Basics Roof Construction

Ann-Christin Siegemund
Roof
Construction
Ann-Christin
Bert BielefeldSiegemund
- Sebastian El Khouli
Entwurfsidee
Roof
Construction
Third edition
Birkhäuser
BIRKHÄUSER
Basel
BASEL
4
Contents
FOREWORD _7
INTRODUCTION _8
BASICS AND DESIGN FACTORS _9

Forces and types of load _9
Building physics _11
Fire safety _14
Lightning protection _15
Materials used _16
Planning and building codes _18
SLOPING ROOFS _19

Roof styles _20
Dormer and roof windows _22
ROOF CONSTRUCTION _26

Woodworking joints _26
Closed couple roof _28
Collar beam roof _30
Purlin roof _31
Solid roof _34
ROOF CONSTRUCTION LAYERS _36

Types of roof covering _36
Roof battens _39
Roofing membranes _40
Insulation _41
Drainage details _44
FLAT ROOFS _46

Construction _46
Types of roof construction _47
Connection details _48
Edge details _49
Roof layers _52
Green roofs _55
Drainage details _56
ADDITIONAL COMPONENTS _59
Fall prevention on roofs _59
Photovoltaics and solar collector systems _63
IN CONCLUSION _65
APPENDIX _67
Literature _67
Standards _68
Picture Credits _72
The Author _72
Foreword
To have a roof over your head is one of the basic needs of human ex-
istence – it protects us from rain and wind, and helps us to keep warm.
To do that, the roof also needs to fulfill some other functions: it needs
to be structurally sound and stable. Based on traditional craftsmanship,
various types and styles of roofs have evolved, which fulfill these func-
tions in different ways and which are still in use today.
In addition, the roof – which is often referred to as the fifth facade –
is also considered under aesthetic aspects. Versions of flat and sloping
roofs have a significant impact on the appearance of historical towns and
villages, and in modern buildings, too, they are an important part of the
conceptual design. Thus, the fifth facade of a building with its many fac-
ets – comprehensively covered in this volume – is a key element in the
architectural and structural design of a building.
This volume, Basics Roof Construction, is intended for the student
who, for the first time, is considering the aspects involved in the design
of a roof. The book introduces the various types of roof, their advantages
and disadvantages, and the construction details the designer needs to
be familiar with. In a clear and straightforward way, all the structural and
non-structural aspects are explained, including the key design criteria.
The student is given comprehensive information – from the basic struc-
ture of the roof to the insulation, waterproofing, finishes, surfaces, and
drainage systems. The aim of the book is to provide students with an
understanding of the principles, the technical terms, and the types and
styles of roofs, and their characteristics, to enable them to produce roof
designs that meet all the relevant criteria.
This is the second edition of the book, which has been comprehen-
sively revised in structure and content. The author starts with a descrip-
tion of the general requirements a roof has to fulfill and then explains the
key characteristics of sloping roofs and flat roofs. This is followed by the
thoroughly updated chapters on the various roof construction aspects,
ending with detailed explanations of photovoltaics systems and solar col-
lectors, as well as on the design of green roofs, both of which have be-
come standard elements of roof design for reasons of climate protection.
Bert Bielefeld, Editor
7
Introduction
The roof is part of the envelope of a building and has a number of
different functions, which are performed by different parts of the roof.
Whether it is open or fully enclosed, the space beneath the roof is pro-
tected against wind, rain, and direct sunlight by the roof covering in
combination with the underslating/waterproofing membrane. A layer of
insulation ensures that both heat losses and heat gains are reduced. The
roof envelope is supported by the structural members of the roof con-
struction, the function of which is to transfer the loads impacting on the
roof from the outside as well as those resulting from its own construc-
tion into the ground via external walls, pillars, and foundations. Further-
more, there are secondary elements that are needed to ensure that the
main functions of the roof can be fulfilled.
In addition to the protective functions, aesthetic aspects such as the
overall form, construction, finishes, and detailing also need to be taken
into consideration. Taking into account current concerns about climate
change, roofs may also be designed with “greening” in order to compen-
sate for the ground area that is covered by the building.
However, the selection of individual components should always take
into account the respective construction task in hand. For example, elab-
orate prefabricated steel structures are rarely found in private housing
projects; similarly, in industrial building, one generally tries to avoid de-
tails that require extensive craftsmanship on the building site.
The shape of roofs is primarily determined by design considerations
relating to the respective building and planning aspects but may also re-
flect regional differences. In Alpine regions, shallow sloping roofs with a
large roof overhang are most common, whereas in the northern coastal
regions of Europe, gable roofs with steep slopes are more usual. > Chapter
Roof styles Different building functions have also led to typical roof styles:
for example, tennis halls often have curved barrel roofs that allow space
for the trajectory of the tennis ball; by contrast, normal congregation
spaces often feature flat roofs to enable a flexible range of uses. It is also
possible to combine different styles of roof.
A basic distinction is made between sloping roofs and flat roofs, with
sloping roofs generally considered to have a minimum slope of 5°. In view
of the fact that these two roof styles differ significantly in construction
and function, they are dealt with in separate sections of this book, fol-
lowing the description of some basics.
8
Basics and design factors
Apart from the pure conceptual design, a number of factors have
to be considered, which affect the shape of the roof, the materials of
the different layers, as well as additional elements. Below we will briefly
explain the main criteria of factors such as structure, building code,
building physics, fire safety, and building material properties in order
to establish how these design elements fit together in the construction
methods described below.
FORCES AND TYPES OF LOAD

The structure of a building is designed to ensure its structural integ-
rity, which means that forces are balanced and building components do
not move. This means that any impacting forces must be countered with
forces that are at least of equal strength. In addition, internal forces must
also be balanced. This means that building components must be capable
of withstanding all internal and external forces, which in turn depends on
their sizing, strength, and the elasticity of the material.
When a building component is exposed to compression, it has to re- Compressive and
sist compressive forces. Conversely, when the forces acting on a build- tensile force, moment
ing component tend to pull it apart, it has to resist tensile forces. A build-
ing component exposed to counteracting forces impacting at different
points will be subjected to torsion. As a rule, the term used in building
construction to describe this is “moment” or “moment of force”. The sum
of all impacting forces is the force (also bearing force) that is transferred
to the construction element below, which must be capable of resisting it.
Buildings are subject to a number of different forces, the size of
which must be established as part of the structural design. The forces
acting on a building or a building component are also referred to in terms
of the direction of impact – a distinction is made between longitudinal
forces and transverse or shear forces. Loads may impact horizontally
(both transversally and longitudinally) and also vertically. > Fig. 1
Compression Tension Moment
Fig. 1: Forces
9
Types of load in A basic requirement for the structural design of a roof is the com-
a roof structure putation of the various loads. At this stage, the structural engineer will
decide what materials will be used. On this basis the self-weight (also
called dead load) of the construction can be calculated. The self-weight
is a permanent load. Its impact is vertically downwards. In addition, there
is the imposed load (also called live load). Typical examples are movable
objects, such as furniture, or people. It is, however, not necessary to ac-
count for each individual item in the structural design. Instead, it is pos-
sible to use average values that have been established for various types
of buildings, such as apartments, warehouses, or factories. Where no
imposed load is expected on a building component, e.g., a sloping roof
surface, it is nevertheless necessary to provide proof that the building
component can support a person or persons during construction and for
the purpose of maintenance. As a rule, the impact of imposed loads is
◼ vertically downwards like that of dead loads.
Table 1: Types of load
Type of load Duration Main direction Calculation

Dead load permanent vertical The load is calculated using
the quantity and specific
gravity of the components
(in KN/sqm).
Live load variable vertical Average values for specific
functions are available from
tables (in KN/sqm).
Snow and variable vertical Figures are available in tables

ice load for different roof slopes and
snow load zones.
Wind load variable perpendicular to Figures are available in tables

(wind pressure) the roof surface for different roof slopes and
wind load zones.
Wind load variable perpendicular to Figures are available in tables

(wind suction) the roof surface for different roof slopes, build-
ing heights, and orientation.
◼ Tip: Different states/countries maintain standard

tables, where the various weights of materials and
building components, as well as assumptions as to
imposed loads, snow and wind loads, can be found in
order to calculate the total load. A list of the most
important standards is included at the end of this book.
For further details on the subject of structural systems,
see Basics Loadbearing Systems by Alfred Meistermann.
GSPublisherVersion 70.85.88.100
10
Other forces to be considered are environmental loads, such as wind,
snow, and ice acting on the roof. Whereas snow and ice add weight to
be supported by the roof, resulting in vertical loads, wind may impact
both horizontally and vertically. Wind can cause pressure as well as suc-
tion. Wind suction is a force that tends to lift off building components.
Any components exposed to wind suction must be secured with appro-
priate means. > Fig. 2
BUILDING PHYSICS
Roofs must fulfill all essential functions defined by building physics
in terms of thermal and sound insulation, as well as protection against
moisture ingress and fire > Chapter Fire safety. In view of the fact that build-
ing physics influences the way roofs are designed and constructed, we
discuss the most important aspects below. ◯
Where buildings are fitted with good thermal insulation, e.g., by insu- Thermal bridges
lating building components exposed to the exterior, it is possible to sig-
nificantly reduce the consumption of energy for heating or cooling. In this
case it is not only important to insulate the primary parts of the struc-
ture, but also consider the transition details between different building
elements since these can cause thermal bridging. ◯
In heated buildings, roof structures are fitted with layers of insula- Thermal conductivity
tion; these have low thermal conductivity and thereby provide thermal
insulation to the building. Thermal conductivity is the specific value of
a material relating to the energy that flows every second through a cube
of material with an edge length of 1 m when the temperature differential
◯ Note: Thermal protection is not only relevant in ◯ Note: Thermal bridges in building construction occur
inter, but also during the summer months. During
w where the insulation layer of a building is interrupted or
summer, thermal protection reduces solar heat irradiat- reduced in thickness. When there is a significant differ-
ing the building, which in turn reduces the amount of ence between the outside and inside temperature of a
energy needed to cool the building. Typical devices building, this can lead to heat loss during the winter
months and heat gain in summer.
include external solar shading blinds in front of win-
dows.
In winter, thermal protection/insulation reduces heat
loss from buildings, which means that less energy is
required for heating. The amount of heat lost from a
building is affected by the ratio of external building sur-
face to the heated volume inside the building, by the
degree to which building components are insulated on
the external face, by the air tightness of the building,
and by the presence of thermal bridges.
11
between the two external faces is 1 Kelvin. The lower the thermal conduc-
tivity of a material, the higher its insulating effect. Dividing the thickness
of a material by its thermal conductivity reveals the thermal resistance
(R) of the respective layer of material. Adding the thermal resistance of
all layers together, as well as the heat transfer resistance of the outer
and inner surfaces of the building component results in the heat trans-
fer resistance of the building component. The greater the heat transfer
resistance of the component, the better its thermal insulating effect.
Table 2: Nominal and design values of the thermal conductivity of selected materials as per DIN 4108 and
DIN EN ISO 10456
Material Thermal conductivity, Thermal conductivity,

nominal value [W/mK] design value [W/mK]
Mineral wool insulation 0.03–0.050 0.036–0.06
EPS 0.03–0.050 0.036–0.06
XPS 0.026–0.045 0.031–0.054
Polyurethane 0.02–0.040 0.024–0.048
Rigid phenolic foam 0.02–0.035 0.024–0.042
Steel-reinforced concrete – 2.3
Construction steel – approx. 50
Construction timber – 0.13
Table 3: Example calculation of the U-value of a flat roof
Construction of a flat roof Material Thermal Formula: Thermal resistance R

from interior to exterior thickness d conductivity R=d/ [m²K/W]
[m]
[W/mK]
Thermal transition, interior (RSI) – – – 0.1
Plaster 0.015 0.51 0.015/0.51 0.029

Reinforced concrete 0.25 2.3 0.25/2.3 0.11
structural ceiling
Bitumen membrane 0.003 0.23 0.003/0.23 0.013
Insulation 0.28 0.035 0.28/0.035 8.00
Plastic sealing layer with 0.005 0.17 0.005/0.17 0.029
separating membrane
Thermal transition, exterior (RSE) – – – 0.04
Thermal resistance RT=∑R 8.321 m²K/W
Thermal transmission coefficient U=1/RT 0.12 W/m²K
12
It is important to prevent condensation on the surface of building Prevention of
components as well as in the various layers. The occurrence of conden- condensation
sation depends on the temperature and relative humidity. In winter, air

diffusing through the layers of material from the inside to the outside
will cool down. Warm air can absorb more moisture than cold air; when
warm air cools down, it can no longer hold the excess moisture, which
will therefore condense and lead to condensation.
If this condensate cannot escape, the moisture can impair the func-
tion of the roof and also lead to the formation of mould on surfaces.
In certain situations, roofs are also required to provide a degree of Sound insulation
sound insulation, partly to limit the impact of any noise from the outside
and partly to attenuate noise from inside the building. Sound is trans-
mitted either as airborne sound or as impact sound, or as a combination
of the two. For roofs as exterior building components, the main concern
is insulation against airborne sound. Nevertheless, additional measures
may be required when noisy technical equipment, such as air-conditioning
units, is placed on the roof and the rooms beneath need to be protected.
In single-skin roofs, i.e., roof structures without an air layer, the
sound insulation is normally good due to the greater weight per area.
In multilayer constructions it is important to ensure that all layers have
an adequate weight per area and that the insulation has good sound-
absorption properties. ◼
◼ Tip: In some configurations it is possible that the

spread of sound is even augmented in multilayer con-
structions. For this reason, such a construction should
always be checked/tested for its sound insulation
effect. See also Basics Sound Insulation by Dominic
Kampshoff.
13
FIRE SAFETY
Normally, roofs also have to satisfy fire safety requirements. Fire pro-
tection in buildings is primarily aimed at the following:
—— Preventing a fire from starting

—— Preventing a fire from spreading
—— Facilitating the rescue of people at risk from a fire
—— Facilitating effective extinguishing work
Building materials react differently to heat and fire; with an appro-

priate combination of materials in the construction, it is therefore pos-
sible to ensure that fire cannot spread through the building components
and that the structural integrity of the building is retained for a certain
period. Even though steel components do not burn, they do heat up
much quicker than timber and will deform when exposed to even small
increases in temperature – which can lead to the loss of the structural
loadbearing capacity. By contrast, even though timber is classed as a
combustible material, its behaviour when exposed to fire is much bet-
ter because it will sustain its loadbearing capacity for a certain period of
time even when its outer layer is already charred.
Fire behaviour and When assessing building materials from the point of view of fire
period of fire safety, a primary distinction is made between the fire behaviour and the
resistance
period of fire resistance. The fire behaviour describes the extent to which
a material is combustible and how quickly it can be ignited. The period
of fire resistance specifies the period during which the material retains
its protective effect and/or its structural capacity when exposed to fire.
The term “hard roof covering” is used to refer to roof covering that is
◼ resistant to the spread of fire by wind and to radiant heat.
Hard roof covering A hard roof covering provides protection against being ignited by fly-
ing sparks and radiant heat; examples are a min. 5 cm-thick layer of gravel
◯ or metal sheeting with a thickness of at least 0.5 mm.
Classification as European standard EN 13501 classifies the behaviour of building ma-
per EN 13501 terials in the case of fire using building material classes A to F. In addi-
tion, factors such as the development of smoke – “s” for smoke, graded
from s1 to s3 – and burning material droplets – “d” for droplets, graded
d0 to d2 – are taken into account. The subdivision of the period of fire
resistance is made along a scale from 15 to 240 minutes.
◼ Tip: For fire safety requirements and details, see ◯ Note: The term “roof covering” only refers to the
Basics Fire Safety by Diana Helmerking. skin of the roof, i.e., the covering material, the water-
proofing, and the insulation. The term “roof” refers
to the entire roof structure, including its loadbearing
structure.
14
Table 4: Building material classes as per DIN 4102-1, Table 1, and DIN EN 13501
Building material Official denomination Allocation as per Additional requirement

class to DIN 4102 DIN EN 13051
no smoke no burning
roplets
d
A1 non-combustible A1 x x
A2 non-combustible A 2 – s1, d0 x x
B1 hardly flammable B – s1, d0 x x
C – s1, d0 x x
A2 – s2, d0 x x
A2 – s3, d0 x x
B – s2, d0 x x
B – s3, d0 x x
C – s2, d0 x x
C – s3, d0 x x
A2 – s1, d1
A2 – s1, d2
B – s1, d1
B – s1, d2
C – s1, d1
C – s1, d2
A2 – s3, d2
B – s3, d2
C – d3, d2
B2 normally flammable D – s1, d0 x
D – s2, d0 x
D – s3, d0 x
E x
D – s1, d1
D – s2, d1
D – s3, d1
D – s1, d2
D – s2, d2
D – s3, d2
E – d2
B3 easily flammable F
Fire safety is also an important consideration in the design of open-

ings in roof surfaces; for example, an adequate distance must be main-
tained from such openings to neighbouring buildings and/or fire walls.
Alternatively, the area above the fire walls can be finished with fire-
resistant cladding of a specified width.
LIGHTNING PROTECTION
A lightning conductor fitted to the outside of a building is used to
conduct the electric current of a direct or indirect lightning strike into
the ground in order to neutralize the energy of the lightning strike and
to protect the building and its inhabitants and objects. The elements of
15
Fig. 2: Lightning conductor fitted to an evaporation cooler on a Fig. 3: Lightning conductors on a flat roof
flat roof
the lightning protection system consist of highly conductive material,

such as steel or copper. Lightning conductor systems consist of meshes
spread across the roof surface, with additional conductor points at ele-
vated places such as the ridge or chimneys. Depending on requirements
it may also be necessary to include aerials, gutters/downpipes, flash-
ing, and so on, in the system.
MATERIALS USED
Depending on the type of roof design, the construction of layers, and
the specific functions, materials may have to comply with additional re-
quirements relating to compressive strength, combustibility, or method
of installation. For this reason, a range of different materials are used for
covering, insulating, and constructing roofs, as well as for roofing mem-
branes. > Chapter Roof structures and Chapter Roof construction Below is a brief intro-
duction to roofing membranes that can be used in flat roofs as well as
sloping roofs.
Mineral insulation Inorganic/mineral insulation materials such as glass wool and rock
materials wool are often used in sloping and flat roofs in the form of rolls or bats.
In addition, insulation can also be placed in loose form, either blown
in or laid as loose wool. In flat roofs the insulation may consist of min-
eral insulation slabs or foam glass products. All these products have
the advantage of being non-combustible. Glass and mineral wool in-
sulation bats also have hydrophobic properties, which means – some-
16
times due to additional treatment – that they repel water and do not
lose their insulating properties once any moisture that has penetrated
has dried out.
Organic insulation materials used in roofs, i.e., insulation consisting Organic insulation
of renewable natural materials, are usually based on timber, hemp, or flax materials
fibres. As a rule, these are combustible and are available in rolls, bats,
or in loose form. Compared to other insulating materials, they have the
advantage of a good diffusion value but also the disadvantage of better
thermal conductivity and hence poorer thermal insulation, which means
that thicker layers of the material have to be applied.
Synthetic insulation materials, i.e., rigid foam plastics, are typically Synthetic insulation
used in the form of expanded polystyrene (EPS), extruded polystyrene materials
(XPS), rigid polyurethane foam, or polyisocyanurate foam (PIR). In con-

trast to mineral insulation materials, plastic foam materials are flamma-
ble. In the case of a fire, these insulation materials tend to produce a
lot of smoke gases, many of which are toxic. On the positive side, these
materials have high compressive strength, low weight and – compared
to mineral insulation materials of the same thickness – better insulation
properties.
The majority of damp-proofing systems are based on bitumen or plas- Damp-proofing
tic membranes. However, it is also possible to use damp-proofing liquids, systems
either based on plastic or on bitumen, or a combination of membranes

and liquids, which may be advantageous in certain situations.
Bitumen and polymer bitumen membranes are produced from crude
oil; in polymer bitumen membranes, other materials are added, such as
polypropylene, which ensure that the membranes remain flexible even
at low temperatures. The membranes are reinforced by adding glass
or plastic fibre mesh and can be further enhanced by adding granulate
on the surface or by laminating foil as a separating layer on the under-
side, depending on the respective requirements. This means that there
are membranes for various functions, for example, underslating, a va-
pour barrier, a damp-proofing membrane as the finishing layer on a
roof, through to root-protection membranes in green roof construction.
Likewise, bitumen membranes can be applied using a range of different
methods, such as welding, cold self-adhesion, or mechanical fixing. In
addition, it is possible to bond bitumen membranes to the roof using
a pouring process.
Likewise, a large range of plastic membranes is available to suit vari-
ous applications. However, the basic membrane usually consists of poly
vinylchloride (PVC), flexible polyolefin (FPO), or polyisobutylene (PIB).
Elastomer membranes are produced on the basis of EPDM. Similar to bi-
tumen membranes, they are enhanced with additional layers and may
even be combined with bitumen membranes. The membranes are placed
loosely and, if necessary, welded at the seams; alternatively, they may
also be partly or fully bonded to the substrate.
17
In roof construction these membranes are used in combination with
other layers such as glass fibre fleeces, plastic fibre fleeces, PE mem-
branes, bitumen membranes, or PVC membranes. The purpose of these
additional layers is to separate two materials that are incompatible in
the construction (separating layer), to avoid chemical reactions, e.g.,
between plastic membranes that contain plasticizer and XPS insulating
boards, and also in order to protect the damp-proofing system against
mechanical impact (protection layer). The construction of green roofs in
particular involves products that fulfill functions in addition to protec-
tion, such as water storage.
PLANNING AND BUILDING CODES

Planning and building codes may determine the style of roof as well
as the selection of materials and the roof design.
Zoning and Cities and municipalities usually produce zoning and land use maps
land use maps (also called local development plans) that determine what buildings can
be built in certain areas and may also specify the style of roof. Details
may include the shape of the roof, the slope or orientation of the ridge,
as well as the maximum height of eaves and/or ridges. In most cases
the design will have to take the buildings in the neighbourhood into con-
sideration, which will affect the choice of roofing material and its colour.
Building codes In many countries the building codes contain significant regulations
relating to fire safety. These regulations cover various aspects affect-
ing the fire safety of building components; in northern countries, these
codes may include stipulations for safety measures to prevent snow and
ice falling from the roof.
Construction In addition to the requirements under the building codes, building
standards materials and design details may have to comply with construction stan-
dards (see list of standards in the appendix) and the regulations issued
by various professional associations.
Table 5: German development plan abbreviations
Roof types Construction height/slope

SD – double-pitch roof TH – eaves height
PD – monopitch roof FH – ridge height
WD – hipped roof OK – top edge
FD – flat roof WH – wall height
18
Sloping roofs
In single-family dwellings, most roofs are designed as sloping roofs.
Sloping roofs are ideally suited to discharging precipitation that falls on
the building. The loadbearing structure of these roofs usually consists of
timber and is erected by builders on site. But roof structures made of steel
or concrete are also possible. > Chapter Solid roofs The triangular cross-sec-
tion created by the sloping roof planes is ideal for absorbing wind forces
and transferring them to the structure.
The highest point of the roof is called ridge and the lower edge is
called eaves. The junction between the roof surface and the gable wall
of the house is called verge. > Fig. 4 Where two sloping roof planes inter-
sect, the outer intersection line is called hip ridge and the inner one is
called valley. When the attic space beneath the roof is to be increased in
height, the perimeter walls can be raised by about half a storey height or
less (raised part of perimeter wall). The slope of the roof is described by
the angle between the sloping roof members and the horizontal mem-
bers, and is always measured in degrees. By contrast, the term fall is used
when referring to the slight incline of items such as gutters or horizontal
surfaces that allow precipitation water to drain off. This can be stated in
per cent or as a ratio; for example, the typical fall of a flat roof is about
1:40, which is the same as 2.5%.
1
6
2 4
45,00°
9 2
8 9
1
1 5
7 3
7
3
6
2
2
5 8
9
1. First ridge 4. Roof slope 7. Verge

2. Eaves 5. Hip ridge 8. Floor slab
3. Valley 6. Gable 9. Raised part of perimeter wall
Fig. 4: Terms
19
ROOF STYLES
The different styles of roof are distinguished by the slope of the roof
planes and the form of the gable. > Figs. 5 and 6
Monopitch and A roof sloping in one direction only is called a monopitch roof (also
double-pitch roof shed roof). In some designs two monopitch roofs meet along the same
wall but at different levels. The most common style of sloping roof is
probably the double-pitch roof (also called gable roof), in which two
roof planes that slope in opposite directions meet at the same level: the
shared ridge. The position of the ridge line in relation to the floor plan
can be from front to back or from side to side.
Mansard roof A mansard roof is a roof in which there are two different pitches in
the roof plane. The steeper pitch in the lower part of the roof helps to
create extra usable space with full headroom in the attic floor. In order
to provide even more space inside the attic floor, close to the edge of
the roof, it is possible to raise the perimeter wall along the eaves side of
the building and thereby raise the roof in its entirety. Traditionally, this
raised part of the perimeter wall is about knee-high, hence the German
term “Kniestock” (knee wall). Roofs that have a mansard-type construc-
tion on two sides only and vertical gable walls on the two other sides are
called gambrel roofs. Buildings with gambrel roofs and gable roofs can
be placed with the gables facing the street, i.e., the ridge running back
to front, or facing the sides.
Tent roof and There are also other styles of roof in which the gable walls are fully
hipped roof or partially replaced by sloping roof planes. A roof in which all sloping
roof planes over a square building converge at one point at the top is
called a tent roof. In a hipped roof, the gable ends are truncated and thus
have their own sloping roof planes, which means that the eaves are at
the same level on all sides of the building. A roof in which the gable ends
feature partly a vertical wall and partly a roof slope, with the eaves at a
higher level, is called a half-hipped roof. It is also possible to combine var-
ious styles of roof in order to design a suitable roof for a given building.
Curved roof styles There are also roofs with curved surfaces, which are referred to as
vaulted roofs; an example is a barrel roof, which is a roof with a semi-
circular cross-section. Barrel roofs also have gables at the two ends. Other
roof styles with curved surfaces are groin or cross vaults, and domes.
Fig. 5: Double-pitch roof – Mansard roof – Tent roof – Half-hipped roof
20
A saw-tooth roof consists of a series of monopitch or double-pitch Saw-tooth roof
roofs with a steeper and a shallower side. The steeper side is usually fit-
ted with fenestration. Saw-tooth roofs are often used to cover large build-
ings such as production facilities. ◯
Double-pitch roof Gambrel roof Monopitch roof Barrel roof

Roofs with gables
Hipped roof and

mansard roof
Half-hipped roofs
Tent roofs
Saw-tooth roof
Fig. 6: Roof styles
◯ Note: The height of habitable rooms in the attic is

r elevant for the calculation of the usable and habitable
floor area in a building. When calculating the usable
floor area in accordance with DIN 277, the entire floor
area of a usable floor is taken into account. Where the
habitable floor area is calculated for the purpose of
renting (in Germany this is governed by the Habitable
Floor Area Ordinance [WoFlV]), the habitable areas in a
loft that are less than 1 m high are not included; half of
the areas between 1 m and 2 m high are included; and
the areas with a height of at least 2 m are fully included.
21
DORMER AND ROOF WINDOWS
Dormer and roof windows are windows in the roof plane that allow
daylight to enter the attic floor and, in the case of dormer windows, cre-
ate extra space and headroom; they may also be inserted for aesthetic
reasons. The minimum clear height on the inside of a dormer should be
2 m to allow for sufficient headroom. Where roof windows or dormers
are used as a secondary escape route, they are subject to minimum re-
quirements regarding size and sill height.
Admission of daylight Roof windows are inserted in the roof plane to allow for the admis-
sion of daylight and ventilation – prerequisites for using the attic as hab-
itable space. As a rule, the proportion of window area must be one-eighth
of the square area of the room. Where the attic is not used as habitable
space, it is nevertheless desirable to provide at least a small amount of
daylight, for example, by inserting roof hatches.
Trimmers The width of elements fitted in the roof plane should take the roof
construction into consideration – in particular the width between the raf-
ters. > Chapter Closed couple roof In order to absorb the loads supported by those
rafters that are removed in order to accommodate the roof window, trim-
mers and trimmer rafters are required. > Figs. 7 and 21 Trimmers are horizon-
tal timber sections that span several fields between rafters, thus support-
ing the rafters that have been cut off (trimmed) to make the opening; the
ends of the trimmers are supported by trimmer rafters. The height of the
trimmers and the trimmer rafters should preferably be the same as that of
the common rafters in order to ensure that there is no difference in level.
Dormer styles Like roofs, dormers can be designed in a number of different styles.
> Figs. 8–11 Both the structure and construction layers are subject to the
same requirements regarding thermal insulation, sound insulation, and
waterproofing as roofs. Likewise, the minimum requirements regarding
the angle of pitch also apply.
In shed dormers, also called monopitch dormers, the dormer roof
has a shallower pitch compared to that of the main roof. Like in a gabled
Fig. 7: Roof window with trimmer and trimmer rafter
22
ormer, the triangular vertical side walls of the dormer are called cheeks.
d
In gabled dormers the roof is formed like a small, independent double-
pitch roof fitted into the main roof plane. The joint lines between the dor-
mer roof and the main roof are called valleys. Where the external wall
is extended upwards to meet the dormer window, this is referred to as
a wall dormer. Dog-house dormers have a double-pitch roof that forms
a gable but no vertical sides (cheeks); the dormer roof planes form val-
leys with the main roof.
There are several styles of dormers with rounded roofs, i.e., eyebrow
dormers, segmental dormers, and barrel-roof dormers; in most cases,
segmental and barrel-roof dormers include triangular vertical side walls
(cheeks). In the eyebrow dormers (both steep and shallow) the dormer roof
is moulded out of the main roof plane without interruption. The shallow
eyebrow dormer tends to be much wider than it is high, whereas a semi-
circular eyebrow dormer is relatively narrow and has a semi-circular roof.
Fig. 8: Gabled dormer Fig. 9: Barrel dormer Fig. 10: Shed dormer (also monopitch
dormer)
Gabled dormer Shed dormer Dog-house dormer
Eyebrow dormer Eyebrow dormer Barrel dormer

(shallow) (semi-circular)
Fig. 11: Dormer types
23
Dormer construction The front of the dormer often consists of a prefabricated timber
frame that is either placed on the rafters or directly on the floor beneath
before the external cladding is fitted. In shed dormers, the shed rafters
at the top end sit on the trimmed rafters. At the bottom end they are at-
tached to the gable frame of the dormer. The triangular vertical walls of
the dormer are called cheeks. In order to provide rigidity to the structure,
these are usually lined with panels, which are lined on the outside with
metal, clapboarding, slates, or tiles. However, it is also possible to insert
glazing into the cheeks. The width and length of the dormer needs to be
designed to suit the roof construction as well as the roofing material.
Roof windows Roof windows are almost always supplied and fitted as prefabricated
elements. Typical products come in a range of versions with flashings to
suit different roof coverings and constructions to ensure proper drain-
age; where the roofing material has back-ventilation, the roof window
must not interrupt this. Common widths of roof windows are aimed at
fitting the multiple widths of the space between rafters. Where several
roof windows are fitted next to each other, they will have a main rafter
between them and will be connected with special framing and flashing.
Roof windows come with different opening options. In centre-pivot win-
dows, the window sash is attached to the window frame midway along
the side rails, which means that the upper half pivots into the room when
the window is opened. A top-hung window is attached to the frame at
the top edge and completely opens outwards. Sliding windows are rarer,
but can also be fitted; the sliding sash can either be moved sideways be-
neath the roof or can overlap another part of the window that is fixed. For
some years now, units are available on the market that combine a lower
vertical glazing portion with an upper portion in the form of a top-hung
window; the lower part reaches down to the floor and can be folded out
to form a kind of balcony railing. > Figs. 12 and 13
Centre-pivot window Top-hung window mehrteiliges

Combined roof window unit Sliding window
Schwingfenster Klappfenster Schiebefenster
Dachfenster
Fig. 12: Types of roof window
24
Fig. 13: Fully fitted roof windows
25
Roof construction
In sloping timber roof structures, a distinction is made between three
basic systems: closed couple roof, collar roof, and purlin roof. In addi-
tion, there are roof structures that consist of solid materials such as con-
crete, aerated concrete or clay blocks, or steel; due to the high cost of
steel construction, this is rarely used for domestic buildings. However, in
buildings with large open spans, steel and concrete structures are reg-
ularly used due to their structural properties. All types of roof construc-
tions can be designed with the structural members visible on the inside
or lined with cladding.
WOODWORKING JOINTS
Even today, most roof structures are built in timber. The individual
elements of the structure are either joined by traditional woodworking
Fig. 14: Roof construction details
Fig. 15: Joint of rafter with the eaves purlin (also called Fig. 16: Mechanical connection of a two-part collar
wall plate) showing a bird’s mouth joint beam to the rafter and middle purlin using metal bolts
26
joints or using mechanical jointing devices, such as nail plates or bolts; in
timber engineering, timber elements may also be joined using adhesives.
Nowadays, traditional woodworking joints have made a comeback but
are produced by way of digital machining. There are five different types
of woodworking joint: > Figs. 15–17
—— End-to-end connections, like the bridle joint, are used to extend

timber sections such as beams or purlins.
—— Perpendicular joints are used, e.g., for inserting a trimmer.
—— Rafter and tie-beam joints are used in roof construction, mostly for
connecting rafters to timber tie beams.
—— Corner joints are typically needed at the corners of wall plates.
—— Notched joints are used to connect two timber sections that are
offset and have a different orientation.
End-to-end joints
Half-lap joint
(vertical also possible) Bridle joint Tabled joint
Perpendicular joints
Bridle joint Mortise and tenon joint Haunched tenon joint

Corner joints
Half-lap joint Bridle joint Tabled half-lap joint

Rafter and tie-beam
joints
with front notch with double notch with rear notch

Notched joints
Dovetail notch joint Cogged joint Cross-notch joint

Fig. 17: Selection of carpentry joints for timber components
27
CLOSED COUPLE ROOF
Construction Closed couple roofs are the simplest form of timber roof construc-
tion. A triangular frame is formed of the two sloping timber members,
the rafters, and the horizontal member at the bottom, the tie beam, or
alternatively a ceiling slab. The two rafters leaning against each other
are called a couple. At the point of contact, the rafters are fixed but not
rigidly connected to each other. The term for this type of frame is hinged
frame. Closed couple roofs consist of several pairs of rafters, the typi-
cal spacing of which is 40, 45, and 60 cm; where the rafters meet at the
ridge, they are connected by a ridge board, which makes a longitudinal
connection and facilitates fixing. The loads impacting on the rafters are
made up of their own weight (dead weight) plus live loads (snow, etc.),
which result in compressive force. They are also subject to bending as a
result of loads impacting on the surface in perpendicular direction. The
ridge beam is subject to tensile force. All connections must be detailed
such that the relevant forces can be effectively transferred to the sup-
porting structural elements, such as walls or pillars. Traditionally, the tie
beams project out from the base of the rafters by about 20 cm. This cre-
ates an area that needs to be mastered with an additional timber mem-
ber called a firring. Firrings are typically fixed to the side of the tie beam
and have a shallower pitch than the main roof slope. > Fig. 21 Today it is
more common to use a construction involving a concrete ring beam that
absorbs the forces. To absorb longitudinal forces, it is necessary to brace
the roof planes with additional members. These may take the form of
wooden boards (wind braces), or flat steel straps that are attached diag-
onally across the rafters; alternatively, the entire roof plane can be cov-
ered with wooden boarding or large-format boards. > Fig. 22
Dimensions Ideally, the slope of closed couple roofs should be between 25 and
50°; the clear span should not be more than 8 m as the cross-section
of timbers for larger spans tends to be uneconomical. The advantage of
this construction is that there are no upright members at all in the roof
space. Where dormers or roof windows are to be fitted it is necessary to
use trimmers and trimmer rafters.
The cross-section of rafters varies significantly in different countries;
in Anglo-Saxon countries the width is typically only 5 cm, with the height
varying between 10 and 17.5 cm, depending on the span.
28
4 3
Isometric Load scheme
Closed couple roof

4 3
on concrete slab
5
4 1
Co
on
3
si
m
es
pr
pr
es
Be
5
si
nd
nd
Co
on
1
Be
Dr
5
k
Tension
uc
uc
ng
Dr
Bi
k
1
eg
gu
u nD
e
Bk i
gr u
uc
ck
g
Dr
Bi
Zug
un
3
eg
eg
Closed couple roof 4
un
Bi
6
g
on timber deck
Zug
3
4
6
7 3
4 2
6
7
2
7
1. Concrete slab 3. Ridge board 2 plate
5. Wall 7. Sprocket
2. Ceiling joists 4. Rafter 6. Ridge strap
Fig. 18: Isometric and load scheme of a closed couple roof
Bracing with wind braces

on the inside of the rafters
GSPublisherVersion
70.85.88.100
Bracing with GSPublisherVersion

70.85.88.100
large-format panels
GSPublisherVersion
70.85.88.100
Bracing with
wooden boarding
Fig. 19: Bracing of a closed couple roof
29
COLLAR BEAM ROOF
Construction Like closed couple roofs, collar beam roofs form a triangular frame
with the addition of a horizontal timber member, the collar beam. > Fig. 20
This collar beam absorbs compressive forces on the rafters, thereby re-
ducing bending (deflection) of the rafters. In turn, this means that this
type of roof can be used for larger spans of up to 15 m. For ease of re-
pairs, collar beams may be fitted in pairs, with one member each on ei-
ther side of the rafter. In order to be structurally effective, the collar
beams should not be fitted at a point that is lower than 75% of the over-
all height from tie beam to ridge, measured from the bottom. Both the
tops and bottoms of the rafters are fitted as in the closed couple roof.
Collar beam roof

3
on
Co
si
m
es
pr
5
pr
es
Compression
si
Co
on
4
1 Tension
Queen post truss

3
2
5
6
1
Liegender Stuhl
truss 3
2
5
7
1
1. Concrete slab 3. Rafter 5. Collar beam 7. Principal rafter

2. Ridge board 4. Wall plate 6. Queen post 8. Head plate
Fig. 20: Collar beam roof construction systems; isometric and load scheme
30
PURLIN ROOF
In purlin roofs the rafters bear on horizontal structural members Construction
called purlins, which in turn are supported from walls or uprights called
posts or stays. In order to be able to absorb horizontal wind loads, the
posts must be braced with struts that are fitted parallel to the roof slope,
a short distance from the rafters. The support member at the uppermost
point of the roof is called a ridge purlin, that at the lowermost point is
called an eaves purlin (or wall plate), and the intermediate one is called
the middle purlin.
King post
5
5
4
4
6
6
2
2
1
1
Queen posts 5
5
3
3
2
2
1
1
6
6
King post and queen

posts combined,
with struts 5
5
4
4
3
3
2
2
7
7
6
6
1. Concrete slab 3. Middle purlin 5. Rafter 7. Strut

2. Wall plate (eaves purlin) 4. Ridge purlin 6. Post
Fig. 21: Purlin roof construction systems; isometric and load scheme
31
Types of purlin roof The simplest form of purlin roof uses a vertical post, the so-called
king post, to support the ridge purlin. > Fig. 21 In this case the rafters are
supported by the ridge purlin and the eaves purlins. Vertical loads are
mainly transferred from the ridge purlin downwards via the king post. In
a more complex roof construction, the rafters are supported from the
eaves purlin and a middle purlin. Here the middle purlins are supported
on vertical posts called queen posts. In order to absorb horizontal forces
across the roof, it is possible to fit an additional collar beam or straining
beam. In that case, the top part of the roof is similar to a couple roof. In
the case of larger spans and where rafters are longer than 7 m, both the
two middle purlins and the ridge purlin are supported by vertical posts,
a construction that combines the above-described systems. Where it is
not possible to transfer the vertical forces from the ridge purlin via a ver-
tical post owing to the plan layout beneath, the vertical post only goes
down to the collar beam from where the loads are transferred via slant-
ing bracing members, a construction known as king post truss.
Dimensions All the above design versions can be used for all the possible roof
slopes. However, the spacing of purlins should not exceed 4.5 m.
Table 6: Overview of components in sloping roofs
Component Drawing Notes Common sizes

for average roofs
Sprocket Aufschiebling
Aufschiebling for closed couple roofs
Pfosten
Pfosten 8/12–10/22
Aufschiebling
Aufschiebling Pfosten
Pfosten
Aufschiebling
Aufschiebling Pfosten
Pfosten
Dachbalken Richtholz
Ceiling joists Dachbalken
Dachbalken for closed couple roofs
Richtholz
Richtholz 12/12–14/14
Dachbalken
Richtholz
Firstpfette
Firstpfette Sparren
Sparren
Ridge purlin Firstpfette
Firstpfette on walls or posts
Sparren
Sparren 14/16–16/22
Firstpfette
Firstpfette Sparren
Sparren
Fußpfette
Fußpfette Strebe
Strebe
Fußpfette Strebe
Wall plate Fußpfette
Fußpfette on the slab/external wall
Strebe
Strebe 10/10–14/16
Fußpfette Strebe
Kehlbalken
Kehlbalken Vorholz
Vorholz
Kehlbalken
Kehlbalken Vorholz
Vorholz
Collar beam Kehlbalken
Kehlbalken may consist of two timber
Vorholz
Vorholz 8/14–10/20
sections, one on each side
of rafter
Kehlsparren
Kehlsparren Wechsel
Wechsel
Kehlsparren
Kehlsparren Wechsel
Wechsel
Kehlsparren Wechsel
Valley rafter Kehlsparren with V-shaped bevel
Wechsel 8/14–8/22
Knagge
Knagge Windrispe
Windrispe
Knagge
Knagge Windrispe
Windrispe
Knagge
Knagge Windrispe
Windrispe
Kopfband
Kopfband Zange
Zange
Kopfband
32
Kopfband Zange
Zange
Kopfband
Kopfband Zange
Zange
Kehlbalken Vorholz
Kehlbalken Vorholz
Kehlsparren Wechsel
Kehlsparren Wechsel
Component Kehlsparren
Drawing Wechsel
Notes Common sizes
for average roofs
Cleat Knagge for collar beams (pairs)
Windrispe
Knagge Windrispe
Knagge Windrispe
Kopfband Zange
Head plate Kopfband with brace to post
Zange 10/10–10/12
Kopfband Zange
Mittelpfette
Mittelpfette
Middle purlin Mittelpfette beneath the rafters 12/20–14/20
schiebling Post Texte sind nicht Bestandteil der Grafik, sondern

Pfosten supports purlins
dienen der 12/12–14/14
schiebling Texte
einfacheren Pfosten
sind nicht Bestandteil
Zuordnung der Grafik, sondern
der Abbildungen dienen
innerhalb der
der Tabelle
schiebling Pfosten
Texte
einfacheren sind nicht Bestandteil der Grafik, sondern dienen der
schiebling Pfosten Zuordnung der Abbildungen innerhalb der Tabelle
schiebling einfacheren Pfosten Zuordnung der Abbildungen innerhalb der Tabelle
schiebling Pfosten
schiebling Pfosten
chbalken
schiebling Richtholz
Pfosten
Ridge board for easier fixing of thickness from 22 mm
chbalken Richtholz
chbalken Richtholz
chbalken Richtholz top of rafters

chbalken Richtholz
chbalken Richtholz
chbalken Richtholz
stpfette
chbalken Sparren
Richtholz
stpfette Sparren
stpfette Rafters Sparren support the roofing 8/14–8/22
stpfette Sparren material
stpfette Sparren
stpfette Sparren
stpfette Sparren
ßpfette
stpfette Strebe
Sparren
ßpfette Strebe
ßpfette Strebe
ßpfette Strut Strebe for cross-bracing 14/16
ßpfette Strebe
ßpfette Strebe
ßpfette Strebe
hlbalken
ßpfette Vorholz
Strebe
hlbalken Vorholz
hlbalken Vorholz
hlbalken Vorholz
hlbalken Tie-beam projection Vorholz in closed couple roofs lengths 20 cm
hlbalken Vorholz
hlbalken Vorholz
hlsparren
hlbalken Wechsel
Vorholz
hlsparren Wechsel
hlsparren Wechsel
hlsparren Wechsel
hlsparren Wechsel
hlsparren Trimmer Wechsel for openings 8/14–8/22
hlsparren Wechsel
agge
hlsparren Windrispe
Wechsel
agge Windrispe
agge Windrispe
agge Windrispe
agge Windrispe
agge Windrispe
agge
pfband Wind braces Windrispe
Zange for wind bracing flat steel straps
agge
pfband Windrispe
Zange
pfband Zange
pfband Zange
pfband Zange
pfband Zange
pfband Zange
elpfette
pfband Collar beam (paired) Zange for horizontal bracing 6/14–8/16
elpfette
elpfette
elpfette
elpfette
elpfette
elpfette
elpfette
e sind nicht Bestandteil der Grafik, sondern dienen der

echeren
innerhalb der
der Tabelle
echeren
innerhalb der
der Tabelle
echeren
innerhalb der
der Tabelle
echeren
sind nicht Bestandteil der Grafik, sondern dienen der
Zuordnung der Abbildungen innerhalb der Tabelle
encheren
Zuordnung der der Grafik, sondern
Abbildungen dienen
innerhalb der der
Tabelle
encheren
sind
73.78.81.100
73.78.81.100
nicht Bestandteil der Grafik, sondern dienen der
encheren
sind nicht
73.78.81.100
Bestandteil
innerhalb der
der Tabelle
cheren
n 73.78.81.100
n 73.78.81.100
n 73.78.81.100
n 73.78.81.100
33
n 73.78.81.100
SOLID ROOF
The term solid roof refers to a roof constructed in concrete, porous
concrete, or a combination of concrete and blocks. > Fig. 22 In contrast to
the timber constructions described above, these roofs are usually built
using prefabricated components that form a closed surface. It is also
possible to use in-situ concrete when the objective is to create a roof
with a free shape. Owing to the relatively heavy weight of the concrete,
solid roofs perform well in terms of sound insulation. The construction
is also beneficial in terms of low air permeability and, where it is possi-
ble to use the thermal storage capacity of concrete, it is also useful in
terms of thermal performance.
Roofs made of The prefabricated concrete components used in solid roofs are pre-
prefabricated fabricated in a factory where the other elements of the roof are also
concrete components
added, e.g., rafters, insulation, underlay membrane, and battens, which
means that on the building site only the roof covering material has to be
applied. Where the roof slabs consist of lightweight concrete, only the
counter-battens are added in prefabrication; insulation and other roof
components have to be fitted on site. > Chapter Roof battens The thickness of
the slabs varies between approx. 5 cm for normal concrete with addi-
tional rafters and 16 cm in the case of lightweight concrete.
Roofs using aerated In solid roofs using a block-and-beam construction, with blocks
concrete or clay made of aerated concrete or clay, the direction of span and the spacing
blocks
of beams are critical design parameters. The blocks are placed between
the beams before in-situ concrete is applied on top. Like in the other con-
struction methods, the additional roof construction consists of insula-
tion, battens, underlay membrane, and the roof covering.
34
Solid roof based on Covering material
normal concrete Battens
Counter-battens
Underlay membrane
Rafters/Air layer/Thermal insulation
Concrete slab
If needed: inside plaster/lining
Solid roof based on Covering material

aerated concrete Battens
Counter-battens
Underlay membrane
Aerated concrete planks
Roof with pot and Covering material

beam construction Battens
Counter-battens
Underlay membrane
Vapour barrier
Pots between concrete beams
Fig. 22: Solid roof construction details
35
Roof construction layers
TYPES OF ROOF COVERING
The main function of the roof covering is to reliably discharge pre-
cipitation water and to prevent the ingress of moisture not only from rain
but also from drifting snow. Both materials and the fasteners should be
weatherproof and ideally also fireproof. Depending on the detailing of
the roof design, it may also be necessary to ensure that humidity can be
discharged from the inside to the outside. > Chapter Building physics The choice
of roof covering is not only governed by aesthetic aspects, but also by
the slope of the roof, the shape of the roof, and the roof construction. A
number of different materials are available, which result in different de-
tailing and even roof shapes.
Thatched roofs Thatching is a traditional form of roof covering, which is still used
in certain regions. Roofs covered in thatch tend to have a slope of be-
tween 40° and 50° because the lift-off forces generated by wind tend
to be small. The roofing material consists of overlapping thatch bundles
that are attached to battens. The material covering the ridge tends to be
different to the main thatch coatwork; straw, heather, and sedge can be
◯ found, as well as plastic straw, or roof tiles.
Overlapping Overlapping roofing units are available in flat and curved styles;
roofing materials typical flat units are slates, wood shingles, stone slabs, and plain tiles
made of concrete, fibre cement, or clay. They are available in differ-
ent shapes, i.e., rectangular, rhombic, square with a rounded corner,
or square at the top and rounded at the bottom (known as beaver-tail
tiles). The units used in valleys, at the eaves or ridge, and at other in-
tersection points are usually industrially prefabricated form pieces. The
lowest standard roof pitch varies for different roofing materials and lay-
ing methods. The slope of roofs covered in fiber cement roof slates can
be as shallow as approx. 20° without additional measures. There is an
Fig. 23: Roof construction in progress: underlay membrane, counter-battens, battens, and roof covering
36
a dditional advantage to using this material because the same units can
often also be used for cladding the walls. The lowest standard roof pitch
for roofs covered with slates is between 22° and 30°, depending on the
laying method. Wood shingles can be used on roofs with a pitch of 71°
or more if laid in two layers; however, it is more common to lay three
layers, which means that roof pitches of between 22° and 90° are per-
missible. Flat overlapping roofing units are normally fastened by nailing
them to battens.
The advantage of formed or profiled roofing units (pantiles, monk- Pantiles/monk-
and-nun tiles) over flat ones is that the roof pitch can be shallower, and and-nun tiles
a single layer is sufficient; materials may be concrete or clay. In con-

trast to flat units, these units are profiled such that they overlap on three
sides. The oldest form of roof covering with profiled roof tiles is called
monk-and-nun tiles. In this system, conically shaped tiles are laid one
row face-up covered with another row face-down. This means that the
tile on top is concave and allows the water to run into the convex tile be-
low, from where the water drains into the gutter. Modern roof tiles are
shaped in such a way at the edges that they engage with the adjacent tiles
at the top and sides in order to prevent the ingress of water. The lowest
standard roof pitch for profiled tiles starts from between 22° and 25°.
In addition to the small roofing units described above, it is also possi- Large-format
ble to use large-format sheets in combination with specially formed units. roofing materials
Corrugated fibre cement sheets are large-format units attached to a sub-

frame with overlapping edges. For roofs with a pitch of less than 12°, it
is necessary to resort to bitumen or tar-based roofing felt. The detail-
ing on the lateral edges usually consists of metal flashing. It is also pos-
sible to cover very shallow roofs with a pitch of down to 5° using very
large-format materials. They usually consist of metal sheeting, such as
aluminum, zinc, galvanized steel, or copper and are fitted in the form of
shaped units, e.g., trapezoidal or corrugated sheeting, or in the form of
plain metal sheeting that is shaped at the overlaying edges with seams
in different configurations.
◯ Note: The lowest standard roof pitch refers to

the lower limit of roof pitch at which a certain roofing
aterial has been proven to be rainproof. In certain
m
situations it is possible to adopt a lower roof pitch for
that material provided additional measures are carried
out. The minimum roof pitch is the lowest possible roof
pitch for the given roofing material.
37
Fig. 24: Roof covered with flat units Fig. 25: Roof covered with profiled Fig. 26: Roof covered in metal
pantiles sheeting
Flat roofing units
German slating system Overlapping rectangular units
Rhombic units Beaver-tail tiles

Profiled roofing units
ca. 40-60cm ca. 40-60cm

Monk-and-nun tiles Interlocking pan tiles
Profiled roof panels and ca. 40-60cm ca. 40-60cm
metal roofing
ca. 40-60cm ca. 40-60cm
ca. 40-60cm ca. 40-60cm
Corrugated panels Metal sheet with standing seam
Fig. 27: Selection of roofing materials
GSPublisherVersion 73.78.81.100 GSPublisherVersion 73.78.81.100
38
GSPublisherVersion 73.78.81.100 GSPublisherVersion 73.78.81.100
ROOF BATTENS
Whereas large-format roofing materials are attached to the substruc-
ture with screws, nails, bolts, or clips, roof tiles have a nib, which means
that they are often simply laid on horizontal battens. Where an underlay
membrane is used on top of the rafters and the roof pitch is relatively
shallow, and flat roofing units are used, it is usual to also use counter-
battens parallel to the rafters. > Fig. 29
The size of the roof battens depends on the weight of the covering Dimensions
material and the spacing of the rafters, as well as the quality of the tim-
ber. Where smaller roofing units are used, such as plain tiles, the battens
are spaced much closer together than those for pantiles, for example,
and are therefore also smaller; some common sizes are:
—— Up to 75 cm rafter spacing: 30/50 mm

—— Up to 90 cm rafter spacing: 40/60 mm
However, smaller-sized battens can be used for smaller roofing units

and when the rafters are closer together.
The spacing of battens depends on the roof slope, as well as on the
type of roofing units and laying method. In order to determine the bat-
ten spacing it is necessary to first of all determine the overall length of
the roof slope. This is approximately the same as the length of the rafter.
Next, the detailing of the eaves has to be decided. If the roof covering is
to project beyond the end of the rafters, the total length is different from
what it would be if it were to finish flush with the rafters. It is usual to opt
for a projection that is equivalent to the overlap of the roofing units. The
design of the eaves detail determines the spacing of the bottom two bat-
tens. Next, the distance between the top batten and the ridge point has to
be established. This is determined by the design of the ridge detail. Now
the spacing of the intermediate battens can be calculated by dividing the
clear space between the top and bottom battens into equal parts. > Fig. 28
3 2 1 4 5
cing
n spa
batte idge 1. Counter-battens
a t r
g 2. Main battens
spacin
n
batte 3. Roof tiles
cing
cing n spa pe 4. Uppermost roof tile
n spa batte f slo
batte eaves of roo 5. Ridge tile
at length
total
Fig. 28: Detail of roof covering and battens
39
ROOFING MEMBRANES
Normally, the roofing material will be sufficient to keep out precipi-
tation water. However, in certain situations, additional measures are re-
quired in order to prevent the ingress of water when there are strong
winds or drifting snow, or when the roof has a shallower pitch, the attic
space needs to be fully protected, or a lot of snow and rain is expected
due to the building being in an exposed position.
Underslating The simplest form of additional protection is the underslating. This
is a type of roofing membrane that allows the construction to be back-
ventilated. It means that the membrane does not lie flat on a surface but
rather dips between the supporting rafters. When additional ventilation
is required, it is possible to fit counter-battens on top of the rafters and
the underslating. This is necessary where the membrane does not dip
between the rafters. Underslating usually consists of fabric-reinforced
plastic membranes.
Breather membrane When the additional protection membrane is fitted flat on a con-
tinuous surface, such as closeboarding, a breather membrane is used.
Breather membranes are considered to be rainproof. They are fitted be-
low the battens and counter-battens.
Waterproof underlay In certain situations, usually when the attic space is used for hab-
membrane itation, an additional protection layer is fitted beneath the roofing ma-
terial. This consists of membranes that are joined together by welding
or with adhesive. A distinction is made between a rainproof and a wa-
terproof system. In a rainproof system, it is permitted to have openings
that are needed for the construction. The membranes are placed under-
neath the battens and counter-battens. In a waterproof system, no open-
ings are permitted. In this case the counter-battens are underneath the
membrane, i.e., the membrane is fitted between the battens and counter-
battens. In all systems it is important to ensure that any water collecting
on the membrane can discharge at the eaves and be drained away via
the gutter. In addition, it is important to ensure that the space beneath
the membrane is adequately ventilated.
Without counter-battens With counter-battens
Fig. 29: Underlay membranes with and without counter-battens
40
INSULATION
Where the attic spaces are well-ventilated and not used for habita-
tion, the insulation is usually not fitted in the roof plane but rather to the
horizontal slab forming the ceiling of the top floor as this is cheaper and
easier. However, when the attic space is to be used for habitation and
therefore is to be heated, the entire space must be insulated on all sides
like the rest of the house in order to meet thermal insulation standards.
In this case it is important to ensure that the insulation of the external
walls continues without interruption and that thermal bridging is avoided.
The thermal insulation material can be fitted between the rafters or
on the inside of the roof slope, with the former obviously saving some
space. The thickness of the insulation depends on the thermal insula-
tion requirements and may not be the same as the depth of the rafters.
Where this is the case, it is possible either to choose an insulation mate-
rial with better insulation properties that will fit into the space between
the rafters, or to apply two separate layers of insulation, one between the
rafters and another thinner layer fitted either on top of them or on the
inside roof slope. Where the insulation is fitted between the rafters, the
insulation is interrupted by these but, in the case of a timber construc-
tion, this is not considered a thermal bridge. > Fig. 30 and Chapter Building physics
When the insulation fitted between the rafters does not take up the Insulation between
entire available space, there will be a gap between the insulation and the the rafters
underlay membrane, which is useful for the purpose of back-ventilation.

Where the space between the rafters is completely filled with insulation,
additional measures may be necessary to ensure ventilation of the roof
construction. Where it is intended to keep the structural roof members
open to view, it is possible to apply the insulation on the outside of the
roof slope, in which case closeboarding on top of the rafters is needed.
> Fig. 31
On the inside of the insulation, it is mandatory to fit a vapour barrier, Vapour barriers
which must be sealed airtight and bonded at all seams, edges, and any
penetrations. The vapor barrier ensures that the humidity from the inside
air cannot penetrate the thermal insulation material or the roof construc-
tion through diffusion. This means that the insulation layer is protected
against the ingress of water on the inside by the vapour barrier and on
the outside by the underlay membrane.
Where the attic space is not ventilated and the space between the
rafters is entirely filled with insulation, counter-battens must be fitted on
top of the underlay membrane to ensure that any water – either as a result
of condensation or as water ingress – can be discharged via the air gap.
Ventilated roof constructions have this air layer directly above the insula-
tion, which means that it is easier to discharge any penetrating humidity.
41
Attic with insulation on the
top floor slab only
Fully insulated attic
Attic insulated up to the collar

beam and dwarf walls
Attic insulated up to the

collar beam
Fig. 30: Insulation in attics
42
Section Layers
Insulation on Metal sheet roofing

rafters, with metal Separating layer
covering Closeboarding
Thermal insulation
Vapour barrier
Closeboarding
Rafters
If required: inside lining
Insulation between Roof covering

rafters with air gap Battens
Counter-battens
Underlay membrane
Air gap
Thermal insulation
Vapour barrier
Inside lining

rafters without air Battens
gap Counter-battens
Underlay membrane
Thermal insulation
Vapour barrier
Inside lining

rafters with addi- Battens
tional insulation Counter-battens
beneath rafters Underlay membrane
Air gap
Thermal insulation between
rafters
Thermal insulation beneath
rafters
Vapour barrier
Inside lining

rafters with addi- Battens
tional insulation on Counter-battens
top of rafters (e.g., Underlay membrane
in refurbishments) Insulation on top of rafters
Insulation between rafters
Vapour barrier
Inside lining
Fig. 31: Roof construction details with different positions of thermal insulation
43
DRAINAGE DETAILS
Any water falling on sloping roofs is discharged along the plane of
the roof and via valleys and eaves. Here, precipitation water and conden-
sate is collected in gutters, from where it is discharged via downpipes.
Sizing To determine the size of the system components, it is necessary to
establish the expected amount of rainwater; this can be calculated from
the rain yield factor > Tab. 6, the effective roof plane, and a discharge co-
efficient. In this context it is important to remember that beyond the nor-
mal rainwater yield, there may be heavy rain events and, in areas where
snowfall is to be expected, meltwater must be discharged in addition to
precipitation water. Where rain gutters are fitted on the outside, it is not
a great problem if these occasionally overflow; however, where gutters
are fitted internally, it is vital to ensure that any emergency overflow does
not cause damage to the building fabric.
Gutters Gutters can be fitted at the eaves level with a shallow fall or without
any fall using height-adjustable brackets. The spacing of brackets de-
pends on the respective system, but as a general rule should not exceed
90 cm. The gutters should be slightly tilted towards the outside so that
any overflowing water is discharged away from the building. The individ-
ual gutter lengths are joined with joining pieces and closed at the ends
with end pieces. The water is discharged from the gutters to downpipes
via so-called swan-neck pipe sections or via hoppers. The downpipes are
fitted to the external wall using pipe clips. The bottom part of the down-
pipes is sometimes subject to mechanical impact and may therefore
consist of a different type of material. This material is typically stronger,
and this section of the pipe often has an inspection opening for checking
and cleaning. Gutters and downpipes are available in angular or round
cross-sections and in different materials.
Contact corrosion Where different metals are in contact with each other, it is import-
ant to ensure that there is no chemical reaction between them, such as
contact corrosion, and that no stresses are generated due to differential
expansion of the materials. For example, copper gutters and downpipes
may only be fitted with steel brackets and clips that are coated with cop-
per. On the other hand, aluminum gutters can be fitted with galvanized
steel brackets or aluminum brackets. For gutters consisting of zinc or gal-
vanized steel, galvanized steel brackets and clips are available.
Internal gutters Internal gutters are those that are not installed on the outside of the
gutter board along the eaves. They are used when the gutter is not sup-
posed to be visible and the roof does not have an overhang. With this
type of gutter, more stringent requirements apply because any overflow-
ing water due to damage, blockages, or similar issues cannot discharge
outside the facade but will collect inside the construction. In this case
an additional drainage layer has to be formed beneath the gutter using
waterproof membranes. In addition, emergency overflow outlets and
larger pipe diameters are needed.
44
Table 7: Average design rain yield in litres per second, per hectare for different countries
as per DIN EN 12056
Country Average design rain yield

Germany 300 l/(sxha)
France 500 l/(sxha)
Netherlands 300 l/(sxha)
Switzerland 300 l/(sxha)
Table 8: Safety coefficients as per DIN EN 1056-3
Situation Safety factor

Gutters fitted outside the gutter board 1.0
Gutters fitted outside the gutter board where any 1.5
overflowing water is unwanted, e.g., above entrances
to public buildings
Internal gutters and, in all situations, where it is possible 2.0
that heavy rainfall can occur or where it is possible that
blockages cause the water to drain into the building
fabric
Internal gutters in buildings where special protection is 3.0
required, e.g.:
– Hospitals, theatres
– Sensitive communication facilities
– Warehouses for substances that will emit toxic or
flammable gases when exposed to moisture
– Buildings where special works of art are stored
45
Flat roofs
A flat roof is a roof with a pitch of up to 5°. Owing to the shallow pitch,
flat roofs are suitable for roof greening, roof gardens, terraces, drive-on
surfaces, or for placing technical equipment such as solar collectors or
ventilation equipment. Flat roofs are not finished with the roofing mate-
rials used for sloping roofs, but rather are finished with waterproof mem-
branes that fulfill stringent requirements regarding waterproofing and
the discharge of water. Compared to sloping roofs, flat roofs are more
exposed to the suction effect of wind. It is therefore necessary to me-
chanically secure the covering materials, which tend to be lightweight.
However, mechanical fixing devices penetrate the membrane.
CONSTRUCTION
Like in sloping roofs, the construction of flat roofs can involve re-
inforced concrete, steel, and timber structures. Flat concrete roofs are
most common in apartment and commercial buildings; steel structures
are usually used for large industrial buildings. Where timber or steel
framing is used for the roof construction, it is necessary to form a con-
tinuous surface that supports the additional roof construction layers;
these surfaces may consist of various types of sheeting such as trape-
zoidal sheeting.
Fig. 32: Steel structure Fig. 33: Reinforced concrete flat roof
46
TYPES OF ROOF CONSTRUCTION
There are three different types of roof construction that differ in the
way the layers are fitted in the roof structure > Fig. 34 as described below.
A warm roof is a roof without back-ventilation in which the water- Warm roof
proofing layer is placed above the thermal insulation; the insulation is also
used to create the fall for the water drainage towards the roof gullies. A
priming coat and the vapour barrier are applied beneath the insulation.
In order to provide better protection to the waterproofing layer, it is Inverted roof
also possible to invert the construction. In this case the insulation layer
is placed above the waterproofing layer, which must consist of hydropho-
bic material. In this situation it is not possible to create the fall towards
the gullies within the insulation layer, which means that a screed with a
fall has to be applied beneath the waterproofing layer.
The third type of construction is called a cold roof, which means the Cold roof
roof is ventilated. This type of roof is similar to a rafter roof, with insu
lation between the rafters, and is usually used in the context of timber
constructions. On the inside this roof needs a vapour barrier, which is cov-
ered by the cladding. The insulation is placed between the timber joists;
it is important here that the insulation does not fill the entire space be-
tween the joists in order to allow sufficient ventilation. The joists sup-
port closeboarding, which in turn supports the waterproofing layer and
the layer selected for protecting the surface.
Section Layers
2% fall
Unventilated roof – 2% fall Waterproofing layer
warm roof Vapour pressure equalizing layer
(concrete slab) Insulation with fall, min. 2%
Vapour barrier
Priming coat
Reinforced concrete slab
Unventilated roof – Waterproofing layer

warm roof Vapour pressure equalizing layer
(steel girder Insulation
construction) Vapour barrier
Trapezoidal sheet
Steel girder with fall
2% fall
2% fall
Fig. 34: Flat roof construction details (Continued on page 48)
2% fall 47
2% fall
Section Layers
Inverted roof Surface protection e.g., gravel, min. 5 cm

Filter layer
Thermal insulation, rigid
2% fall
2% fall Waterproofing layer
Screed laid to fall
Modification of warm roof Insulation on
the wet side above the waterproofing layer
Not all insulation materials are suitable
The waterproofing layer must be protected
against damage
Ventilated roof – Roofing material
cold roof Underlay membrane
Closeboarding
Air gap, min. 15 cm
Thermal insulation between the rafters
Vapour barrier
If needed: inside lining
Fig. 34: Flat roof construction details (Continued from page 47)
CONNECTION DETAILS
Where a vertical building component meets the horizontal roof sur-
face, waterproof connection details must be provided; examples include
the walls of the top part of an elevator shaft, stairwells leading onto the
roof, and the joints between rooflights and the roof. The basic rule is
that, in roofs with a slope of 5° or less, the waterproofing has to be car-
ried up on the vertical surface by 15 cm and, in roofs with a slope of over
5°, it has to be carried up by at least 10 cm above the roof surface in or-
der to prevent the ingress of splash-back water or any water that may
have formed through pooling. Depending on the type of sealing material
used, it may be necessary to opt for mechanical means of fixing, such as
clips or clamping rails. Where the waterproofing layer consists of liquid
plastic, it may be possible to omit any additional fixing devices. In addi-
GSPublisherVersion
70.85.88.100
tion,
GSPublisherVersionthe top edge of the upstand must be secured against rain by over-
70.85.88.100
lapping it with the cladding used on the vertical surface. In the case of
penetrations of the flat roof, it is important to consider whether the seal-
ing detail needs to be flexible or can be rigid. The manufacturers of wa-
terproofing foil membranes often provide special form parts to master
the internal and external corner details or the rounded surfaces of pipes
(pipe sleeves). The sealing detail at openings, such as patio doors, needs
to be given special consideration. The reason is that, if the upstand is car-
ried up by 15 cm above the roof covering, the threshold of the door will
be that much higher than the internal floor surface and the external roof
surface unless special measures are taken to compensate for the height
48
Fig. 35: Liquid plastic used as a sealing Fig. 36: Sealing detail, with upstand fixed
detail between the roof surface and a steel mechanically with a clamping rail
construction member
difference. For example, it is possible to raise the floor inside of the door,
which means that there would only be a step down from the door onto
the roof surface. It is, however, also possible to reduce the height of the
upstand to a minimum of 5 cm if a drainage channel with connection to
the roof drainage is provided in front of the door.
EDGE DETAILS
The design of the edge details of flat roofs requires careful consid-
eration. An upstand needs to be formed at the edge of the roof to allow
for the build-up of layers and to contain any surface water; this may be
located in line with the external wall or out of line, either projecting or
recessed. This upstand can take the form of a parapet or an edge pro-
file. A parapet is the continuation of the wall above the level of the roof
and usually consists of brickwork or concrete on the vertical surface of
which the waterproofing layer can be applied. > Chapter Roof connections The
parapet height can vary, and it can also be used as a fall-prevention de-
vice if the height complies with the minimum requirement. The top of
the parapet needs to be protected from the weather; a common option
is metal flashing that needs to be applied so that it forms a drip edge
on both sides, with a minimum projection of 2 cm from the facade. This
flashing covers the entire width of the parapet and should have a slight
slope towards the roof surface. Edge details using special profiles usu-
ally involve a timber member in the plane of the insulation to which such
profiles are fixed. The shape is such that the waterproofing layer on the
inside can be pressed into the profile and the profile wraps around the
edge of the roof on the outside, overlapping the facade. The outer edge
of the parapet flashing or an edge profile needs to include a drip edge to
ensure that any rainwater does not run behind the facade or the flashing.
49
Avoiding thermal To avoid thermal bridges, edge details must be appropriately insu-
bridges lated. > Figs. 37 and 38, Chapter Building physics In the case of roof projections
and parapets, it is also possible to insert thermal separation to ensure
that these parts are not connected to the insulated building; in this case,
these parts remain without insulation. To do this, a loadbearing insulation
element (e.g., Isokorb®) is inserted in the loadbearing layer, which can
absorb the loads but, in contrast to a continuous concrete slab, largely
consists of materials with low thermal conductivity and thereby reduces
any heat loss. The advantage of thermally separating these building com-
ponents is primarily that no insulation needs to be applied and hence
they appear less bulky.
Fig. 37: Detailing of insulated parapet
50
Projecting roof slab, thermally separated Projecting roof slab, insulation all around
Edge of roof with concrete parapet, Edge of roof with concrete parapet,
thermally separated insulated all around
Edge of roof with brick parapet Edge of roof with proprietary profile
Fig. 38: Edge of roof details
51
ROOF LAYERS
As in a sloping roof, the overall roof construction has to fulfill the re-
quirements of building physics, must discharge water from the outside
and within the system, and must be windtight. To this end, different layers
and materials are used, which have to be designed such that the whole
construction and the materials work well together.
The design of roofs with a pitch of 25° or less can follow the rules of
flat roof design, as well as those for sloping roofs. However, when such
a roof with a shallow pitch is constructed like a flat roof, it is important
to ensure that the different layers cannot slide down and, in particular,
that they cannot be dislodged through wind suction.
Supporting surface The surface that supports the weatherproof layer of the flat roof can
of a flat roof be the structural deck (e.g., a reinforced concrete slab) or a continuous
surface attached to the structure, such as closeboarding, trapezoidal
sheeting, or the thermal insulation. > Fig. 40
Separating layers and On top of a closeboarding layer, it is usually necessary to place a
bonding courses separating membrane. Where it is intended to improve the adhesion of
the top layer to the structural base, it is possible to use bonding courses
in the form of primers, usually on the basis of bitumen. Where the sub-
strate is uneven, it may be necessary to apply a levelling layer. Separat-
ing membranes can consist of bitumen membranes, fleeces, or foam
matting. > Fig. 39
Vapour barrier Vapour barriers usually consist of loosely laid, or partially or fully
bonded bitumen or plastic membranes and are particularly resistant to
vapour diffusion. At the edges of vertical building components or pene-
trations, the vapour barrier must be continued to the top of the insulation
layer, where it has to be attached. A vapour barrier can also contribute
to the airtightness of the roof. In addition, a bonded vapour barrier can
be useful as a temporary waterproofing layer during the construction
phase. > Fig. 40
Fig. 39: Separating layer applied to trape- Fig. 40: Vapour barrier and temporary waterproofing layer consist-
zoidal sheeting ing of a liquid bitumen coating and bitumen membrane
52
For the thermal insulation beneath the waterproofing layer, a range Thermal insulation
of insulation materials is available on the market. Depending on the use
of the roof, the selected material has to have adequate compressive
strength. However, in the case of inverted roofs, it is essential to use only
waterproof insulation materials that do not lose their insulation proper-
ties when exposed to moisture, such as EPS, XPS, or glass foam. Insula-
tion materials fitted in areas close to openable components covered by
fire safety regulations or above fire walls have to be selected in compli-
ance with the particular requirements, such as mineral wool. Where roofs
are covered with trapezoidal sheeting, these sheets may have to rest on
insulation strips with a matching shape in order to create a flush bearing
surface without gaps. > Chapter Materials used
In order to equalize the vapour pressure beneath the waterproofing Vapour pressure
membrane, it may be necessary to install an equalization layer. Bitumen equalization layer
or plastic sheeting is loosely laid or bonded intermittently.

The waterproofing layer of the flat roof is its most important part as Waterproofing
it serves to discharge water that falls on the roof. Possible membranes in-
clude bitumen sheeting, plastic sheeting, and liquid waterproofing materials.
As a rule, bitumen membranes used as the waterproofing layer on Bitumen membranes
flat roofs are applied in several layers. These layers are installed with
overlaps, working in longitudinal and crosswise directions. The minimum
overlap in multilayer systems is 8 cm; in single-layer systems it is 10 cm.
The overlapping areas must be fully bonded. > Fig. 41
As a rule, plastic waterproofing membranes are applied in single Plastic waterproofing
layers only; like bitumen membranes, they can be used for unused and membranes
walk-on roofs, as well as for green roofs covered with a layer of earth.
Depending on the intended function, membranes may be based on PVC,
PIB, or flexible polyolefins, with or without additional reinforcement. In
order to prevent excessive thermal expansion of the membrane due to
solar radiation, it is usual to opt for light colors. > Fig. 42
Fig. 41: Roof with bitumen waterproofing layer
53
Here too, depending on the material and installation method, the
overlapping edges must be firmly bonded to each other. However, the
membranes themselves do not have to be bonded to the roof in their en-
tirety; intermittent bonding or loose laying with additional fastening with
battens at the edges is sufficient.
As an alternative to plastic membranes, it is also possible to use
liquid waterproofing materials for the entire roof surface. Depending
on the substrate, it may be necessary to carry out some preparatory
work, for example, removing any dirt and/or creating a better bonding
key by roughening the surface. Liquid plastics come as single- or multi-
component materials and may be further reinforced during application
by laying reinforcement fleece. In contrast to the membrane systems,
these systems do not require mechanical fastening at the edges. It is im-
portant, though, that the reinforcement fleece mats overlap. Where such
roofs are intended to be walked on, it may be necessary to apply an ad-
ditional protection layer.
It is also possible, depending on compatibility, to use liquid water-
proofing materials in combination with bitumen or plastic membranes,
for example, in the area of penetrations or connections.
Imposed loads/ In certain situations, e.g., when the top waterproofing layer is not fit
gravel layer to support loads, it is possible to install additional protection layers on
top of bitumen or plastic membranes. These can be installed on the en-
tire area in the form of a gravel layer, or as additional hardwearing mem-
branes; where additional protection is only required in certain areas, such
as walkways, a range of different materials may also be applied. Where
the layer of gravel is intended to prevent loose-laid membranes from lift-
ing off, the minimum required thickness is 5 cm or more, depending on
the height of the building. Where the waterproofing layer permits, it is
also possible to lay solid slabs as a walk-on base. > Fig. 43
Fig. 42: Roof with plastic waterproofing membrane Fig. 43: Flat roof with layer of gravel
54
GREEN ROOFS
On flat roofs it is very common to install so-called “green roofs”;
this may even be a requirement of the building permit, as the planting
on the roof compensates for the vegetation lost beneath the building.
Green roofs are not only beneficial to the microclimate, but also delay the
drainage of water by storing such water in the substrate and drainage lay-
ers. In the design of green roofs, it is important to ensure that the roots
of the plants cannot damage the waterproofing layer (e.g., by installing
root-protection membranes) and to take into account the additional load
of approx. 70 to several hundred kg/m² in the structural calculations.
In addition, it may be necessary to provide narrow areas of gravel along
the edges, around penetrations, and above fire compartment walls (usu-
ally spaced 40 m apart). Green roofs are also possible on sloping roofs,
provided certain additional measures are taken. From a roof pitch of ap-
prox. 15°, additional horizontal members are installed on the roof that
prevent the substrate from sliding down the roof surface.
A distinction is made in green roofs between extensive and inten- Extensive and
sive planting, with the extensive system being shallower. Extensive green intensive green roofs
roofs > Fig. 45 require less maintenance and typically support plants such
as mosses or succulents. Intensive green roofs > Fig. 44 require a much
thicker layer of soil and therefore impose greater weight on the roof; these
roofs can support trees, grasses, and herbaceous perennials.
Fig. 44: Roof with gravel layer and intensive greening Fig. 45: Extensive green roof approx. 5 years after
approx. 1 month after planting completion
55
Section Layers
Extensive green Plants/vegetation mat

roof construction Sedum (min. 8 cm), thinner layers possible
on steel girders if needed
Drainage element
Protection fleece
Waterproofing layer
Vapour pressure equalizing layer
Insulation
Vapour barrier
Trapezoidal sheeting
Steel girder
Intensive green roof Plants

construction on Substrate (approx. 20–40 cm)
reinforced concrete Filter fleece
slab Drainage/water storage element
Protection fleece/root protection
Waterproofing layer
Vapour pressure equalizing layer
Insulation
Vapour barrier
Fig. 46: Details of extensive and intensive green roof construction
DRAINAGE DETAILS
In order to prevent the formation of puddles on the roof, the water-
proofing layer, which is used to discharge the water, must have a minimum
fall of 2% towards the points of discharge. A common solution is the in-

stallation of insulation with a fall, because the loadbearing structure of a
flat roof does not usually have a fall. In the case of large industrial build-
ings, the beams supporting the roof can be installed at an angle to create
the required fall. Where the fall is created with the sloping insulation, it is
important to ensure that the minimum insulation thickness is still main-
tained at the thinner end. This can be achieved by installing an even layer
of insulation of the minimum thickness and adding prefabricated sloping
56
boards to create the fall. Alternatively, it is possible to lay a sloping screed
beneath the insulation layer to create the necessary fall.
The water is discharged towards the lowest points in the roof; these
can be either external or internal, with discharge pipes running through
the building to the drainage pipes in the ground. Internal drainage sys-
tems must have appropriate thermal insulation and present a leakage
risk. Where the drainage is to take place outside the building, it is pos-
sible to create a drainage channel along the edges of the roof using the
membrane; from there, the rainwater is discharged to the ground drain-
age pipes via downpipes that are either within the layer of the facade or
surface-mounted.
For both types of drainage, it is possible to use a gravity or a siphonic Gravity/
drainage system. > Fig. 47 In gravity drainage systems, the water from each siphonic drainage
discharge point is conducted via a downpipe to the ground drainage pipe,

which is laid with a fall. In the siphonic drainage system the number of
downpipes is significantly reduced because the water from the discharge
points is collected in a pipe from where it runs to a downpipe; the dis-
charge down the downpipe creates negative pressure in the pipe, which
increases the speed of drainage. All roof drainage outlets must be fitted
with a device to prevent leaves and gravel entering and blocking the sys-
tem. The number and size of roof drainage outlets has to be calculated
using specific rules and depends on a number of factors, such as the size
of the roof area, the roof construction and drainage system, and figures
for the expected rainfall – the normal rain yield factor and the 100-year
rain yield factor. Layers of gravel and roof greening systems have a pos-
itive effect on drainage, because the overall amount of rainwater to be
drained is significantly reduced as it is stored in these layers and dis-
charged over longer periods of time.
All regular rainwater discharge outlets need to be fitted with an ad-
ditional emergency outlet that ensures that any water from exceptional
heavy rain events can still be discharged. This outlet needs to be placed
above the lowest point. This ensures that water cannot pool on the roof
and cause damage. However, the water from these emergency outlets
must not be conducted to the normal drainage pipes; this is to ensure
that drainage can still take place in such an emergency when there is a
blockage in the regular pipe system. This means that the water conducted
via the emergency drainage pipes is discharged via spouts inserted in the
parapet or facade, or via a surface-mounted downpipe discharging openly
to the ground, from where it can run off. > Figs. 49 and 50
To mark the layout of the drainage system, a drainage plan is pro-
duced that provides all the information, including falls, discharge points,
valleys, and ridges. > Fig. 48
57
fall
Gravity drainage Siphonic drainage
with
out
fall
fall
Fig. 47: Schematic illustration of gravity and siphonic drainage systems
with
out
fall
GSPublisherVersion
73.78.81.100
Fig. 48: Drainage plan
PublisherVersion
73.78.81.100
Fig. 49: Installation of a roof outlet in the waterproof- Fig. 50: Emergency drainage
ing layer with external downpipe,
hopper, and freely discharging
spout
58
Additional components
FALL PREVENTION ON ROOFS
There are a number of reasons why safety devices must be provided
on roofs; these include the installation and repair of roofing materials
and waterproofing membranes, maintenance work, access to techni-
cal equipment, and the care of plants that are part of a green roof. Such
safety devices, including fall-prevention systems, must be taken into ac-
count in the design.
The choice of safety system depends on the roof pitch, the distance
of any pathways or work areas to possible fall edges > Fig. 51, the use of the
roof in terms of how often people walk on it, and the visibility of the roof
surfaces. All systems must fulfill the requirements of Health & Safety at
Work regulations; this may involve permanent safety devices (collective
protection) or the use of personal protection equipment, both of which
need to be taken into account in the design.
For roof slopes exceeding 20° with an eaves height of > 3 m, it is a Fall-prevention
mandatory requirement to provide safety devices. As a rule, roof safety devices for sloping
roofs
hooks are fitted in accordance with EN 517. > Fig. 52 The hooks are fas-
tened to the structural roof members with nails and can be used for hang-
ing roof ladders or for attaching roofing platforms; they may also feature
integrated eyelets for attaching safety harnesses. There is a distinction
between type A hooks, which are used to secure against falling in the di-
rection of the pitch of the roof, and type B hooks, which can withstand
tensile forces both in the direction of, and perpendicular to, the pitch of
the roof. Occasionally, individual fastening devices or rope-securing sys-
tems are fitted to sloping roofs (see description below).
1. Fall edge
2. Risk of fall area
3. Fall height
>60°
<60°
3
3
1 2
Fig. 51: Fall edges
59
Possible stress directions of Terms
hook types A and B
44
22
eB 1. Eyelet
Typ B B 33 2. Hook
T y pT y p
11 3. Substrate
A 4. Fastener
ypeA A
TTypTyp 55 5. Line of fall
Fig. 52: Different types of safety roof hooks as per DIN EN 517
Fall prevention On flat roofs, the risk of falling is highest near the edges of a roof,
on flat roofs within 2 m of the fall edges, and near openings such as rooflights. To
provide safety to workers in dangerous areas it is possible to build fall-
prevention structures enclosing the entire roof and to provide collective
protection, or to fit fastening systems, which are used in combination
with personal protection equipment.
Such fall-prevention structures are normally required to be at least
1 m high. Typical examples are a raised parapet or a railing > Fig. 53. Rail-
ing systems that are self-supporting or held in place by an imposed load
are easy to install subsequently and have the advantage that the rain-
proof skin of the roof does not have to be pierced. Furthermore, such
railings are not limited to the edge areas, and it is possible, for example,
to install them on either side of a pathway across a roof. Where railings
are installed at the parapet or on the roof surface, it is critical to ensure
Fig. 53: Railing fastened with Z-angles beneath the parapet coping during and after installation
60
that the fixings do not damage the roof skin or that no thermal bridges
are created (e.g., when attaching a railing to the side of a thermally insu-
lated parapet). Various systems are available, such as railings attached
to the vertical face of the facade or on the inside of the parapet, on top
of the parapet, attached beneath the parapet coping, and directly to the
roof surface. > Fig. 54.
Railing fastened to the inside of the parapet Railing fastened to the top of the parapet
Railing fastened to the roof surface Freestanding self-supporting railing
Fig. 54: Railing fastening methods
61
Anchorage systems Anchorage systems are available in the form of linear systems and
as anchorage point systems > Fig. 55. All systems can be installed within
the roof surface or close to openable components. The linear rail or ca-
ble safety systems > Fig. 56 can also be used for attaching safety ropes
at high level, e.g., where there are building recesses. Individual anchor-
age points may be chosen because they are not very conspicuous; how-
ever, they should only be used when the roof is infrequently accessed
because the additional individual safeguarding process is relatively in-
volved. Only one person can use an anchorage point to attach a safety
harness, and because the distance of the work to the fall edges may be
continually changing, the safety rope may have to be adjusted regularly;
in addition, it may be necessary to disconnect the rope and reconnect it
to other anchorage points. Another point of concern is the fact that, sim-
ilar to linear systems, the roofing membrane is pierced in many places.
By contrast, rail- and cable-based safety systems can be used by several
people at the same time. Where this is possible with the system used, it
may only be necessary to attach the safety device once at the entrance.
Compared to rail systems, cable safety systems have the disadvantage
that they have to be re-tensioned regularly because slack cables could
damage the roof skin or, in the case of roofs with a gravel layer, could
◯ sustain damage themselves.
Fig. 55: Individual anchorage point in a roof with a Fig. 56: Cable safety system
waterproofing membrane during and after installation
◯ Note: At rooflights/fenestration bands, it is not

always necessary to provide fall-prevention devices,
provided the component has its own safety device,
e.g., in the form of a grid.
62
PHOTOVOLTAICS AND SOLAR COLLECTOR SYSTEMS
Even though questions have been raised regarding the environmental
benefit of the production of photovoltaic systems, they are nevertheless
widely used for the production of electricity from solar radiation, either
to feed into the public system or for use at the premises. They can be fit-
ted on flat roofs or on sloping roofs and can even be constructed as so-
lar roofs with a roof pitch. Solar collector systems are used to harness
solar radiation to heat water.
The installation of both these types of panels often requires addi-
tional components and makes it necessary to pierce the roof skin. The
effectiveness of such panels depends on the location, the orientation,
the degree of angle of the modules, and any elements in the close vicin-
ity that may cast a shadow. In Germany, the optimum degree of angle of
photovoltaic modules is about 30° to 35° facing south for peak loads;
when it is intended to cover an even, basic load, a shallower pitch facing
east/west is recommended.
Regarding the orientation of solar collectors for heating water, it is
important to establish the purpose for which the warm water is going to
be used, i.e., for providing space heating during the winter months or as
domestic hot water throughout the year. In Germany, a 40° to 50° an-
gle and orientation towards the south is recommended for use through-
out the year.
On flat roofs it is possible to install collectors or panels on a sup-
port structure, which may be fixed to the roof or held in place by means
of imposed weight. Either way, the additional load has to be taken into
account in the structural calculations. Regarding the layout of the mod-
ules, it is important to ensure that there is adequate space between them
in order to prevent shadowing and, where appropriate, to allow access
for the purpose of maintenance. Where panels or collectors are installed
on a green roof, care must be taken to prevent plant growth casting un-
wanted shadows. There should also be a connection to the lightning pro-
tection system. > Chapter Lightning protection
In the case of sloping roofs, the systems can be fitted to the roof cov-
ering, integrated within the covering, or can replace the covering com-
pletely. Where the panels are used to replace the roof covering, a water
proof layer must be fitted beneath the panels. Fastening systems and
penetrations must be in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions
and have to be sealed appropriately. When panels are fitted on top of the
roofing, a distance of at least 6 cm must be maintained to ensure venti-
lation. Where collectors or modules are fitted as a replacement to parts
of the roof covering, they are treated in a similar way to roof windows,
with appropriate flashing around the edges. > Fig. 57
63
Generally speaking, the installation of photovoltaic systems requires
extra care regarding fire safety, not only because the electricity gener-
ated can make it easier for fires to start/spread, but also because extin-
guishing work is made more difficult unless appropriate safety devices
are in place.
Sloping roof – Sloping roof –

PV system fitted above the roofing layer PV system as part of the roofing layer
Flat roof – self-supporting PV system Flat roof – PV system on membrane roof

on an extensive green roof with fixed installation
Fig. 57: Installation of photovoltaic systems on sloping and flat roofs
64
In conclusion
The preceding chapters have introduced various roof forms, materi-
als, and designs. This book confines itself to simple forms, but it soon be-
comes clear that there is no such thing as a standard roof; so many differ-
ent combinations are possible. The architect has to design the type and
dimensions of the roofing layers as well as all edge, connection, and pen-
etration details. In particular, the following points should be considered:
Roof style:
—— Is the selected roof style, including any dormers, permissible

under the building code?
—— Can the roof be accessed?
—— Does the selected roof design suit the size and layout of the floor
plan?
—— Do the selected materials suit the overall appearance of the
building and its surroundings?
Functional aspects:
—— Does the attic space have adequate daylight and ventilation?

—— Is the thermal insulation of all external surfaces of the building
adequate (gables, dormers, exposed parts of the roof, exposed
pipes)?
—— Does the roof insulation form a continuous layer with the thermal
insulation of the adjoining building components (walls, balconies,
etc.)?
—— Is the roof reliably rainproof?
—— Is it possible for any interstitial condensation in building compo-
nents to escape to the outside?
—— Is it possible for rainwater from all roof surfaces to discharge
without obstruction?
—— Is the roof windtight?
—— Is the detailing adequate to prevent the formation of condensate
(e.g., at penetration points)?
—— Is the penetration of humidity from the interior into the building
fabric, in particular the insulation, reliably prevented at all points?
Even though there are many traditional roof styles, there is great
scope for innovative designs. New interpretations of familiar building
components can result in exciting features, whilst a focus on the essen-
tials tends to result in a more timeless aesthetic.
65
Despite all the standards and regulations governing the design of a
building, the architect should first of all develop a conceptual design for
the roof that suits the overall appearance; further detailing will then take
place in a second step.
66
Appendix
LITERATURE
Bert Bielefeld (ed .): Basics Building Construction, Birkhauser,
Basel 2015
Andrea Deplazes: Constructing Architecture – Materials Processes
Structures. A Handbook, 5th extended edition, Birkhauser,
Basel 2018
lnformationsZentrum Beton GmbH: “Well Roofed: The Solid Concrete
Roof” (date of retrieval 24.09.2019)
Eberhard Schnuck / Hans Jochen Oster / Rainer Barthel / Kurt Kiessl:
Roof Construction Manual: Pitched Roofs, Birkhauser, Basel 2003
Klaus Sedlbauer / Eberhard Schnuck / Rainer Barthel / Hartwig
M. Kunzel: Flat Roof Construction Manual: Materials, Design,
Applications, Birkhauser, Basel 2010
Andrew Watts: Modern Construction Envelopes: Systems for archi
tectural design and prototyping, Birkhauser, Basel 2019
67
STANDARDS
Construction
DIN EN 1991-1-1 Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke – Teil 1-1: Allgemeine Einwirkungen auf
Tragwerke – Wichten, Eigengewicht und Nutzlasten im Hochbau (Actions
on structures – Part 1-1: General actions – Densities, self-weight,
imposed loads for buildings)
DIN EN 1991-1-2 Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke – Teil 1-2: Allgemeine Einwirkungen –
Brandeinwirkungen auf Tragwerke (Actions on structures – Part 1-2:
General actions – Actions on structures exposed to fire)
DIN EN 1991-1-3 Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke – Teil 1-3: Allgemeine Einwirkungen –
Schneelasten (Actions on structures – Part 1-3: General actions –
Snow loads)
DIN EN 1991-1-4 Einwirkungen auf Tragwerke – Teil 1-4: Allgemeine Einwirkungen – Wind-
lasten (Actions on structures – Part 1-4: General actions – Wind loads)
DIN EN 1993-1-1 Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbauten – Teil 1-1: Allgemeine
Bemessungsregeln und Regeln für den Hochbau (Design of steel
structures – Part 1-1: General rules and rules for buildings)
DIN EN 1993-1-2 Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbauten – Teil 1-2: Allgemeine
Regeln – Tragwerksbemessung für den Brandfall (Design of steel
structures – Part 1-2: General rules – Structural fire design)
DIN EN 1995-1-1 Bemessung und Konstruktion von Holzbauten – Teil 1-1: Allgemeines
– Allgemeine Regeln und Regeln für den Hochbau (Design of timber
structures – Part 1-1: General – Common rules and rules for buildings)
DIN EN 1995-1-2 Bemessung und Konstruktion von Holzbauten – Teil 1-2: Allgemeine
Regeln – Tragwerksbemessung für den Brandfall (Design of timber
structures – Part 1-2: General rules – Structural fire design)
DIN 1052-10 Herstellung und Ausführung von Holzbauwerken – Teil 10: Ergänzende
Bestimmungen (Design, calculation, and dimensioning of timber build-
ings – Part 10: Additional regulations)
DIN 1045 Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton (Concrete and
reinforced concrete structures: design and construction)
Roof covering
DIN EN 490 Dach- und Formsteine aus Beton für Dächer und Wandbekleidungen –
Produktspezifikationen (Concrete roofing tiles and fittings for roof cover-
ing and wall cladding – Product specifications)
DIN EN 491 Dach- und Formsteine aus Beton für Dächer und Wandbekleidungen –
Prüfverfahren (Concrete roofing tiles and fittings for roof covering and
wall cladding – Test methods)
DIN EN 492 Faserzement-Dachplatten und dazu gehörende Formteile – Produkt
spezifikationen und Prüfverfahren (Fibre-cement slates and fittings –
Product specification and test methods
DIN EN 501 Dacheindeckungsprodukte aus Metallblech – Festlegung für vollflächig un-
terstützte Bedachungselemente aus Zinkblech (Roofing products from metal
sheet – Specification for fully supported roofing products from zinc sheet)
DIN EN 502 Dacheindeckungsprodukte aus Metallblech – Spezifikation für vollflächig
unterstützte Dachdeckungsprodukte aus nichtrostendem Stahlblech
(Roofing products from metal sheet – Specification for fully supported
roofing products from stainless steel sheet)
68
DIN EN 538 Tondachziegel für überlappende Verlegung – Prüfung der Biegetrag-
fähigkeit (Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying – Flexural strength
test)
DIN EN 539-1 Dachziegel für überlappende Verlegung – Bestimmung der physika-
lischen Eigenschaften – Teil 1: Prüfung der Wasserundurchlässigkeit
(Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying – Determination of physical
characteristics – Part 1: Impermeability test)
DIN EN 539-2 Dachziegel für überdeckende Verlegung – Bestimmung der physika-
lischen Eigenschaften – Teil 2: Prüfung der Frostwiderstandsfähigkeit
(Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying – Determination of physical
characteristics – Part 2: Frost resistance test)
DIN EN 1024 Tondachziegel für überlappende Verlegung – Bestimmung der geo
metrischen Kennwerte (Clay roofing tiles for discontinuous laying –
Determination of geometric characteristics)
Din EN 1304 Dachziegel und Formziegel – Begriffe und Produktanforderungen
(Clay roofing tiles and fittings – Product definitions and specifications)
DIN EN 12326 Schiefer und Naturstein für überlappende Dachdeckungen und
Außenwandbekleidungen (Slate and stone for discontinuous roofing
and external cladding)
FLL Dachbe Richtlinie für Planung, Bau und Instandhaltung von Dachbegrünungen
grünungen (Dachbegrünungsrichtlinie) (Guideline for the design, construction, and
maintenance of green roofs)
Waterproofing
DIN 18531 Abdichtung von Dächern sowie von Balkonen, Loggien und Lauben
gängen (Waterproofing of roofs, balconies, and walkways)
DIN 18195 Abdichtung von Bauwerken (Waterproofing of buildings)
DIN EN 495 Abdichtungsbahnen (Flexible sheets for waterproofing)
DIN EN 1107 Abdichtungsbahnen – Bestimmung der Maßhaltigkeit (Flexible sheets for
waterproofing – Determination of dimensional stability)
DIN EN 1108 Abdichtungsbahnen – Bitumenbahnen für Dachabdichtungen (Flexible
sheets for waterproofing – Bitumen sheets for roof waterproofing)
DIN EN 13859 Abdichtungsbahnen – Definitionen und Eigenschaften von Unterdeck-
und Unterspannbahnen (Flexible sheets for waterproofing – Definitions
and characteristics of underlays)
Fachregeln für Abdichtungen – Flachdachrichtlinie (Waterproofing
rules – Flat roof guideline)
Insulation
DIN 4108 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden. Beiblatt 2, Wärme-
brücken – Planungs- und Ausführungsbeispiele (Thermal insulation and
energy economy in buildings – Supplementary sheet 2, thermal bridges
– Examples for design and execution)
DIN 4108-2 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden – Teil 2: Mindestan-
forderungen an den Wärmeschutz (Thermal insulation and energy econ-
omy in buildings – Part 2: Minimum requirements for thermal insulation)
DIN 4108-3 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden – Teil 3: Klima
bedingter Feuchteschutz – Anforderungen, Berechnungsverfahren und
Hinweise für Planung und Ausführung (Thermal insulation and energy
economy in buildings – Part 3: Protection against moisture subject to
climate conditions – Requirements, calculation methods and direc-
tions for design and construction)
69
DIN 4108-4 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden -– Teil 4: Wärme-
und feuchteschutztechnische Bemessungswerte (Thermal insulation and
energy economy in buildings – Part 4: Hygrothermal design values)
DIN V 4108-6 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden – Teil 6: Berechnung
des Jahresheizwärme- und des Jahresheizenergiebedarfs (Thermal insu-
lation and energy economy in buildings – Part 6: Calculation of annual
heat and energy use)
DIN 4108-7 Wärmeschutz und Energie-Einsparung in Gebäuden – Teil 7: Luftdichtheit
von Gebäuden – Anforderungen, Planungs- und Ausführungsempfeh
lungen sowie –beispiele (Thermal insulation and energy economy in
buildings – Part 7: Air tightness of buildings – Requirements, recommen-
dations and examples for design and performance)
EnEV Verordnung über energiesparenden Wärmeschutz und energiesparende
Anlagentechnik bei Gebäuden (Directive on energy-conserving thermal
insulation and installations in buildings)
Fire safety
DIN EN 12101-2 Rauch- und Wärmefreihaltung – Teil 2: Natürliche Rauch- und Wärme
abzugsgeräte (Smoke and heat control systems – Part 2: Natural smoke
and heat exhaust ventilators)
DIN EN 1365 Feuerwiderstandsprüfungen für tragende Bauteile – Teil 2: Decken und
Dächer (Fire resistance tests for loadbearing elements – Part 2: Floors
and roofs)
DIN EN 13502-5 Klassifizierung von Bauprodukten und Bauarten zu ihrem Brandver
halten – Teil 5: Klassifizierung mit den Ergebnissen aus Prüfungen von
Bedachungen bei Beanspruchung durch Feuer von außen (Fire behaviour
classification of building products and building methods – Part 5: Classi-
fication with the results of tests of roofs exposed to fire from outside)
DIN CEN/TS 1187 Prüfverfahren zur Beanspruchung von Bedachungen durch Feuer von
außen (Test methods for external fire exposure to roofs)
DIN 18234 Baulicher Brandschutz großflächiger Dächer – Brandbeanspruchung von
unten Teile 1–4 (Fire safety of large roofs for buildings – Fire exposure
from below – Parts 1 to 4)
DIN 4102-7 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen – Teil 7: Bedachungen –
Anforderungen und Prüfungen (Fire behaviour of building materials and
building components – Part 7: Roofing; definitions, requirements and
testing)
Fall prevention
DIN 4426 Einrichtungen zur Instandhaltung baulicher Anlagen – Sicherheitstech-
nische Anforderungen an Arbeitsplätze und Verkehrswege – Planung und
Ausführung (Equipment for building maintenance – Safety requirements
for workplaces and accesses – Design and construction)
DIN EN 516 Vorgefertigte Zubehörteile für Dacheindeckungen – Einrichtungen zum
Betreten des Daches – Laufstege, Trittflächen und Einzeltritte (Prefabri-
cated accessories for roofing – Installations for roof access – Walkways,
treads and steps)
DIN EN 517 Vorgefertigte Zubehörteile für Dacheindeckungen – Sicherheits-
dachhaken (Prefabricated accessories for roofing – Roof safety hooks)
DIN EN 795 Persönliche Arbeitsschutzausrüstung – Anschlageinrichtungen (Personal
fall protection equipment – Anchor devices)
DIN EN 13374 Temporäre Seitenschutzsysteme (Temporary edge protection systems)
DIN EN 17235 Entwurf: Permanente Anschlageinrichtungen und Sicherheitsdachhaken
(Design: Permanent anchor devices and safety hooks)
70
Drainage
DIN 1986-100 Entwässerungsanlagen für Gebäude und Grundstücke – Teil 100:
estimmungen in Verbindung mit DIN EN 752 und DIN EN 12056
B
(Drainage systems on private ground – Part 100: Specifications in
relation to DIN EN 752 and DIN EN 12056)
DIN EN 612 Hängedachrinnen, Regenfallrohre außerhalb von Gebäuden und
Zubehörteile aus Metall (Eaves gutters with bead stiffened fronts and
rainwater downpipes with seamed joints made of metal sheet)
DIN EN 12056-3 Schwerkraftentwässerungsanlagen innerhalb von Gebäuden – Teil 3:
Dachentwässerung, Planung und Bemessung (Gravity drainage systems
inside buildings – Part 3: Roof drainage, layout and calculation)
ZVDH Hinweise Merkblatt zur Bemessung von Entwässerungen (Fact sheet on
the design of drainage systems)
Other elements
DIN EN 1873 Vorgefertigte Zubehörteile für Dachdeckungen – Lichtkuppeln aus
Kunststoff (Prefabricated accessories for roofing – Individual rooflights
of plastics)
71
PICTURE CREDITS
Figures 1, 4, 6, 11, 18, 19, 21, 27, 28, 29, 30, and 31 and Table 1 and 6
with reference to Tanja Brotrück, author of the 1st edition of
Roof Construction in the Basics series.
Figures 7, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23, and 48: Bert Bielefeld, Dortmund.
All other figures by the author.
THE AUTHOR
Ann-Christin Siegemund, B.Sc., architect in Dortmund, Germany.
73
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Basics Roof Construction

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What are the main topics covered in the book?

What are the main topics covered in the book?

What are some of the structural components of roofs discussed?

What are some of the structural components of roofs discussed?

Ann-Christin Siegemund

BASICS AND DESIGN FACTORS _9

SLOPING ROOFS _19

ROOF CONSTRUCTION _26

ROOF CONSTRUCTION LAYERS _36

FLAT ROOFS _46

Bert Bielefeld, Editor

FORCES AND TYPES OF LOAD

Compression Tension Moment

Table 1: Types of load

Type of load Duration Main direction Calculation

Snow and variable vertical Figures are available in tables

Wind load variable perpendicular to Figures are available in tables

Wind load variable perpendicular to Figures are available in tables

◼ Tip: Different states/countries maintain standard

Material Thermal conductivity, Thermal conductivity,

Table 3: Example calculation of the U-value of a flat roof

Construction of a flat roof Material Thermal Formula: Thermal resistance R

Plaster 0.015 0.51 0.015/0.51 0.029

sation depends on the temperature and relative humidity. In winter, air

◼ Tip: In some configurations it is possible that the

—— Preventing a fire from starting

Building materials react differently to heat and fire; with an appro-

Building material Official denomination Allocation as per Additional requirement

Fire safety is also an important consideration in the design of open-

the lightning protection system consist of highly conductive material,

(XPS), rigid polyurethane foam, or polyisocyanurate foam (PIR). In con-

either based on plastic or on bitumen, or a combination of membranes

PLANNING AND BUILDING CODES

Table 5: German development plan abbreviations

Roof types Construction height/slope

1. First ridge 4. Roof slope 7. Verge

Fig. 5: Double-pitch roof – Mansard roof – Tent roof – Half-hipped roof

Double-pitch roof Gambrel roof Monopitch roof Barrel roof

Hipped roof and

Fig. 6: Roof styles

◯ Note: The height of habitable rooms in the attic is

Fig. 7: Roof window with trimmer and trimmer rafter

Gabled dormer Shed dormer Dog-house dormer

Eyebrow dormer Eyebrow dormer Barrel dormer

Fig. 11: Dormer types

Centre-pivot window Top-hung window mehrteiliges

Fig. 14: Roof construction details

—— End-to-end connections, like the bridle joint, are used to extend

Bridle joint Mortise and tenon joint Haunched tenon joint

Half-lap joint Bridle joint Tabled half-lap joint

with front notch with double notch with rear notch

Dovetail notch joint Cogged joint Cross-notch joint

Closed couple roof

Fig. 18: Isometric and load scheme of a closed couple roof

Bracing with wind braces

Bracing with GSPublisherVersion

Fig. 19: Bracing of a closed couple roof

Isometric Load scheme

Collar beam roof

Queen post truss

underlay membrane, which is useful for the purpose of back-ventilation.