1
120 120 64 4.4 6.3 7 13.2 10.4
140 140 73 4.7 6.9 7 16.4 12.9
160 160 82 5.0 7.4 9 20.1 15.8
180 180 91 5.3 8 9 23.9 18.8
200 200 100 5.6 8.5 12 28.5 22.4
220 220 110 5.9 9.2 12 33.4 26.2
240 240 120 6.2 9.8 15 39.1 30.7
270 270 135 6.6 10.2 15 45.9 36.1
300 300 150 7.1 10.7 15 53.8 42.2
330 330 160 7.5 11.5 18 62.6 49.1
360 360 170 8 12.7 18 72.2 57.1
400 400 180 8.6 13.5 21 84.5 66.3
450 450 190 9.4 14.6 21 98.8 77.6
500 500 200 10.2 16 21 116 90.7
550 550 210 11.1 17.2 24 134 106
600 600 220 12 19 24 156 122

80
Tab. 10: Dimensions of standard HE-A profiles

HE-A profiles

s h
r t

Abbreviation Dimensions for

HE-A h b s t r A G
mm mm mm mm mm cm² kg/m
100 96 100 5 8 12 21.2 16.7
120 114 120 5 8 12 25.3 19.9
140 133 140 5.5 8.5 12 31.4 24.7
160 152 160 6 9 15 38.8 30.4
180 171 180 6 9.5 15 45.5 35.5
200 190 200 6.5 10 18 54.8 42.3
220 210 220 7 11 18 64.3 50.5
240 230 240 7.5 12 21 76.8 60.3
260 250 260 7.5 12.5 24 86.8 68.2
280 270 280 8 13 24 97.3 76.4
300 290 300 8.5 14 27 112 88.3
320 310 300 9 15.5 27 124 97.6
340 330 300 9.5 16.5 27 133 105
360 350 300 10 17.5 27 143 112
400 390 300 11 19 27 159 125
450 440 300 11.5 21 27 178 140
500 490 300 12 23 27 198 155
550 540 300 12.5 24 27 212 166
600 590 300 13 25 27 226 178
650 640 300 13.5 26 27 242 190
700 690 300 14.5 27 27 260 204
800 790 300 15 28 30 286 224
900 890 300 16 30 30 320 252
1000 990 300 16.5 31 30 347 272

81
Tab. 11: Dimensions of standard HE-B profiles

HE-B profiles

s h
r t

Abbreviation Dimensions for

HE-B h b s t r A G
mm mm mm mm mm cm² kg/m
100 100 100 6 10 12 26.0 20.4
120 120 120 6.5 11 12 34.0 26.7
140 140 140 7 12 12 43.0 33.7
160 160 160 8 13 15 54.3 42.6
180 180 180 8.5 14 15 65.3 51.2
200 200 200 9 15 18 78.1 61.3
220 220 220 9.5 16 18 91.0 71.5
240 240 240 10 17 21 106 83.2
260 260 260 10 17.5 24 118 93.0
280 280 280 10.5 18 24 131 103
300 300 300 11 19 27 149 117
320 320 300 11.5 20.5 27 161 127
340 340 300 12 21.5 27 171 134
360 360 300 12.5 22.5 27 181 142
400 400 300 13.5 24 27 198 155
450 450 300 14 26 27 218 171
500 500 300 14.5 28 27 239 187
550 550 300 15 29 27 254 199
600 600 300 15.5 30 27 270 212
650 650 300 16 31 27 286 225
700 700 300 17 32 27 306 241
800 800 300 17.5 33 30 334 262
900 900 300 18.5 35 30 371 291
1000 1000 300 19 36 30 400 314

82
Tab. 12: Dimensions of standard HE-M profiles

HE-M profiles

s h
r t

Abbreviation Dimensions for

HE-M h b s t r A G
mm mm mm mm mm cm² kg/m
100 120 106 12 20 12 53.2 41.8
120 140 126 12.5 21 12 66.4 52.1
140 160 146 13 22 12 80.6 63.2
160 180 166 14 23 15 97.1 76.2
180 200 186 14.5 24 15 113 88.9
200 220 206 15 25 18 131 103
220 240 226 15.5 26 18 149 117
240 270 248 18 32 21 200 157
260 290 268 18 32.5 24 220 172
280 310 288 18.5 33 24 240 189
300 340 31 21 39 27 303 238
320/305 320 304 16 29 27 225 177
320 359 309 21 40 27 312 245
340 377 309 21 40 27 316 248
360 395 308 21 40 27 319 250
400 432 307 21 40 27 326 256
450 378 307 21 40 27 335 263
500 524 306 21 40 27 344 270
550 572 306 21 40 27 354 278
600 620 305 21 40 27 364 285
650 668 305 21 40 27 374 293
700 716 304 21 40 27 383 301
800 814 303 21 40 30 404 317
900 910 302 21 40 30 424 333
1000 1008 302 21 40 30 444 349

83
Tab. 13: Dimensions of standard square tubes

Square hollow structural sections

s a

a s A G a s A G
mm mm cm² kg/m mm mm cm² kg/m
70 3 7.8 6.1 180 5 34.1 26.8
4 10.1 8.0 6.3 42.4 33.3
5 12.1 9.5 8 52.8 41.5
10 63.7 50.0
12.5 77.0 60.5
80 3 9.0 7.1 200 6.3 47.5 37.3
4 11.8 9.2 8 59.2 46.5
5 14.1 11.1 10 71.7 56.3
90 3 10.2 8,0 220 6.3 52.5 41.2
3.2 10.9 8.5 8 65.6 51.5
4 13.3 10.5 10 79.7 62.6
5 16.1 12.7
6.3 19.7 15.5
100 3 11.4 9.0 260 8 78.4 61.6
4 15.0 11.7 10 95.7 75.1
5 18.1 14.2 12.5 117.0 81.1
6.3 22.3 17.5
110 3 12.6 9.9 280 8 84.8 66.6
4 16.6 13.0 10 104.0 81.4
5 20.1 15.8 12.5 127.0 99.7
6 23.7 18.6
120 4 18.2 14.3 300 8 91.2 71.6
5 22.1 17.4 10 112.0 87.7
6.3 27.3 21.4 12.5 137.0 108.0
7 30.0 23.5
8 33.6 26.4
125 4 18.9 14.9 320 8 97.6 76.6
5 23.1 18.2 10 120.0 94.0
6 27.3 21.4 12.5 147.0 115.0
16 188.0 148
140 4 21.3 16.8 360 10 137.0 108.0
5 26.1 20.5 12.5 170.0 133.0
6.3 32.3 25.4 161 214.0 168.0
7 35.5 27.9
400 12.5 190.0 149.0
20 294.0 231.0

84
Tab. 14: Dimensions of standard rectangular tubes

Rectangular hollow sections

h
s

h×b s r A G
in mm mm mm cm² kg/m
100×40 3 6 7.8 6.12
4 8 10.1 7.96
100×50 4 8 10.9 8.59
5 12.5 13.1 10.3
100×60 4 8 11.8 9.22
5 12.5 14.1 11.1
120×60 4 8 13.4 10.5
5 12.5 16.1 12.7
6.3 15.8 19.7 15.5
120×80 5 12.5 18.1 14.2
6.3 15.8 22.3 17.5
120×100 6 15 23.7 18.6
7 17.5 27.2 21.3
140×70 5 12.5 19.1 15
140×80 4 8 16.6 13
5 12.5 20.1 15.8
6.3 15.8 24.8 19.4
7 17.5 27.2 21.3
150×50 4 8 14.9 11.7
5 12.5 18.1 14.2
6 15 21.3 16.7
150×100 6.3 15.8 28.6 22.4
160×80 4 8 18.2 14.3
5 12.5 22.1 17.4
160×90 5 12.5 23.1 18.2
8 20 35.2 27.6
180×80 5 12.5 24.1 18.9
6 15.0 28.5 22.4
8 20 36.8 28.9
180×100 4 8 21.4 16.8
5 12.5 26.1 20.5
6.3 15.8 32.3 25.4
200×120 6.3 15.8 37.4 29.3
10 30 55.7 43.7
220×120 6 15.0 38.1 29.9
8.8 26.4 53.4 41.9
320×180 8.8 17.6 82.9 65.1
12.5 25 115 90.0
400×260 11 22.0 137 108
17.5 35 211 166

85
Tab. 15: Dimensions of standard profiles for round-edged U profiles

U profiles (channels)

s r h
r

Abbreviation Dimensions for

U h b s t r A G
mm mm mm mm mm cm² kg/m
30×15 30 15 4 4.5 2 2.21 1.74
30 30 33 5 7 3.5 5.44 4.26
40×20 40 20 5 5 2.5 3.66 2.87
40 40 35 5 7 3.5 6.21 4.87
50×25 50 25 5 6 3 4.92 3.86
50 50 38 5 7 3.5 7.12 5.59
60 60 30 6 6 3 6.46 5.07
65 65 42 5.5 7.5 4 9.03 7.09
80 80 45 6 8 4 11.0 8.64
100 100 50 6 8.5 4.5 13.5 10.6
120 120 55 7 9 4.5 17.0 13.4
140 140 60 7 10 5 20.4 16.0
160 160 65 7.5 10.5 5.5 24.0 18.8
180 180 70 8 11 6.5 28.0 22.0
200 200 75 8.5 11.5 6 32.2 25.3
220 220 80 9 12.5 6.5 37.4 29.4
240 240 85 9.5 13 6.5 42.2 33.2
260 260 90 10 14 7 48.3 37.9
280 280 95 10 15 7.5 53.3 41.8
300 300 100 10 16 8 58.8 46.1
320 320 100 14 17.5 8.75 75.8 59.5
350 350 100 14 16 8 77.3 60.6
380 380 102 13.5 16 8 80.4 63.1
400 400 110 14 18 9 91.5 71.8

86
Tab. 16: Dimensions of standard round steel pipes

Round steel pipes

s
d

External diameter Dimensions

D D s d A G
mm inches mm mm cm² kg/m
20 2 16 1.13 0.89
21.3 2 17.3 1.21 0.96
25 2 21 1.45 1.13
30 2.6 24.8 2.24 1.76
33.7 2.6 28.5 2.54 1.99
38 2.6 32.8 2.89 2.29
42.4 2.6 37.2 3.25 2.57
44.5 2.6 39.3 3.42 2.70
48.3 2.6 43.1 3.73 2.95
51 2 2.6 45.8 3.95 3.12
54 2 1/8 2.6 48.8 4.20 3.30
57 2 1/4 2.9 51.2 7.93 3.90
60.3 2 3/4 2.3 55.7 4.19 3.31
2.9 54.4 5.23 4.14
63.5 2 1/2 2.9 57.7 5.52 4.36
70.0 2 3/4 2.6 64.8 5.51 4.35
2.9 64.2 6.11 4.85
73 3 2.9 67.2 6.39 5.01
76.1 3 2.9 70.3 6.57 5.28
82.5 3 1/4 2.6 77.3 6.53 5.16
3.2 76.1 7.97 6.31
88.9 3 1/2 3.2 82.5 8.62 6.81
101.6 4 2.9 95.8 8.99 7.11
3.6 94.4 11.1 8.76
108 4 1/4 3.6 101.8 11.8 9.33
114.3 4 1/2 3.6 107.1 12.5 9.90
127 5 4 119 15.5 12.2
133 5 1/4 4 125 16.2 12.8
139.7 5 1/2 4 131.7 17.1 13.5
152.4 6 4 144.4 18.6 14.7
6 4.5 143.4 20.9 16.4
159 6 1/4 4.5 150 21.6 17.1
168.3 6 5/8 4.5 159.3 23.2 18.1
177.8 7 5 167.8 27.1 21.3
193.7 7 5/8 4.5 184.7 26.7 21.0
5.6 33.1 26.0
219.1 8 5/8 6.3 206.5 42.1 33.1
244.5 9 5/8 6.3 241.9 47.1 37.1
267 10 1/2 6.3 254.4 51.6 40.6
273 10 3/4 6.3 260.4 52.8 41.6
298.5 11 3/4 5.6 51.5 40.5
7.1 284.3 65.0 51.1
323.9 12 3/4 7.1 309.7 70.7 55.6
355.6 14 5.6 344.4 61.6 48.2
8 339.6 87.4 68.3
406.4 16 6.3 393.8 79.2 62.4

87
Tab. 17: Dimensions of standard profiles for trapezoidal profiles

Trapezoidal Profile cross section Nominal Dead Span limits

description sheet weight
thickness
tN g Igr1 Igr2
Dimensions in mm mm kN/m² m m
119 88
35/207 0.75 0.073 0.89 1.10
0.88 0.085 1.36 1.70
35

167 40 207
1.00 0.097 1.78 2.22
1035
1.25 0.121 4.40 5.50
40/183 119 64
0.75 0.082 1.20 1.50
0.88 0.096 2.70 3.38
40

143 40 183
1.00 0.109 3.90 4.88
915
1.25 0.137 5.10 6.38
135 115
48.5/250 0.75 0.075 1.77 2.21
48,5

250 0.88 0.088 2.50 3.13

196 54
1.00 0.100 2.86 3.57
1000
1.25 0.125 3.60 4.50
38/280 119 161
0.75 0.080 3.50 4.38
0.88 0.094 4.93 6.16
83

240 40 280 1.00 0.107 5.63 7.04

1120
1.25 0.134 7.10 8.88
98/287 139 148
0.75 0.087 4.64 5.80
0.88 0.102 7.06 8.83
98

287 39 1.00 0.116 8.07 10.10

861
1.25 0.145 10.20 12.70
100/257 140 135
0.75 0.090 4.70 5.87
0.88 0.106 5.79 7.24
100

235 40 275 1.00 0.120 6.80 8.50

825
1.25 0.150 8.57 10.71
126/326 154 172
0.75 0.092 4.87 6.09
0.88 0.108 6.85 8.56
126

286 40 326
1.00 0.123 7.30 9.13
978
1.25 0.153 8.65 10.70
145 165
135/310 0.75 0.097 5.80 7.25
0.88 0.114 7.80 9.75
135

270 40 310 1.00 0.129 8.51 10.64

930
1.25 0.161 9.83 12.29
153/280 119 161 0.75 0.107 7.75 9.69
0.88 0.126 10.00 12.50
153

1.00 0.143 11.40 14.30

239 40 280 1.25 0.179 14.40 18.00
840

165/250 102 148

0.75 0.120 8.25 10.31
0.88 0.141 9.68 12.10
165

1.00 0.160 11.00 13.75

210 40 250 1.25 0.200 13.75 15.00
750

88
Standards and guidelines

DIN EN 502, Roofing products from metal sheet – Specification for fully supported roofing
products of stainless steel sheet
DIN EN 508, Roofing and cladding products from metal sheet – Specification for self-supporting
of steel, aluminium or stainless steel sheet
DIN EN 1011, Welding – Recommendations for welding of metallic materials
DIN EN 1043, Destructive test on welds in metallic materials – Hardness testing – Part 1:
Hardness test on arc welded joints; Part 2: Microhardness testing of welded joints
DIN EN 1090, Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures 
DIN EN 1065, Adjustable telescopic steel props – Product specifications, design and assessment
by calculation and tests
DIN EN 1991, Eurocode 1: Actions on structures 
DIN EN 1993, Eurocode 3: Design of steel structures 
DIN EN 1994, Eurocode 4: Design of composite steel and concrete structures
DIN EN 1998, Eurocode 8: Design of structures for earthquake resistance
DIN EN 10020, Definition and classification of grades of steel
DIN EN 10021, General technical delivery conditions for steel products
DIN EN 10024, Hot-rolled taper flange I sections – Tolerances on shape and dimensions
DIN EN 10025, Hot rolled products of structural steels
DIN EN 10027, Designation systems for steels 
DIN EN 10029, Hot-rolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above – Tolerances on dimensions and shape
DIN EN 10079, Definition of steel products
DIN EN 10083, Steels for quenching and tempering
DIN EN 10088, Stainless steels
DIN EN 10130, Cold rolled low carbon steel flat products for cold forming 
DIN EN 10152, Electrolytically zinc coated cold rolled steel flat products for cold forming –
Technical delivery conditions
DIN EN 10162, Cold-rolled steel sections – Technical delivery conditions – Dimensional and
cross-sectional tolerances
DIN EN 10163, Delivery requirements for surface condition of hot-rolled steel plates, wide flats
and sections
DIN EN 10204, Metallic products – Types of inspection documents
DIN EN 10210, Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels
DIN EN 10219, Cold formed welded structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain steels
DIN EN 10250, Open die steel forgings for general engineering purposes
DIN EN 10277, Bright steel products – Technical delivery conditions 
DIN EN 10278, Dimensions and tolerances of bright steel products
DIN EN 10293, Steel castings – Steel castings for general engineering uses
DIN EN 10343, Steels for quenching and tempering for construction purposes Technical delivery
conditions
DIN EN 10346, Continuously hot-dip coated steel flat products - Technical delivery conditions
DIN EN 13381, Test methods for determining the contribution to the fire resistance of structural
members 
DIN EN 13501, Fire classification of construction products and building elements
DIN EN 14509, Self-supporting double skin metal faced insulating panels – Factory made
products – Specifications

89
DIN EN 15251, Indoor environmental input parameters for design and assessment of energy
performance of buildings addressing indoor air quality, thermal environment, lighting and
acoustics
DIN EN 15804, Sustainability of construction works – Environmental product declarations –
Core rules for the product category of construction products

DIN EN ISO 148, Metallic materials - Charpy pendulum impact test

DIN EN ISO 2063, Thermal spraying - Metallic and other inorganic coatings - Zinc, aluminium and
their alloys
DIN EN ISO 5173, Destructive tests on welds in metallic materials - Bend tests
DIN EN ISO 6508, Metallic materials – Rockwell hardness test
DIN EN ISO 6506, Metallic materials – Brinell hardness test
DIN EN ISO 6507, Metallic materials – Vickers hardness test
DIN EN ISO 6892, Metallic materials – Tensile test
DIN EN ISO 6946, Building components and building elements – Thermal resistance and thermal
transmittance – Calculation method 
DIN EN ISO 8990, Thermal insulation – Determination of steady-state thermal transmission
properties – Calibrated and guarded hot box 
DIN EN ISO 10113, Metallic materials – Sheet and strip 
DIN EN ISO 12 944, Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective
paint systems
DIN EN ISO 14713, Zinc coatings – Guidelines and recommendations for the protection against
corrosion of iron and steel in structures – Part 1: General principles of design and corrosion
resistance 
DIN EN ISO 16276, Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective paint systems –
Assessment of, and acceptance criteria for, the adhesion/cohesion (fracture strength)
of a coating

ISO 21930, Sustainability in building construction – Environmental declaration of building

products
ISO 21931, Sustainability in building construction – Framework for methods of assessment of
the environmental performance of construction works
ISO 15686, Buildings and constructed assets – Service life planning 

Euronorm 19:57, IPE joists with parallel flanges. Dimensions

Euronorm 24:62, Narrow flange I-beams, steel channels. Permissible deviations
Euronorm 44:63, Hot-rolled IPE joists. Rolling tolerances
Euronorm 53:62, Broad flanged beams with parallel sides. Dimensions
Euronorm 54:80, Small hot-rolled steel channels
Euronorm 55:80, Hot-rolled equal flange Ts with radiused root and toes in steel
Euronorm 56:77, Hot-rolled equal angles (with radiused root and toes)
Euronorm 57:78, Hot-rolled unequal angles (with radiused root and toes)
Euronorm 58:78, Hot-rolled flats for general purposes
Euronorm 59:78, Hot-rolled square bars for general purposes
Euronorm 60:77, Hot-rolled round bars for general purposes

90
Literature
William Addis: The Art of the Structural Engineer, Artemis, London 1994
Edward Allen: Fundamentals of Building Construction: Materials and
Methods, 6th ed., Hoboken, Wiley, New Jersey 2014
Alan Blanc, Michael McEvoy and Roger Plank: Architecture and
­Construction in Steel, E & F N Spon, London, New York 1993
Terri Meyer Boake: Understanding Steel Design – An Architectural
­Design Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel 2012
Terri Meyer Boake: Diagrid Structures. Systems, Connections, Details,
Birkhäuser, Basel 2014
Andrea Deplazes (ed.): Constructing Architecture, Birkhäuser, Basel
2013
Manfred Hegger: Basics Materials, Birkhäuser, Basel 2007
Ulf Hestermann and Ludwig Rongen: Frick/Knöll Baukonstruktions­
lehre 1, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, Wiesbaden 2015
Ulf Hestermann and Ludwig Rongen: Frick/Knöll Baukonstruktions­
lehre 2, Springer Vieweg, Wiesbaden 2013
Institut für Internationale Architektur Dokumentation: Featuring Steel
Resources, Architecture, Reflections, Detail, Munich 2009
Ulrich Knaack (et al.): Facades. Principles of Construction, 2nd ed.,
Birkhäuser, Basel 2014
Ulrich Knaack (et al.): Prefabricated Systems, Principles of ­Construction,
Birkhäuser, Basel 2012
Ulrich Knaack (et al.): Components and Connections, Principles of
­Construction, Birkhäuser, Basel 2012
Alfred Meistermann: Basics Loadbearing Systems, Birkhäuser, Basel
2007
Mario George Salvadori: The Art of Construction: Projects and ­Principles
for Beginning Engineers and Architects, 3rd ed., Chicago Review
Press, Chicago 1990
Helmut C. Schulitz: Steel Construction Manual, Birkhäuser, Basel,
­Boston 2000

PICTURE CREDITS
Figure 12: “Balk9” by Anders Lagerås – own work. Licensed under
CC ­BY-SA 2.5 through Wikimedia Commons – http://commons.­
wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Balk9.jpg#/media/File:Balk9.jpg
Figure 46: “National Stadium and Holy Cross Bridge” by Bartosz
MORAG – own work. Licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 through
­Wikimedia ­Commons – http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:National_Stadium_and_Holy_Cross_Bridge.JPG#/media/
File:National_­Stadium_and_Holy_Cross_Bridge.JPG
Figure 49: “Olympiapark and Olympiastadion in München. 04 orig” by
Kora27 – own work. Licensed under CC-BY-SA 4.0 through

91
 ­ ikimedia Commons – http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
W
File:Olympiapark_und_Olympiastadion_in_M%C3%BCnchen._04_
orig.jpg#/media/File:Olympiapark_und_Olympiastadion_
in_M%C3%BCnchen._04_orig.jpg
Figures 10, 14, 21, 36, 52, 69, 72, 81, 82, 90: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Bert
­Bielefeld

The author
Katrin Hanses, M.A., architect, is a research associate in the depart-
ment of building construction and design at Siegen University and runs
her own architecture practice in Cologne.

92
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