RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

UNIT I
 Research
• Research refers to a search for knowledge. Research is
an art of scientific investigation.
• According to Redman and Mory, research is a
systematised effort to gain new knowledge.
• According to Clifford Woody, research comprises
defining and redefining problems, formulating
hypotheses or suggesting solutions; collecting,
organising and evaluating data; making deductions and
reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the
conclusions to determine whether they agree with the
formulated hypothesis or not.
• Research is an art of scientific investigation. It is
also a systematic design, collection, analysis and
reporting the findings & solutions for the
problem of an organisation. Research is required
because of the following reasons:
• 1. To identify and find solutions to the problems
• 2. To help making decisions
• 3. To develop new concepts
• 4. To find alternate strategies
 OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH
• 1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve
new insights into it. (exploratory or formulative
research studies)
• 2. To describe accurately the characteristics of a
particular individual, situation or a group. (descriptive
research)
• 3. To determine the frequency with which something
occurs or with which it is associated with something
else. (studies with this object known as diagnostic
research)
• 4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between
variables. (such studies are known as hypothesis
testing research)
 Importance of Research
• Research expands your knowledge base
• Research gives you the latest information
• Research helps to know about your
competitors
• Research builds your credibility
• Research introduces you to new ideas
• Research helps with problem-solving
• Research encourages curiosity
 Research process
• All research endeavours share a common goal
of furthering our understanding of the
problem and thus all traverse through certain
basic stages, forming a process called
the research process.
• The research process is a step-by-step process
of doing a research.
 Research process
• These 8 stages in the research process are;
• Identifying the problem.
• Reviewing literature.
• Setting research questions, objectives, and
hypotheses.
• Choosing the study design.
• Deciding on the sample design.
• Collecting data.
• Processing and analyzing data.
• Writing the report.
 Statement of the Problem
• A clear and well-defined statement of the
problem is considered as the foundation for the
development of the research proposal.
• It enables the researcher to systematically point
out why the proposed research on the problem
should be undertaken and what he hopes to
achieve with the findings of the study.
• A well-defined statement of the problem will lead
the researcher to formulate the research
objectives, to understand the background of the
study, and to choose a proper research
methodology.
 Reviewing literature.

• A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the

research process. It enables the researcher to
formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects
of the general area of his interest that has not been so
far researched.
• Such a review, not only provides him exposure to a
larger body of knowledge but also equips him with
enhanced knowledge to efficiently follow the research
process.
• Through a proper review of the literature, the
researcher may develop the coherence between the
results of his study and those of the others.
Setting research questions, objectives,
and hypotheses.
• After discovering and defining the research problem,
researchers should make a formal statement of the
problem leading to research objectives.
• An objective will precisely say what should be researched,
to delineate the type of information that should be
collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the
study. The best expression of a research objective is a well-
formulated, testable research hypothesis.
• A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that
can be refuted or supported by empirical data.
Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a
research question.
• The research design is the blueprint or
framework for fulfilling objectives and
answering research questions.
• It is a master plan specifying the methods and
procedures for collecting, processing, and
analyzing the collected data.
• Sample design refers to the methods to be
followed in selecting a sample from the
population and the estimating technique, vis-a-
vis formula for computing the sample statistics.
• These methods are basically of two types:
probability sampling and non-probability
sampling.
• The basis of such selection is entirely dependent
on the researcher’s discretion.
 Data collection
• The gathering of data can be done by primary
data or by secondary data collection. There are
many ways to collect data.
• The approach selected depends on the objectives
of the study, the research design, and the
availability of time, money, and personnel.
• With the variation in the type of data (qualitative
or quantitative) to be collected, the method of
data collection also varies.
 Data processing
• Data processing generally begins with the editing
and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate
omissions, if any.
• In survey data, editing reduces errors in the
recording, improves legibility, and clarifies
unclear and inappropriate responses. In addition
to editing, the data also need coding.
• This coding process facilitates processing the
data.
 Data analysis
• Data analysis usually involves reducing
accumulated data to a manageable size,
developing summaries, searching for patterns,
and applying statistical techniques for
understanding and interpreting the findings in
the light of the research questions.
• Further, the researcher, based on his analysis,
determines if his findings are consistent with
the formulated hypotheses and theories.
 Report Writing
• To this end, it is necessary to prepare a report
and transmit the findings and
recommendations to administrators,
policymakers, and program managers for the
intended purpose of making a decision.
• There are various forms of research reports:
term papers, dissertations, journal articles,
papers for presentation at professional
conferences and seminars, books, and so on.
 Hypothesis
Hypothesis is a tentative prediction or
explanation of the relationship between two
variables. It implies that there is a systematic
relationship between on independent and
dependent variable. It provide direction to
conduct research.
 Research Method Vs Research Methodology

BASIS OF COMPARISON RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Meaning Research Method implies Research methodology

the methods employed by signifies way to efficiently
the researcher to conduct solving research problems.
research.
What is it? Behavior and instrument Science of understanding,
used in the selection and how research is performed
construction of the methodically.
research technique.
Encompasses Carrying out experiment, Study different techniques
test, surveys and so on. which can be utilized in the
performance of
experiment, test, surveys
etc.
BASIS OF COMPARISON RESEARCH METHOD RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Comprise of Different investigation Entire strategy towards

techniques. achievement of objective.
Objective To discover solution to To apply correct procedures
research problem. so as to determine
solutions.
 Research Problem
• A research problem is defined as an area of
concern that requires a meaningful
understanding of a specific topic, a condition,
a contradiction, or a difficulty.
• A research problem means finding answers to
questions or strengthening existing findings to
bridge the knowledge gap to solve problems.
• A problem statement in research seeks to
achieve the following:
• Introduce the importance of the topic in the
research proposal.
• Position the problem in an appropriate
context.
• Provide a framework to analyze and report
results.
Characteristics of a research problem

• Covers the essential needs or issues

• The problem is stated logically and clearly
• The research is based on actual facts and
evidence (non-hypothetical)
• The research problem generates and encourages
research questions
• It fits the budget and time frame
• Sufficient data can be obtained
• The problem has an unsatisfactory answer or is a
new problem
Characteristics of a research problem
statement
• It must address the gap in knowledge.
• It must be significant to the extent that it
contributes positively to the research
• It must help in further research
• With the data collected, you must understand the
problem clearly
• It must be in the researcher’s interest should and
suit his/her time, knowledge, skills, and resources
• The problem-solving approach must be ethical
• Customary research methods can be applied
 Necessity of defining a Research Problem
Necessity of defining a research problem is important to formulate a research problem
properly . The problem to be investigated must be defined unambiguously for that will help
to discriminate relevant data from the irrelevant ones. A proper definition of research
problem will enable the researcher to be on the track whereas an ill-defined problem may
create hurdles. Questions like: What data are to be collected? What characteristics of data
are relevant and need to be studied? What relations are to be explored. What techniques
are to be used for the purpose? and similar other questions crop up in the mind of the
researcher who can well plan his strategy and find answers to all such questions only when
the research problem has been well defined. Thus, defining a research problem properly is
a prerequisite for any study and is a step of the highest importance. In fact, formulation of a
problem is often more essential than its solution. It is only on careful detailing the research
problem that we can work out the research design and can smoothly carry on all the
consequential steps involved while doing research.
TYPES OF RESEARCH
• On the basis of objective, the different
researches are
• Descriptive
• Exploratory
• Explanatory
• Correlation
 Descriptive research
• Descriptive research is a type of research that
describes a population, situation, or
phenomenon that is being studied. It focuses
on answering the how, what, when, and
where questions If a research problem, rather
than the why.
 Distinctive characteristics of
descriptive research are:
• Quantitative research: Descriptive research is a quantitative research
method that attempts to collect quantifiable information for statistical
analysis of the population sample. It is a popular market research tool that
allows us to collect and describe the demographic segment’s nature.
• Uncontrolled variables: In descriptive research, none of the variables are
influenced in any way. This uses observational methods to conduct the
research. Hence, the nature of the variables or their behaviour is not in
the hands of the researcher.
• Cross-sectional studies: Descriptive research is generally a cross-sectional
study where different sections belonging to the same group are studied.
• The basis for further research: Researchers further research the data
collected and analyzed from descriptive research using different research
techniques. The data can also help point towards the types of research
methods used for the subsequent research.
• Some examples of descriptive research are:
• Market researchers want to observe the
habits of consumers.
• A company wants to evaluate the morale of its
staff.
• A school district wants to understand if
students will access online lessons rather than
textbooks.
 Exploratory research
• Exploratory research is the process of
investigating a problem that has not been
studied or thoroughly investigated in the past .
Exploratory type of research is usually
conducted to have a better understanding of
the existing problem, but usually doesn't lead
to a conclusive result.
 Characteristics of Exploratory
Research
• Exploratory research is inexpensive, highly interactive and open-ended in
nature.
• There is usually no prior relevant information available from past
researchers.
• It has no predefined structure.
• It answers questions like how and why aiding the researcher to acquire
more information about the research.
• The absence of relevant information from past research means the
researcher will spend a lot of time studying materials in detail. Therefore,
spending so much time conducting exploratory research.
• Since there is no standard for carrying out exploratory research, it is
usually flexible and scattered.
• There must a few theories which can verify your outcome.
• Researchers cannot form a conclusion based on exploratory research.
• The research problem must be important and valuable
Examples

1. A study into the role of social networking sites as an effective marketing

communication channel
2. An investigation into the ways of improvement of quality of customer services
within hospitality sector in Agra
 Correlation research
• Correlation research is a type of non-
experimental research method in which a
researcher measures two variables,
understands and assesses the statistical
relationship between them with no influence
from any extraneous variable.
• Types of correlational research
• Mainly three types of correlational research have been identified:
• 1. Positive correlation: A positive relationship between two variables is when an
increase in one variable leads to a rise in the other variable. A decrease in one
variable will see a reduction in the other variable. For example, the amount of
money a person has might positively correlate with the number of cars the person
owns.
• 2. Negative correlation: A negative correlation is quite literally the opposite of a
positive relationship. If there is an increase in one variable, the second variable will
show a decrease, and vice versa.
• For example, being educated might negatively correlate with the crime rate when
an increase in one variable leads to a decrease in another and vice versa.
• 3. No correlation: In this third type, there is no correlation between the two
variables. A change in one variable may not necessarily see a difference in the
other variable. For example, consumption of tea and happiness is not correlated.
 Correlational research has three main
characteristics.
• Non-experimental: Correlational study is non-experimental. It means that
researchers need not manipulate variables with a scientific methodology
to either agree or disagree with a hypothesis. The researcher only
measures and observes the relationship between the variables, without
altering them or subjecting them to external conditioning.
• Backward-looking: Correlational research only looks back at historical data
and observes events in the past. Researchers use it to measure and spot
historical patterns between two variables. A correlational study may show
a positive relationship between two variables, but this can change in the
future.
• Dynamic: The patterns between two variables from correlational research
are never constant and are always changing. Two variables having a
negative correlation in the past can have a positive correlation relationship
in the future due to various factors.
 Explanatory research
• Explanatory research is an attempt to connect
different ideas and to understand the different
reasons, causes, and effects.
• It is conducted in order to help us find the
problem that was not studied before in-
depth. Explanatory research is not used to
give us some conclusive evidence but helps us
in understanding the problem more efficiently.
• Some important methods of explanatory
research design include the followings;
• Depth Interview
• Case Analysis Research
• Focus Group Research
• Literature Research
• Examples
• To assess the impacts of foreign direct
investment on the levels of economic growth
in Taiwan
• To analyse the effects of re-branding initiatives
on the levels of customer loyalty
• To identify the nature of impact of work
process re-engineering on the levels of
employee motivation
 QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
• Quantitative research is defined as a systematic
investigation of phenomena by gathering
quantifiable data and performing statistical,
mathematical, or computational techniques.
• Quantitative research collects information from
existing and potential customers using sampling
methods and sending out online surveys, online
polls, questionnaires, etc., the results of which
can be depicted in the form of numerical.
• Quantitative research templates are objective,
elaborate, and many times, even
investigational. The results achieved from this
research method are logical, statistical, and
unbiased.
• Quantitative research is widely used in the
natural and social sciences: biology, chemistry,
psychology, economics, sociology, marketing,
etc.
• Quantitative research methods are used for
descriptive, correlational or experimental
research.
• In descriptive research, you simply seek an overall
summary of your study variables.
• In correlational research, you investigate
relationships between your study variables.
• In experimental research, you systematically
examine whether there is a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
• Examples
• To assess the impact on hospitality sector due
to pandemic.
• To study customer satisfaction with respect to
on line shopping.
 Qualitative research
• Qualitative research involves collecting and
analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or
audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or
experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth
insights into a problem or generate new ideas for
research.
• Qualitative research is commonly used in the
humanities and social sciences, in subjects such
as anthropology, sociology, education, health
sciences, history, etc.
• Qualitative research methods
• Each of the research approaches involve using one or more data
collection methods. These are some of the most common
qualitative methods:
• Observations: recording what you have seen, heard, or
encountered in detailed field notes.
• Interviews: personally asking people questions in one-on-one
conversations.
• Focus groups: asking questions and generating discussion among a
group of people.
• Surveys: distributing questionnaires with open-ended questions.
• Secondary research: collecting existing data in the form of texts,
images, audio or video recordings, etc.
• Examples

• Studying your product/brand or service to

strengthen your marketing strategy.
• Understanding purchase behavior of customer.
• To study the reactions of your audience to
marketing campaigns and other communications.
• Gathering perception data of a brand, company,
or product.
 Pure Research
• Pure research is a type of research approach
that is aimed at gaining a better
understanding of a subject, phenomenon or
basic law of nature. This type of research is
primarily focused on the advancement of
knowledge rather than solving a specific
problem.
• Basic research is also referred to as pure
research or fundamental research.
Basic research can be exploratory, descriptive or
explanatory; although in many cases, it is
explanatory in nature. The primary aim of this
research approach is to gather information in
order to improve one's understanding, and this
information can then be useful in proffering
solutions to a problem.
Examples of basic research can be seen in medicine,
education, psychology, technology,
• Examples
• How does the human retentive memory
work?
• How do teaching methods affect student's
concentration in class?
• A research to determine the chemical
composition of organic molecules.
• A research to discover the components of the
human DNA.
 Applied Research
• Applied research is a type of research that
seeks to solve a specific problem or provide
innovative solutions to issues affecting an
individual, group or society. It is often referred
to as a scientific method of inquiry or
contractual research because it involves the
practical application of scientific methods to
everyday problems.
• It is typically a follow-up research design that
further investigates the findings of pure or
basic research in order to validate these
findings and apply them to create innovative
solutions.
• Types of Applied Research
• There are 3 types of applied research. These
are evaluation research, research and
development, and action research.
• Evaluation Research
• Research and Development
• Action Research
• Examples
• Applied research to improve an organization’s
hiring process.
• Applied research to improve workplace
efficiency and organizational policies.
• Applied research to improve agricultural crop
production
• Applied research to treat or cure a specific
disease.
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Unit III
 Data classification
• It is the process of arranging data into
homogeneous (similar) groups according to their
common characteristics.
• Raw data cannot be easily understood, and it is
not fit for further analysis and interpretation. This
arrangement of data helps users in comparison
and analysis.
• For example, the Population of town can be
grouped according to income, age, marital status
etc.
• Objectives of Data Classification
• The primary objectives of data classification are:
• To consolidate the volume of data in such a way that
similarities and differences can be quickly understood.
Figures can consequently be ordered in a few sections
holding common traits.
• To aid comparison.
• To point out the important characteristics of the data at a
flash.
• To give importance to the prominent data collected while
separating the optional elements.
• To allow a statistical method of the material gathered.
 Types of data classification
• Data classification can be performed based on content, context, or
user selections:
• Content-based classification—involves reviewing files and
documents, and classifying them
• Context-based classification—involves classifying files based on
meta data like the application that created the file (for example,
accounting software), the person who created the document (for
example, finance staff), or the location in which files were authored
or modified (for example, finance or legal department buildings).
• User-based classification—involves classifying files according to a
manual judgement of a knowledgeable user. Individuals who work
with documents can specify how sensitive they are—they can do so
when they create the document, after a significant edit or review,
or before the document is released.
 Methods of Classification
• Geographical Classification When data are
classified with reference to geographical
locations such as countries, states, cities,
districts, etc. it is known as Geographical
Classification.
• Chronological Classification When data are
grouped according to time, such as hours,
weeks, days, years etc. such a classification is
known as a Chronological Classification.
• Qualitative Classification Under this
classification, data are classified on the basis
of some attributes or qualities like honesty,
beauty, intelligence, literacy, marital status
etc.
• For example, Population can be divided on the
basis of marital status as married or
unmarried etc.
• Quantitative Classification This type of
classification is made on the basis some
measurable characteristics like height, weight,
age, income, marks of students, etc.
• Data is a collection of facts, figures, objects,
symbols, and events gathered from different
sources. Organizations collect data to make
better decisions. Without data, it would be
difficult for organizations to make appropriate
decisions, and so data is collected at various
points in time from different audiences.
• For instance, before launching a new product, an
organization needs to collect data on product
demand, customer preferences, competitors,
etc.
• Data collection methods are of two types.
• primary methods of data collection
• secondary methods of data collection.
• Primary Data Collection Methods
• Primary data is collected from the first-hand
experience and is not used in the past. The
data gathered by primary data collection
methods are specific to the research’s motive
and highly accurate.
• Primary data collection methods can be
divided into two categories: quantitative
methods and qualitative methods.
• Qualitative Research Method
• The qualitative research methods of data
collection does not involve the collection of
data that involves numbers or a need to be
deduced through a mathematical calculation,
rather it is based on the non-quantifiable
elements like the feeling or emotion of the
researcher. An example of such a method is an
open-ended questionnaire.
 Qualitative data collection
tools
• Online forums
• Online communities
• Web survey chat
• Groups
• In depth interviews
• Quantitative Method
• Quantitative methods are presented in
numbers and require a mathematical
calculation to deduce. An example would be
the use of a questionnaire with close-ended
questions to arrive at figures to be calculated
Mathematically. Also, methods of correlation
and regression, mean, mode and median.
 Quantitative data collection
tools
• Face to face
• Online
• Mail
• Phone
• Secondary Data Collection
• Secondary data collection, is referred to as the
gathering of second-hand data collected by an
individual who is not the original user. It is the process
of collecting data that is already existing, be it already
published books, journals and/or online portals.
• Secondary data is easily available and hence, less time-
consuming and less expensive as compared to the
primary data. However, with the secondary data
collection methods, the authenticity of the data
gathered cannot be verified.
 Data collection tools
• INTERVIEW
• An interview is a face-to-face conversation
between two individuals with the sole
purpose of collecting relevant information to
satisfy a research purpose. Interviews are of
different types namely; Structured, Semi-
structured and unstructured
• Structured Interviews - Simply put, it is a verbally
administered questionnaire. In terms of depth, it is surface
level and is usually completed within a short period. For
speed and efficiency, it is highly recommendable, but it
lacks depth.
• Semi-structured Interviews - In this method, there subsist
several key questions which cover the scope of the areas to
be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the
researcher to explore the subject matter.
• Unstructured Interviews - It is an in-depth interview that
allows the researcher to collect a wide range of information
with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the
freedom it gives a researcher to combine structure with
flexibility even though it is more time-consuming.
• Pros
• In-depth information
• Freedom of flexibility
• Accurate data.
• Cons
• Time-consuming
• Expensive to collect.
• QUESTIONNAIRES
• This is the process of collecting data through an
instrument consisting of a series of questions and
prompts to receive a response from individuals it
is administered to. Questionnaires are designed
to collect data from a group.
• On a questionnaire, there are three kinds of
questions used. They are; fixed-alternative, scale,
and open-ended
• Pros
• Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.
• It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
• Easy to visualize and analyze.
• Questionnaires offer actionable data.
• Respondent identity is protected.
• Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.
• Relatively inexpensive.
• Cons
• Answers may be dishonest or the respondents lose interest midway.
• Questionnaires can't produce qualitative data.
• Questions might be left unanswered.
• Respondents may have a hidden agenda.
• Not all questions can be analyzed easily.
• Schedule

• This schedule method of data collection is very much like the

collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference
which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of
questions) are being filled in by the enumerators who are specially
appointed for the purpose. These enumerators along with
schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the
proforma in the order the questions are listed and record the
replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma.
Enumerators explain the aims and objects of the investigation and
also remove the difficulties which any respondent may feel in
understanding the implications of a particular question or the
definition or concept of difficult terms.
• This method of data collection is very useful in
extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly
reliable results. It is, however, very expensive
and is usually adopted in investigations
conducted by governmental agencies or by
some big organisations. Population census all
over the world is conducted through this
method.
• REPORTING
• By definition, data reporting is the process of
gathering and submitting data to be further
subjected to analysis. The key aspect of data
reporting is reporting accurate data because
of inaccurate data reporting leads to
uninformed decision making.
• Pros
• Informed decision making.
• Easily accessible.
• Cons
• Self-reported answers may be exaggerated.
• The results may be affected by bias.
• Respondents may be too shy to give out all the
details.
• Inaccurate reports will lead to uninformed
decisions.
• OBSERVATION
• This is a data collection method by which
information on a phenomenon is gathered
through observation. The nature of the
observation could be accomplished either as a
complete observer, an observer as a
participant, a participant as an observer or as
a complete participant. This method is a key
base of formulating a hypothesis.
• Pros
• Easy to administer.
• There subsists a greater accuracy with results.
• It is a universally accepted practice.
• It diffuses the situation of an unwillingness of respondents to
administer a report.
• It is appropriate for certain situations.
• Cons
• Some phenomena aren’t open to observation.
• It cannot be relied upon.
• Bias may arise.
• It is expensive to administer.
• Its validity cannot be predicted accurately.
• Experiments
• Experiemental research is a research method where
the causal relationship between two variables are
being examined. One of the variables can be
manipulated, and the other is measured. These two
variables are classified as dependent and independent
variables.
• In experimental research, data are mostly collected
based on the cause and effect of the two variables
being studied. This type of research are common
among medical researchers, and it uses quantitative
research approach.
• FOCUS GROUPS
• The opposite of quantitative research which
involves numerical based data, this data
collection method focuses more on qualitative
research. It falls under the primary category for
data based on the feelings and opinions of the
respondents. This research involves asking open-
ended questions to a group of individuals usually
ranging from 6-10 people, to provide feedback.
• Pros
• Information obtained is usually very detailed.
• Cost-effective when compared to one-on-one interviews.
• It reflects speed and efficiency in the supply of results.
• Cons
• Lacking depth in covering the nitty-gritty of a subject
matter.
• Bias might still be evident.
• Requires interviewer training
• The researcher has very little control over the outcome.
• A few vocal voices can drown out the rest.
• Difficulty in assembling an all-inclusive group.
• Internal sources of secondary data:
• Organization’s health and safety records
• Mission and vision statements
• Financial Statements
• Magazines
• Sales Report
• CRM Software
• Executive summaries
• External sources of secondary data:
• Government reports
• Press releases
• Business journals
• Libraries
• Internet
 Sampling
• A population is the entire group that you want to
draw conclusions about.
• A sample is the specific group that you will collect
data from. The size of the sample is always less
than the total size of the population.
• Sampling is a process used in statistical analysis in
which a predetermined number of observations
are taken from a larger population. The
methodology used to sample from a larger
population depends on the type of analysis being
performed.
• There are lot of sampling techniques which are
grouped into two categories as
• Probability Sampling
• Non- Probability Sampling
• Probability Sampling
• This Sampling technique uses randomization to
make sure that every element of the population
gets an equal chance to be part of the selected
sample. It’s alternatively known as random
sampling.
• Simple Random Sampling
• Stratified sampling
• Systematic sampling
• Cluster Sampling
• Multi stage Sampling
• Simple Random Sampling: Every element has
an equal chance of getting selected to be the
part sample. It is used when we don’t have
any kind of prior information about the target
population.
• For example: Random selection of 20 students
from class of 50 student. Each student has
equal chance of getting selected. Here
probability of selection is 1/50
• Stratified Sampling
• This technique divides the elements of the population into
small subgroups (strata) based on the similarity in such a
way that the elements within the group are homogeneous
and heterogeneous among the other subgroups formed.
And then the elements are randomly selected from each of
these strata. We need to have prior information about the
population to create subgroups.
• Example—A student council surveys 100students by getting
random samples of 25freshes, 25 juniors, and 25 seniors.
•
• Cluster sampling also involves dividing the population into
subgroups, but each subgroup should have similar
characteristics to the whole sample. Instead of sampling
individuals from each subgroup, you randomly select entire
subgroups.
• If it is practically possible, you might include every
individual from each sampled cluster. If the clusters
themselves are large, you can also sample individuals from
within each cluster using one of the techniques above.
• This method is good for dealing with large and dispersed
populations, but there is more risk of error in the sample,
as there could be substantial differences between clusters.
It’s difficult to guarantee that the sampled clusters are
really representative of the whole population.
• Example
• The company has offices in 10 cities across the
country (all with roughly the same number of
employees in similar roles). You don’t have the
capacity to travel to every office to collect
your data, so you use random sampling to
select 3 offices – these are your clusters.
• Systematic sampling
• Systematic sampling is similar to simple random sampling,
but it is usually slightly easier to conduct. Every member of
the population is listed with a number, but instead of
randomly generating numbers, individuals are chosen at
regular intervals.
• Example
• All employees of the company are listed in alphabetical
order. From the first 10 numbers, you randomly select a
starting point: number 6. From number 6 onwards, every
10th person on the list is selected (6, 16, 26, 36, and so on),
and you end up with a sample of 100 people.
• Multi-Stage Sampling
• Population is divided into multiple clusters and then
these clusters are further divided and grouped into
various sub groups (strata) based on similarity. One or
more clusters can be randomly selected from each
stratum. This process continues until the cluster can’t
be divided anymore.
• For example country can be divided into states, cities,
urban and rural and all the areas with similar
characteristics can be merged together to form a
strata.
• Non-probability sampling methods
• In a non-probability sample, individuals are selected based
on non-random criteria, and not every individual has a
chance of being included.
• This type of sample is easier and cheaper to access, but it
has a higher risk of sampling bias, and you can’t use it to
make valid statistical inferences about the whole
population.
• Non-probability sampling techniques are often appropriate
for exploratory and qualitative research. In these types of
research, the aim is not to test a hypothesis about a broad
population, but to develop an initial understanding of a
small or under-researched population.
• Convenience Sampling
• Purposive Sampling
• Quota Sampling
• Referral /Snowball Sampling
• . Convenience sampling
• A convenience sample simply includes the individuals
who happen to be most accessible to the researcher.
• This is an easy and inexpensive way to gather initial
data, but there is no way to tell if the sample is
representative of the population, so it can’t produce
generalizable results.
• Example
• You are researching opinions about student support
services in your university, so after each of your
classes, you ask your fellow students to complete
a survey on the topic.
• Purposive sampling
• This type of sampling involves the researcher using their judgement
to select a sample that is most useful to the purposes of the
research.
• It is often used in qualitative research, where the researcher wants
to gain detailed knowledge about a specific phenomenon rather
than make statistical inferences. An effective purposive sample
must have clear criteria and rationale for inclusion.
• Example
• You want to know more about the opinions and experiences of
disabled students at your university, so you purposefully select a
number of students with different support needs in order to gather
a varied range of data on their experiences with student services.
• Snowball sampling
• This technique is used in the situations where the
population is completely unknown and rare.
• If the population is hard to access, snowball sampling
can be used to recruit participants via other
participants. The number of people you have access to
“snowballs” as you get in contact with more people.
• For example: It’s used in situations of highly sensitive
topics like HIV Aids where people will not openly
discuss and participate in surveys to share information
about HIV Aids.
• Quota Sampling
• In Quota sampling, the selection of members in
this sampling technique happens based on a pre-
set standard. In this case, as a sample is formed
based on specific attributes, the created sample
will have the same qualities found in the total
population. It is a rapid method of collecting
samples.
• Example: We have to choose sample from
population having age in between 13 to 19 years.
 Ethical consideration in research
• Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with the
conduct of people and guides the norms or standards
of behaviour of people and relationships with each
other. It refers to an “ethos” or “way of life”, “social
norms for conduct that distinguishes between
acceptable and unacceptable behavior”.
• Norms enhance the purpose of research which
includes the dissemination of knowledge, reporting or
saying the truth. It is vital that a researcher must
observe appropriate values at all these stages while
conducting research. If this is not observed, it could
result into research misconduct.
• Minimising the risk of harm
There are a number of types of harm that
participants can be subjected to. These include:
• Physical harm to participants.
• Psychological distress and discomfort.
• Social disadvantage.
• Harm to participants? financial status.
• An invasion of participants? privacy and
anonymity.
In order to minimising the risk of harm you should think
about:
• Obtaining informed consent from participants.
• Protecting the anonymity and confidentiality of
participants.
• Avoiding deceptive practices when designing your research.
• Providing participants with the right to withdraw from your
research at any time.
• The use of offensive, discriminatory, or other unacceptable
language needs to be avoided in the formulation of
Questionnaire/Interview/Focus group questions.
• Obtaining informed consent
• Informed consent means that participants should
understand that
• (a) they are taking part in research and
• (b) what the research requires of them.
• Such information may include the purpose of the
research, the methods being used, the possible
outcomes of the research, as well as associated
demands, discomforts, inconveniences and risks
that the participants may face.
• Protecting anonymity and confidentiality
• During research a researcher must promise to
protect the information given in confidence by
the respondent. But, if any information has to be
revealed, then consent must be sought from the
respondent. This enhances honesty towards the
research subject by protecting them from
physical and psychological harm thereby ensuring
that the researcher does not ask embarrassing
questions which can disguise or even shock the
respondent.
• Avoiding deceptive practices
• When conducting research, participants
should be told the truth. But, if they are told
only part of it or if the truth is completely
denied or compromised this could lead to
deception. Such a situation occurs if the
researcher is biased when conducting a survey
or conducts a research just to protect the
sponsor of the research project
• Providing the right to withdraw
• Research participants should always have
the right to withdraw from the research
process. They should have the right to
withdraw at any stage in the research process.
When a participant chooses to withdraw from
the research process, they should not
be pressured or coerced in any way to try and
stop them from withdrawing
• Beneficence
• The concept of beneficence means, “doing
good” (Churchill, 1995). It is the role of a
researcher who has direct contact with a
participant to explain the purpose of the study
and the benefits that will accrue from it.
However, the researcher should not
exaggerate or even understate the benefits.
• Vulnerable groups/ special populations
• While conducting research, it is possible to
involve populations which are disadvantaged
or vulnerable such as children, poor or sick
people. If this is done, then the researcher
must obtain due consent from their parents or
guardians so as to involve them in the
investigations
• Ethical issues related to the research process
Research requires cooperation and coordination
among different people and diverse disciplines,
institutions, standards which are ethical so as to
foster collaborative efforts. This includes; trust,
accountability, mutual respect and fairness.
Researchers should adhere to guidelines which
are associated with authorship, copyright and
patenting policies, data sharing policies and
confidentiality rules in peer review.
• Plagiarism
• The issue of plagiarism is an important topic in
academic institutions of higher learning. This is
the practice where an author or researcher has to
ensure that any work which is written should be
original and be devoid of some texts, results or
even expressions which are borrowed,
manipulated or used such as ideas, processes,
results or even words of the author or publication
without acknowledging where the information
has been obtained from.
• Fabrication and Falsification or fraud
• Fabrication involves creating, inventing or faking
data or results which are then recorded or
reported while, falsification or fraud is the
manipulation of materials, equipment, processes,
by changing results or omitting some data or
findings so that the research does not seem to
have been well represented or recorded. Any
researcher who is involved in such a practice
violates the primary objective of research ethics
which renders him or her untrustworthy.
UNIT IV
• Data analysis is defined as a process of
cleaning, transforming, and modeling data to
discover useful information for business
decision-making. The purpose of Data Analysis
is to extract useful information from data and
taking the decision based upon the data
analysis.
Types of Data Analysis are:
• Text Analysis
• Statistical Analysis
• Inferential Analysis
• Descriptive Analysis
• Diagnostic Analysis
• Predictive Analysis
• Prescriptive Analysis
• Text Analysis. Also called “data mining,” text analysis
uses databases and data mining tools to discover
patterns residing in large datasets. It transforms raw
data into useful business information. Text analysis is
arguably the most straightforward and the most direct
method of data analysis.
• Statistical Analysis
• Statistical Analysis shows "What happen?" by using
past data in the form of dashboards. Statistical Analysis
includes collection, Analysis, interpretation,
presentation, and modeling of data. It analyses a set of
data or a sample of data.
• Descriptive Analysis
• Descriptive data analysis provides the “What happened?” when
analyzing quantitative data. It is the most basic and most common
form of data analysis concerned with describing, summarizing, and
identifying patterns through calculations of existing data, like mean,
median, mode, percentage, frequency, and range.
• Inferential Analysis
• Inferential analysis generalizes or hypothesizes about “What
happened?” by comparing statistics from groups within an entire
population.
• Inferential analysis is used widely in market research, to compare
two variables in an attempt to reach a conclusion: money spent by
female customers vs. male or among different age groups,
• Diagnostic Analysis
• Diagnostic analysis aims to answer “Why did ____
happen?” Also called root cause analysis it uses
insights from statistical analysis to attempt to
understand the cause of or reason behind these
statistics. It identifies patterns or deviations within the
data to answer for why.
• Diagnostic analysis can be helpful to understand
customer behavior, to find out which marketing
campaigns actually increase sales, for example. Or let’s
say you notice a sudden decrease in customer
complaints: Why did this happen?
• Predictive Analysis
• Predictive analysis uses known data to postulate about
future events. It is concerned with “What is likely to
happen.” Used in sales analysis, it often combines
demographic data and purchase data with other data
points to predict the actions of customers.
• For example, as the demographics of a certain area
change, this will affect the ability of certain businesses
to exist there. Or as the salary of a certain customer
increases, theoretically, they will be able to buy more
of your products.
• Prescriptive Analysis
• Prescriptive analysis is the most advanced form of
analysis, as it combines all of your data and
analytics, then outputs a model
prescription: What action to take. Prescriptive
analysis works to analyze multiple scenarios,
predict the outcome of each, and decide which is
the best course of action based on the findings.
• Artificial intelligence is an example of prescriptive
analysis that’s at the cutting edge of data
analysis.
 Data Analysis Process
• Data Analysis consists of the following phases:
• Data Requirement Gathering
• Data Collection
• Data Cleaning
• Data Analysis
• Data Interpretation
• Data Visualization
 Hypothesis testing
• Hypothesis testing is an act in statistics
whereby an analyst tests an assumption
regarding a population parameter. The
methodology employed by the analyst
depends on the nature of the data used and
the reason for the analysis.
 Two-tailed test
• In statistics, a two-tailed test is a method in which the
critical area of a distribution is two-sided and tests
whether a sample is greater or less than a range of
values.
• It is used in null-hypothesis testing and testing for
statistical significance.
• If the sample being tested falls into either of the critical
areas, the alternative hypothesis is accepted instead of
the null hypothesis.
• By convention two-tailed tests are used to determine
significance at the 5% level, meaning each side of the
distribution is cut at 2.5%.
• A basic concept of inferential statistics is the hypothesis
testing, which is run to determine whether a claim is true
or not, given a population parameter. A testing that is
programmed to show whether the mean of a sample is
significantly greater than and significantly less than the
mean of a population is referred to as a two-tailed test.
• A two-tailed test is designed to examine both sides of a
specified data range as designated by the probability
distribution involved. This requires the setting of a limit
designating the highest (or upper) and lowest (or lower)
accepted variable values included within the range. Any
data point that exists above the upper limit or below the
lower limit is considered out of the acceptance range and in
an area referred to as the rejection range.
 One-tailed test
• A one-tailed test is a statistical hypothesis test set
up to show that the sample mean would be
higher or lower than the population mean, but
not both.
• A one-tailed test is a statistical test in which the
critical area of a distribution is one-sided so that
it is either greater than or less than a certain
value, but not both. If the sample being tested
falls into the one-sided critical area, the
alternative hypothesis will be accepted instead of
the null hypothesis.
 p value
• A p-value is a measure of the probability that an observed
difference could have occurred just by random chance.
A p value is used in hypothesis testing to help you support
or reject the null hypothesis. The p value is the
evidence against a null hypothesis. The smaller the p-value,
the stronger the evidence that you should reject the null
hypothesis.
• For example, a p value of 0.0254 is 2.54%. This means there
is a 2.54% chance your results could be random (i.e.
happened by chance). That’s pretty tiny. On the other hand,
a large p-value of .9(90%) means your results have a 90%
probability of being completely random and not due to
anything in your experiment. Therefore, the smaller the p-
value, the more important (“significant“) your results.
• When you run a hypothesis test, you compare the p
value from your test to the alpha level you selected
when you ran the test.
• For example, if you chose an alpha level of 5% (0.05). If
the results from the test give you:
• A small p (≤ 0.05), reject the null hypothesis. This is
strong evidence that the null hypothesis is invalid.
• A large p (> 0.05) means the alternate hypothesis is
weak, so you do not reject the null.
• P-values are usually found using p-value tables or
spreadsheets/statistical software.
 Data processing software
• SPSS
• R
• Cloudera
• Hadoop
• SAP
• SAS

• At present, many statistical software like SPSS, R, Stata, and

SAS are available and using these softwares, one can easily
perform the statistical analysis but selection of appropriate
statistical test is still a difficult task for researchers.
 SPSS
• SPSS stands for “Statistical Package for the Social Sciences”.
It is an IBM tool. This tool first launched in 1968. This is one
software package. This package is mainly used for statistical
analysis of the data.
• SPSS is mainly used in the following areas like healthcare,
marketing, and educational research, market researchers,
health researchers, survey companies, education
researchers, government, marketing organizations, data
miners, and many others.
• It provides data analysis for descriptive statistics, numeral
outcome predictions, and identifying groups. This software
also gives data transformation, graphing and direct
marketing features to manage data smoothly.
• SPSS introduces the following four programs that help researchers with
their complex data analysis needs.
• Statistics Program
• SPSS’s statistics program gives a large no of basic statistical functionality,
some of them include frequencies, cross tabulation, and bivariate
statistics, etc.
• Modeler Program
• Researchers are able to build and validate predictive models with the help
of advanced statistical procedures.
• Text Analytics for Surveys Program
• It gives robust feedback analysis. which in turn get a vision for the actual
plan.
• Visualization Designer
• Researchers found this visual designer data to create a wide variety of
visuals like density charts and radial box plots.
 Features of SPSS
• The data from any survey collected via Survey Gizmo gets easily exported to SPSS
for detailed and good analysis.
• In SPSS, data gets stored in.SAV format. These data mostly comes from surveys.
This makes the process of manipulating, analyzing and pulling data very simple.
• SPSS have easy access to data with different variable types. These variable data is
easy to understand. SPSS helps researchers to set up model easily because most of
the process is automated.
• After getting data in, the magic of SPSS starts. There is no end on what we can do
on this data.
• SPSS has a unique way to get data from critical data also. Trend analysis,
assumptions, and predictive models are some of the characteristics of SPSS.
• SPSS is easy for you to learn, use and apply.
• It helps in to get data management system and editing tools handy.
• SPSS offers you in-depth statistical capabilities for analyzing the exact outcome.
• SPSS helps us to design, plotting, reporting and presentation features for more
clarity.
 Statistical Inference
• Statistical inference is the process of analysing the result and
making conclusions from data subject to random variation. It is also
called inferential statistics. Hypothesis testing and confidence
intervals are the applications of the statistical inference. Statistical
inference is a method of making decisions about the parameters of
a population, based on random sampling. It helps to assess the
relationship between the dependent and independent variables.
The purpose of statistical inference to estimate the uncertainty or
sample to sample variation. It allows us to provide a probable range
of values for the true values of something in the population. The
components used for making statistical inference are:
• Sample Size
• Variability in the sample
• Size of the observed differences
• Statistical Inference Procedure
• The procedure involved in inferential statistics are:
• Begin with a theory
• Create a research hypothesis
• Operationalize the variables
• Recognize the population to which the study results should apply
• Formulate a null hypothesis for this population
• Accumulate a sample from the population and continue the study
• Conduct statistical tests to see if the collected sample properties
are adequately different from what would be expected under
the null hypothesis to be able to reject the null hypothesis
 Interpretation of results
• Interpretation of data refers to the task of
drawing inferences from the collected facts after
an analytical and/or experimental study. In fact, it
is a search for broader meaning of research
findings. The task of interpretation has two major
aspects viz.,
• the effort to establish continuity in research
through linking the results of a given study with
those of another, and
• the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
• In one sense, interpretation is concerned with
relationships within the collected data, partially
overlapping analysis. Interpretation also extends
beyond the data of the study to include the
results of other research, theory and hypotheses.
• Thus, interpretation is the device through which
the factors that seem to explain what has been
observed by researcher in the course of the study
can be better understood and it also provides a
theoretical conception which can serve as a guide
for further researches.
UNIT IV
 Dissertation/ Thesis
• A long essay or dissertation involving personal
research, written by a candidate for a university
degree.”
• A written thesis, often based on original research,
usually required for a higher degree.”

• To an extent, the terms ‘thesis’ and ‘dissertation’

seem to be interchangeable and both refer to an
extensive paper that is assigned to a student
studying for a degree at a university or other
institution.
• Dissertation/ Thesis (Research report) has
three main divisions:
• the preliminary materials,
• The body of the report,
• and reference materials.
 Structure of dissertation or thesis
• Title page
• Acknowledgements
• Table of contents
• List of figures and tables
• List of abbreviations
• Glossary
• Abstract

• Introduction
• Literature review / Theoretical framework
• Methodology
• Discussion
• Conclusion

• Reference list
• Appendices
• Title page
• The very first page of your document contains your
dissertation’s title, your name, department, institution,
degree program, and submission date. Sometimes it also
includes your student number, your supervisor’s name, and
the university’s logo. Many programs have strict
requirements for formatting the dissertation title page.
• Acknowledgements
• The acknowledgements section gives space for you to
thank everyone who helped you in writing your
dissertation. This might include your supervisors,
participants in your research, and friends or family who
supported you.
• Table of contents
• In the table of contents, list all of your chapters and subheadings
and their page numbers. The dissertation contents page gives the
reader an overview of your structure and helps easily navigate the
document.
• All parts of your dissertation should be included in the table of
contents, including the appendices. You can generate a table of
contents automatically in Word if you used heading styles.
• List of figures and tables
• If you have used a lot of tables and figures in your dissertation, you
should itemize them in a numbered list. You can automatically
generate this list using the Insert Caption feature in Word.
• List of abbreviations
• If you have used a lot of abbreviations in your
dissertation, you can include them in
an alphabetized list of abbreviations so that the
reader can easily look up their meanings.
• Glossary
• If you have used a lot of highly specialized terms
that will not be familiar to your reader, it might
be a good idea to include a glossary. List the
terms alphabetically and explain each term with a
brief description or definition.
• Abstract
• The abstract is a short summary of your
dissertation, usually about 150–300 words long.
You should write it at the very end, when you’ve
completed the rest of the dissertation. In the
abstract, make sure to:
• State the main topic and aims of your research
• Describe the methods you used
• Summarize the main results
• State your conclusions
• Introduction
• In the introduction, you set up your dissertation’s topic,
purpose, and relevance, and tell the reader what to expect
in the rest of the dissertation. The introduction should:
• Establish your research topic, giving necessary background
information to contextualize your work
• Narrow down the focus and define the scope of the
research
• Discuss the state of existing research on the topic, showing
your work’s relevance to a broader problem or debate
• Give an overview of your dissertation’s structure
• Literature review / Theoretical framework
• Before you start on your research, you should have
conducted a literature review to gain a thorough
understanding of the academic work that already exists
on your topic. This means:
• Collecting sources (e.g. books and journal articles) and
selecting the most relevant ones
• Critically evaluating and analyzing each source
• Drawing connections between them (e.g. themes,
patterns, conflicts, gaps) to make an overall point
• Develop a coherent structure and argument that leads
to a clear basis or justification for your own research.
• Methodology
• The methodology chapter or section describes how you conducted
your research, to assess its validity. You should generally include:
• The overall approach and type of research (e.g. qualitative,
quantitative, experimental, ethnographic)
• Sampling Techniques used
• Your methods of collecting data (e.g. interviews, surveys, archives)
• Details of where, when, and with whom the research took place
• Your methods of analyzing data (e.g. statistical analysis, discourse
analysis)
• Tools and materials you used (e.g. computer programs, lab
equipment)
• Discussion
• The discussion is where you explore the meaning and implications
of your results in relation to your research questions. Here you
should interpret the results in detail, discussing whether they met
your expectations and how well they fit with the framework that
you built in earlier chapters.
• Give your interpretations: what do the results mean?
• Explore the implications: why do the results matter?
• Acknowledge the limitations: what can’t the results tell us?
• If any of the results were unexpected, offer explanations for why
this might be. It’s a good idea to consider alternative interpretations
of your data. The discussion should refer back to relevant sources to
show how your results fit with existing knowledge.
• Conclusion
• The dissertation conclusion should concisely answer the main research
question, leaving the reader with a clear understanding of your central
argument and emphasizing what your research has contributed.
• Reference list
• You must include full details of all sources that you have cited in
a reference list (sometimes also called a works cited list or bibliography).
It’s important to follow a consistent citation style. Each style has strict and
specific requirements for how to format your sources in the reference list.
• Appendices
• Your dissertation itself should contain only essential information that
directly contributes to answering your research question. Documents you
have used that do not fit into the main body of your dissertation (such as
interview transcripts, survey questions or tables with full figures) can be
added as appendices.
 Research Paper
• A research paper reports the results of original
research, assesses its contribution to the body
of knowledge in a given area, and is published
in a peer-reviewed scholarly journal.
• Research paper follow a particular format.
• Research articles generally consist of the
following components: a title and abstract, an
introduction, a methodology, results,
discussion, and references.
 Research paper
• While writing and re-writing drafts of the article,
remember to be concise and do not go beyond
the length of the recommended number of words
for articles in the target journal that you have
selected. Do not include any words which are not
absolutely necessary to convey the data, their
meaning, and the appropriate interpretations.
• However, do not use any suggested format
blindly, modify it to suit the chosen journal.
• Introduction
• Presentation of the Problem
• Review of the Literature: not always required or
requested, and usually only one or two
paragraphs. (This may be preceded by a brief
introductory statement.)

• Statement of the Problem: a concise,

understandable, perhaps even non-technical
explanation depending upon the target journal,
often general in nature.
• Methodology used in the Study
• Hypotheses or research questions: only if the target
journal requires them, and then in an appropriate
format even if the analysis is non-statistical.
• Description of Population/Samples: often only two or
three sentences.
• Types of Data and Methods of Collection: usually
brief, but some technical journals require rather
detailed descriptions or explanations.
• Method of Analysis: be brief, cite references of any
statistical methods used.
• Results
• Tables:
• Tables are used to present large amounts of data in an
understandable form. Do not include a table if it is not useful.
• A well-constructed table should convey to the reader the essential
meaning of a set of data which otherwise would take several pages
to present in prose form.
• It should present the data more clearly than if written into the text
of your article.
• A common error is presenting related data in several different
tables, when the data could be combined into one or two well-
organized tables.
• Brief Written Presentation: state the significance level of any
statistical test used and present a summary of the major findings.
• Discussion of Results

• The study's objectives, hypotheses or research questions should be

• addressed stating whether they were confirmed, rejected, or in the case
of research questions, answered.
• Usefulness of Results - explain how the reader can use the results, why
• they are meaningful.
• Implications for Further Study - do not become so involved in stating the
• implications of your study that you cause the reader to lose interest or
• become bored with reading your personal/professional philosophy.
• Implications are justified only when they are clearly probable and based
• upon the obtained data.
• References
• Include an entry for each citation in the article. A
bibliography is not included for a journal
• article except when it serves a special purpose or
when one is requested by the journal staff.
• An appendix is not generally required but may be
included if it is necessary to present material that
would otherwise break the continuity of the
article.
 Short Communications
• Short Communications are short papers that
present original and significant material for rapid
dissemination. For example, a Short
Communication may focus on a particular aspect
of a problem or a new finding that is expected to
have a significant impact.
• Short Communications are limited to 3000 words
and are not subdivided. The paper should contain
an abstract, main body and references, and
contain no more than 6 figures or tables,
combined. The abstract is limited to 100 words.
• The Short Communication manuscript in general:
• Total length should not exceed 10 double lined
standard pages including illustrative material (in total no
more than 3 figures and tables)
• Each Short Communication must have an Abstract limited
to 100 words
• Manuscript should be formatted without section headings
in the body of the text
• All the required parts (Introduction, Materials & Methods,
Results and Discussion) except for the Literature must be
given in single section
• No part of the manuscript should be underlined and
written using capital letters
 conference presentation
• In a conference presentation you need to
choose an aspect of your research that can
comfortably be conveyed to an audience in an
interesting way within the timescale you are
given. This is usually only about 20 minutes.
• Most presentations are organised according to
a predictable pattern. They have three main
stages: introduction, body and conclusion.
• Four key factors that will help you give an effective
conference presentation:
• The structure and content of speech: introduction,
body, and conclusion
• How it is presented: the way you express and deliver
content to your audience
• Using visual aids: using visual aids helps you convey
content to your audience in a way that makes it easier
to understand
• Responding to audience questions: questions means
the audience is interested and are engaging with your
presentation
• The introduction prepares listeners for body (i.e.
tell them what you’re going to say). This is the
most crucial part of any presentation. You need
to capture the audience’s interest in your topic
and establish rapport with them.
• capture the audience’s attention with a question,
quotation, anecdote, or interesting statistic, etc.
• tell them what your presentation will be about:
– main theme or main argument
– main points you will cover and the order in which you
will cover them.
• The body is where you develop your main
ideas/argument, using supporting ideas/evidence. Use
techniques that make it easy for the listener to follow
your talk.

– state the main idea

– provide support for this idea
• refer to experts, provide examples to illustrate the idea
• provide statistics, facts, tell anecdotes (if time permits)
• provide case studies, etc.
• repeat important ideas using different words so the
audience has several opportunities to absorb them
• The conclusion sums up main points. The
conclusion should reinforce the central ideas of
the presentation and signal a forceful ending.
• Summarise the main ideas of your presentation.
• Don’t introduce any new ideas.
• Work towards a strong ending – don’t finish
abruptly or say ‘That’s all’. Perhaps leave the
audience with something to think about.
 Review Article
• Abstract: An abstract should be of approximately 200-
300 words. Provide a brief summary of the review
question being addressed or rationale for the review,
the major studies reviewed, and conclusions drawn.
• Introduction: Introduce the topic and your rationale for
addressing this topic focusing on why this topic is
important. Clearly define exactly what this article will
discuss, outline the order in which you will discuss each
subtopic to give the reader any background
information needed to understand the coming
sections.
• Body (subtopics being addressed): Although the
structure may vary based in the sub-topics or
review questions being addresses. For example, if
you are reviewing three different methodologies,
you might divide the body of the article into
three sections, each discussing one of the
methods. In these sections, be sure to describe
the research methods and evaluate how studies
were conducted focusing on the study design and
analysis e.g., intention to treat versus
completers/retention rate, compare studies, and
discuss their implications.
• Conclusions: You should develop the conclusion
by briefly restating the rationale for your review
and the purpose of the article, then discussing
the conclusions you have drawn. You should also
discuss the implications of your review findings
and where you think research in this field should
go from here.
• Literature Cited: Use a standardized referencing
system. A widely used one in the medical
literature is the AMA style.
 References/citation
• A citation is a way of giving credit to individuals for
their creative and intellectual works that you utilized to
support your research. It can also be used to locate
particular sources and combat plagiarism. Typically, a
citation can include the author's name, date, location
of the publishing company, journal title, or DOI (Digital
Object Identifer).
• A citation style dictates the information necessary for a
citation and how the information is ordered, as well as
punctuation and other formatting.
• There are many different ways of citing resources
from your research. The referencing style
sometimes depends on the academic discipline
involved. For example:
• APA (American Psychological Association) is used
by Education, Psychology, and Sciences
• MLA (Modern Language Association) style is used
by the Humanities
• Chicago/Turabian style is generally used by
Business, History, and the Fine Arts
 Research journal
• A research journal is a periodical that contains
articles written by experts in a particular field
of study who report the results of research in
that field. The articles are intended to be read
by other experts or students of the field, and
they are typically much more sophisticated
and advanced than the articles found in
general magazines. This guide offers some tips
to help distinguish scholarly journals from
other periodicals.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH
JOURNALS
• PURPOSE: Research journals communicate the results
of research in the field of study covered by the journal.
Research articles reflect a systematic and thorough
study of a single topic, often involving experiments or
surveys. Research journals may also publish review
articles and book reviews that summarize the current
state of knowledge on a topic.
• APPEARANCE: Research journals lack the slick
advertising, classified ads, coupons, etc., found in
popular magazines. Articles are often printed one
column to a page, as in books, and there are often
graphs, tables, or charts referring to specific points in
the articles.
• AUTHORITY: Research articles are written by the person(s) who did
the research being reported. When more than two authors are
listed for a single article, the first author listed is often the primary
researcher who coordinated or supervised the work done by the
other authors. The most highly-regarded scholarly journals are
typically those sponsored by professional associations, such as the
American Psychological Association or the American Chemical
Society.
• VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY: Articles submitted to research journals
are evaluated by an editorial board and other experts before they
are accepted for publication. This evaluation, called peer review, is
designed to ensure that the articles published are based on solid
research that meets the normal standards of the field of study
covered by the journal. Professors sometimes use the term
"refereed" to describe peer-reviewed journals.
• WRITING STYLE: Articles in research journals
usually contain an advanced vocabulary, since the
authors use the technical language or jargon of
their field of study. The authors assume that the
reader already possesses a basic understanding
of the field of study.
• REFERENCES: The authors of research
articles always indicate the sources of their
information. These references are usually listed at
the end of an article, but they may appear in the
form of footnotes, endnotes, or a bibliography.
• Types
• Peer reviewed academic journals publish accounts of recent research in
different subject areas. The primary emphasis in these journals is on the
methods the researcher uses to reach the conclusions they make in the
article.
• The second type of research journal is an ordinary journal that a
researcher takes with him or her into the field
• Function
• The function of a research journal is to present new research, which is
especially important in medicine and other scientific areas. In the social
sciences, the research journal often serves as a means of examining
different methods and approaches to research. The working research
journal serves as the basis for a researcher's findings in the field and his or
her own thoughts and analysis of the process. It is a record of new
research and knowledge in a particular academic discipline.
 Indexing
• The prestige of any journal is considered by
how many abstracting and indexing services
cover that journal.
• Citation index (indexing) is an ordered list of
cited articles, each accompanied by a list of
citing articles. The citing article is identified as
source and the cited article as reference. An
abstracting and indexing service is a product, a
publisher sells, or makes available.
• What is Citation Analysis?
• The process whereby the impact or "quality" of an article is
assessed by counting the number of times other authors
mention it in their work.
• Citation analysis invovles counting the number of times an
article is cited by other works to measure the impact of a
publicaton or author.
• For a thorough analysis of the impact of an author or a
publication, one needs to look in multiple databases to find
all possible cited references.
• A number of resources are available at UIC that identify
cited works including: Web of Science, Scopus, Google
Scholar, and other databases with limited citation data.
• Citation Analysis
• Web of Science
• Web of Science provides citation counts for articles indexed within
it. It indexes over 10,000 journals in the arts, humanities, sciences,
and social sciences.
• Scopus provide citation counts for articles indexed within it (limited
to article written in 1996 and after). It indexes over 15,000
journals from over 4,000 international publishers across the
disciplines.
• Google Scholar provides citation counts for articles found within
Google Scholar. Depending on the discipline and cited article, it
may find more cited references than Web of Science or Scopus
because overall, Google Scholar is indexing more journals and more
publication types than other databases.
• Citation indexing makes links between books and
articles that were written in the past and articles
that make reference to ("cite") these older
publications. In other words, it is a technique
that allows us to trace the use of an idea (an
earlier document) forward to others who have
used ("cited") it. The evidence that we take as
indicating this "relationship" between earlier
research and subsequent research are the
references or footnotes or endnotes (citations) in
the more recent work.
 Plagiarism
• According to the Merriam-Webster online
dictionary, to "plagiarize" means:
• to steal and pass off (the ideas or words of
another) as one's own
• to use (another's production) without
crediting the source
• to commit literary theft
• to present as new and original an idea or
product derived from an existing source
• All of the following are considered plagiarism:
• turning in someone else's work as your own
• copying words or ideas from someone else without giving
credit
• failing to put a quotation in quotation marks
• giving incorrect information about the source of a
quotation
• changing words but copying the sentence structure of a
source without giving credit
• copying so many words or ideas from a source that it makes
up the majority of your work, whether you give credit or
not (see our section on "fair use" rules)
• Direct Plagiarism
• Direct plagiarism is the word-for-word transcription of a section of
someone else’s work, without attribution and without quotation
marks. The deliberate plagiarism of someone else's work is
unethical, academically dishonest, and grounds for disciplinary
actions, including expulsion. [See examples.]
• Self Plagiarism
• Self-plagiarism occurs when a student submits his or her own
previous work, or mixes parts of previous works, without
permission from all professors involved. For example, it would be
unacceptable to incorporate part of a term paper you wrote in high
school into a paper assigned in a college course. Self-plagiarism also
applies to submitting the same piece of work for assignments in
different classes without previous permission from both professors.
• Mosaic Plagiarism
• Mosaic Plagiarism occurs when a student
borrows phrases from a source without using
quotation marks, or finds synonyms for the
author’s language while keeping to the same
general structure and meaning of the original.
Sometimes called “patch writing,” this kind of
paraphrasing, whether intentional or not, is
academically dishonest and punishable – even if
you footnote your source! [See examples.]
• Accidental Plagiarism
• Accidental plagiarism occurs when a person neglects to cite
their sources, or misquotes their sources, or unintentionally
paraphrases a source by using similar words, groups of
words, and/or sentence structure without attribution. (See
example for mosaic plagiarism.) Students must learn how
to cite their sources and to take careful and accurate notes
when doing research. (See the Note-Taking section on the
Avoiding Plagiarism page.) Lack of intent does not absolve
the student of responsibility for plagiarism. Cases of
accidental plagiarism are taken as seriously as any other
plagiarism and are subject to the same range of
consequences as other types of plagiarism.
 Intellectual Property
• Intellectual property rights are the rights given to
persons over the creations of their minds. They
usually give the creator an exclusive right over
the use of his/her creation for a certain period of
time.
• When a business or an individual has an idea that
they want to protect from being used by others
without their permission, it is best to seek legal
protection of that intellectual property.
• Such as an invention, symbol, or even a name.
 Trade secrets
• Trade secrets refer to specific, private information that
is important to a business because it gives the business
a competitive advantage in its marketplace. If a trade
secret is acquired by another company, it could harm
the original holder. When a person or business holds a
trade secret protection, others cannot copy or steal the
idea.
• Examples of trade secrets include recipes for certain
foods and beverages, new inventions, software,
processes, and even different marketing strategies.
 Patent
• A patent is a type of limited-duration
protection that can be used to protect
inventions (or discoveries) that are new, non-
obvious, and useful, such a new process,
machine, article of manufacture, or
composition of matter.
• When a property owner holds a patent, others
are prevented, under law, from offering for
sale, making, or using the product.
 Copyright
• A copyright is a type of intellectual property
protection that protects original works
of authorship, which might include literary works,
music, art, and more. Today, copyrights also
protect computer software and architecture.
• Copyright protections are automatic; once you
create something, it is yours. However, if your
rights under copyright protections are infringed
and you wish to file a lawsuit, then registration of
your copyright will be necessary.
 Trademarks
• Trademarks, then, refer to phrases, words, or symbols
that distinguish the source of a product or services of
one party from another. For example, the Nike symbol–
which nearly all could easily recognize and identify–is a
type of trademark.
• While patents and copyrights can expire, trademark
rights come from the use of the trademark, and
therefore can be held indefinitely. Like a copyright,
registration of a trademark is not required, but
registering can offer additional advantages.
 Industrial design
• An industrial design constitutes the
ornamental or aesthetic aspect of an article. A
design may consist of three-dimensional
features, such as the shape or surface of an
article, or of two-dimensional features, such
as patterns, lines or color.
 Geographical indications
• Geographical indications and appellations of
origin are signs used on goods that have a
specific geographical origin and possess
qualities, a reputation or characteristics that
are essentially attributable to that place of
origin. Most commonly, a geographical
indication includes the name of the place of
origin of the goods.