Engineering Management: Engr. Edmundo A. Obina

ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT
ENGR. EDMUNDO A. OBINA

1st Semester, S.Y. 2020-2021
Republic of the Philippines

ISABELA STATE UNIVERSITY
Echague, Isabela
1 | Engineering Management
Chapter 5 Staffing the Engineering Organization
Overview/Introduction
After setting up the organizational structure that has been decided to best serve
the interest of a certain firm, the next move that has to be made is to fill up the identified
positions with the most qualified persons available.
Engineering organizations are very sensitive to whatever staffing errors are made.
Placing the wrong person in a highly specialized position like quality control, for instance,
may bring untold damages to the firm. Yet, this refers to a single error only.
An example of the ill-effects of staffing errors was provided by the TV program

“Brigada Siete."' The disaster that happened in the Film Center at the Cultural Center
Complex in Manila was highlighted in the program. In November 1981, the whole sixth
floor of the Film Center collapsed while undergoing construction. Many workers and an
engineer died as a result.
When interviewed by the TV program's staff, a former construction worker said he

was hired to do masonry job when he does not have training in masonry Some other
examples of staffing errors were provided in the program.
This type of tragedy underscores the importance of defiling in any organization,

engineering or otherwise. Effective staffing on the other hand places the engineering
“organization on a competitive stance.
Learning Outcome/Objective
At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:
1. Define Staffing
2. Understand staffing and its procedure
Learning Content/Topic
A. WHAT IS STAFFING?
The engineer manager must be concerned with putting the right persons in
various positions within his area of concern. Although some of the important aspects
of staffing may be delegated to the human resource office, the engineer manager
assumes a great responsibility in assuring that the right persons are assigned to
positions that fit their qualifications.
Staffing may be defined as “the management function that determines human
resource needs, recruits, selects, trains, and develops human resources for jobs
created by an organization.”
Staffing is undertaken to match people with jobs so that the realization of the
organization's objectives will be facilitated.
B. THE STAFFING PROCEDURE
The staffing process consists of the following series of steps:
1. human resource planning

2. recruitment
3. selection
4. induction and orientation
5. training and development
6. performance appraisal
7. employment decisions (monetary rewards, transfers, promotions and
demotions) and
8. separations.
Human Resource Planning
The planned output of any organization will require a systematic deployment of

human resources at various levels. To be able to do this, the engineer manager will
have to involve himself with human resource planning. This will be done in conjunction
with the efforts of the human resource officer, i.e., if the company has one.
Human resource planning may involve three activities, as follows:
1. Forecasting — which is an assessment of future human resource needs in

relation to the current capabilities of the organization.
2. Programming — which means translating the forecasted human resource

needs to personnel objectives and goals.
3. Evaluation and control — which refers to moni-toring human resource action

plans and evaluating their success.
Methods of Forecasting. The forecasting of man-power needs may be

undertaken using any of the follow-ing quantitative methods:
1. Time series methods — which use historical data to develop forecasts of the
future.
2. Explanatory, or causal models — which are at-tempts to identify the major

variables that are related to or have caused particular past con-ditions and
then use current measures of these variables to predict future conditions.
The three major types of explanatory models are as follows:
a) regression models (presented in Chapter 2)

b) econometric models — a system of regression equations
estimated from past time-series data and used to show the effect
of various independent variables on various dependent variables.
c) leading indicators — refers to time series that anticipate business

cycle turns.
3. Monitoring methods — are those that provide early warning signals of

significant changes in established patterns and relationships so that the
engineer manager can assess the likely impact and plan responses if
required.
Recruitment
When the different positions have been identified to be necessary and the
decision to fill them up has been made, the next logical step is recruitment.
Recruitment refers to attracting qualified persons to apply for vacant positions

in the company so that those who are best suited to serve the company may be
selected.
Source of Applicants
When management wants to fill up certain vacancies, the following sources may
be tapped:
1. The organization's current employees. Some of the organization's current

employees may be qualified to occupy positions higher than the ones they
are occupying. They should be considered.
2. Newspaper advertising. There are at least three major daily newspapers

distributed throughout the Philippines. Readership is higher during Sundays.
3. Schools. These are good sources of applicants. Representatives of

companies may interview applicants inside campuses.
4. Referrals from employees. Current employees sometimes recommend

relatives and friends who may be qualified.
5. Recruitment firms. Some companies are specifically formed to assist client

firms in recruiting qualified persons. Examples of these companies are the
SGV Consulting and John Clements Consultants, Inc., (See Figure 5.1). 6
6. Competitors. These are useful sources of qualified but underutilized

personnel.
For entry-level personnel, the engineer manager will likely rely on newspaper
advertising, schools, and referrals. When recruiting managers, the reliable sources
are current employees, recruitment firms, and competitors.
Selection
Selection refers to the act of choosing from those that are available the
individuals most likely to succeed on the job. A requisite for effective selection is the
preparation of a list indicating that an adequate pool of candidates is available.
The purpose of selection is to evaluate each candidate and to pick the moat
suited for the position available.
Selection procedures may be simple or complex depending on the costs of a
wrong decision. If the management picks the wrong person and the subsequent effect
to the organization is negligible, then the selection process is made simple. This is
true in the case of construction laborers where a review of their applications is done.
Within a few days or even a few hours, the applicants are informed of the decision.
When the position under consideration involves special skills, a more elaborate
selection process is undertaken.
Ways of Determining the Qualifications of a Job Candidate
Companies use any or all of the following in deter-mining the qualifications of a

candidate:
1. Application blanks. The application blank provides information about a

person's characteristics such as age, marital status, address, educational
background, experience, and special interests. After reading the application
blank, the evaluator will have some basis on whether or not to proceed
further in evaluating the applicant.
2. References. References are those written by previous employers, co-

workers, teachers, club officers, etc. Their statements may provide some
vital information on the character of the applicant.
3. Interviews. Information may be gathered in an interview by asking a series

of relevant questions to the job candidate.
4. Testing. This involves an evaluation of the future behavior or performance of

an individual.
Types of Tests
Tests may be classified as follows:
1. Psychological tests — which is "an objective, standard measure of a

sample behavior. It is classified into:
a) aptitude test — one used to measure a per-son's capacity or potential

ability to learn.
b) performance test— one used to measure a person's current knowledge

of a subject.
c) personality test — one used to measure personality traits as

dominance, sociability, and conformity.
d) interest test — one used to measure a person's interest in various fields

of work.
2. Physical examination — a type of test given to assess the physical health
of an applicant. It is given “to assure that the health of the applicant is
adequate to meet the job requirements.”
Induction and Orientation
After an applicant is finally selected from among the various ones and then
subsequently is hired, the next steps undertaken are induction and orientation.
In induction, the new employee is provided with the necessary information about
the company. His duties, responsibilities, and benefits are relayed to him. Personnel
and health forms are filled up, and passes are is-sued. The company history, its
products and services, and the organization structure are explained to the new
employee.
In orientation, the new employee is introduced to the immediate working

environment and co-workers. The following are discussed: location, rules, equipment,
procedures, and training plans. Performance expectations are also discussed. The
new employee also under-goes the "socialization process" by pairing him with an
experienced employee and having a one-on-one discussion with the manager.
Training and Development
If the newly-hired (or newly-promoted) employee is assessed to be lacking the

necessary skills required by the job, training becomes a necessity.
Training refers to the "learning that is provided in order to improve performance

on the present job." Training programs consist of two general types, namely:"
1. training programs for non-managers, and

2. training and educational programs for executives.
Training Program for Non-managers
This type of training is directed to non-managers for specific increases in skill

and knowledge to perform a particular job. The four methods under this type are:
1. On-the-job training — where the trainer is placed in an actual work situation

under the direction of his immediate supervisor, who acts as trainer. This
situation motivates strongly the trainee to learn.
2. Vestibule school — where the trainee is placed in a situation almost exactly

the same as the workplace where machines, materials, and time constraints
are present. As the trainer works full time, the trainee is assured of sufficient
attention from him.
3. Apprenticeship program — where a combination of on-the-job training and

experiences with classroom instruction in particular subjects are provided to
trainees.
4. Special courses — are those taken which provide more emphasis on

education rather than training. Examples are those which concern specific
uses of computer like computer-aided design and building procedures.
Training Programs for Managers
The training needs of managers may be classified into four areas: decision-
making skills, interpersonal skills, job knowledge, and organizational knowledge.
The decision-making skills of the manager may be enhanced through any of the
following methods of training:
1. In-basket — where the trainee is provided with a set of notes, messages,

telephone calls, letters, and reports, all pertaining to a certain company
situation. He is expected to handle the situation within a given period of 1 or
2 hours.
2. Management games — is a training method where "trainees are faced with

a simulated situation and are required to make an ongoing series of decisions
about that situation."
3. Case studies — this method presents actual situations in organizations and
enable one to examine successful and unsuccessful operations. It
emphasizes "the manager's world, improves communication skills, offers
rewards of solving a mystery, possesses the quality of illustration, and
establishes concrete reference points for connecting theory with practice.''
The interpersonal competence of the manager may be developed through any

of the following methods:
1. Role-playing — is a method by which the trainees are assigned roles to play

in a given case incident. They are provided with a script or a description of a
given problem and of the key persons they are to play. The purpose of this
method is to improve the skill of the trainees in human relations, supervision,
and leadership.
2. Behavior modeling — this method attempts to influence the trainee by

"showing model persons behaving effectively inn problem situation."" The
trainee is expected to adapt the behavior of the model and use it effectively
in some instances later on.
3. Sensitivity training — under this method, aware-ness and sensitivity to

behavioral patterns of oneself and others are developed.
4. Transactional analysis — is a training method intended "to help individuals

not only understand themselves and others but also improve their
interpersonal communication skills."
In acquiring knowledge about the actual job the man-ager is currently holding,
the following methods are useful:
1. On-the-job experience — this method provides valuable opportunities for the

trainee to learn various skills while actually engaged in the performance of a
job.
2. Coaching — this method requires a senior man-ager to assist a lower-level

manager by teaching him the needed skills and generally providing
directions, advice, and helpful criticism. The senior manager must be skilled
himself and have the ability to educate, otherwise the method will be
ineffective.
3. Understudy — under this method, a manager works as assistant to a higher-

level manager and participates in planning and other managerial functions
until he is ready to assume such position himself. Once in a while, the
assistant is allowed to take over.
In the attempt to increase the trainee's knowledge of the total organization,

exposure to information and events outside of his immediate job is made. In this
regard, the following methods are useful:
1. Position rotation — under this method, the man-ager is given assignments
in a variety of departments. The purpose is to expose him to differ-ent
functions of the organization.
2. Multiple management — this method is premised on the idea that junior

executives must be provided with means to prepare them for higher
management positions. To achieve this, a junior board of directors is created
consisting of junior executives as members. The board is given the authority
to discuss problems that the senior board could discuss. The members are
encouraged to take a broad business outlook rather than concentrating on
their specialized lines of work.
Performance Appraisal
Performance appraisal is the measurement of employee performance. The

purposes for which performance appraisal is made are as follows:
1. To influence, in a positive manner, employee performance and development;
2. To determine merit pay increases;
3. To plan for future performance goals;
4. To determine training and development needs; and
5. To assess the promotional potential of employees.
Ways of Appraising Performance
An employee's performance may be measured using any of the following

methods:
1. Rating scale method — where each trait or characteristic to be rated is

represented by a line or scale on which the rater indicates the degree to
which the individual possesses the trait or characteristic.
2. Essay method — where the evaluator composes statements that best

describe the person evaluated.
3. Management by objectives method — where specific goals are set

collaboratively for the organization as a whole, for various subunits, and for
each individual member. Individuals are, then, evaluated on the basis of how
well they have achieved the results specified by the goals.
4. Assessment center method — where one is evaluated by persons other than

the immediate superior. This method is used for evaluating managers.
5. Checklist method — where the evaluator checks statements on a list that are
deemed to characterize an employee's behavior or performance.
6. Work standards method — where standards are set for the realistic worker
output and later on used in evaluating the performance of non-managerial
employees.
7. Ranking method — where each evaluator arranges employees in rank order

from the best to the poorest
8. Critical-incident method — where the evaluator recalls and writes down

specific (but critical) incidents that indicate the employee's performance. A
critical incident occurs when employee's behavior results in an unusual
success or failure on some parts of the job.
Employment Decisions
After evaluating the performance of employees (managerial or otherwise), the

management will now be ready to make employment decisions. These may consist
of the following:
1. Monetary rewards — these are given to employees wham performance is at

par or above standard requirements.
2. Promotion — this refers to a movement by a person into a position of higher

pay and greater responsibilities and which is given as a reward for
competence and ambition.
3. Transfer — this is the movement of a person to a different job at the same or

similar level of responsibility in the organization. Transfers are made to
provide growth opportunities for the persons involved or to get rid of a poor
performing employee.
4. Demotion — this is a movement from one position to another which has

less pay or responsibility attached to it. Demotion is used as a form of
punishment or as a temporary measure to keep an employee until he is
offered a higher position.
Separation
Separation is either a voluntary or involuntary termination of an employee.

When made voluntarily, the organization's management must find out the real reason.
If the presence of a defect in the organization is determined, corrective action is
necessary.
Involuntary separation (or termination) is the last option that the management
exercises when an employee's performance is poor or when he/she committed an act
violating the company rules and regulations. This is usually made after training efforts
fail to produce positive results.
SUMMARY
Engineering organizations are not immune to the difficulties of filling with qualified
persons the various positions identified in the organizing stage. As the outputs of
engineering firms are produced by people under the' supervision of engineer managers,
errors in the performance of jobs may not be easily discernible. As such, staffing must be
treated with serious concern.
Staffing deals with the determination of human resource needs, recruitment,

selection, training, and development.
The staffing process consists of the following series of steps: human resource
planning, recruitment, select-ion, induction and orientation, training and development,
performance appraisal, employment decisions, and separations.
The sources of applicants consist of the organization's current employees,

newspaper advertising, schools, referrals from employees, recruitment firms, and
competitors.
The ways of determining the qualifications of job candidates consist of application

blanks, references, interviews, and testing.
Training programs consist of one type for non-managers and another type for
executives.
The various methods of performance appraisal are classified into the rating scale
method, the essay metho, management by objectives method, assessment center
method, checklist method, work standards method, ranking method, and critical-incident
method.
Employment decisions are classified as: monetary rewards, promotion, transfer, and
demotion.
Separations may be classified as voluntary or involuntary.
QUESTIONS FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
1. Why is staffing an important activity
2. What activities are undertaken in staffing?
3. What is the purpose of human resource planning?
4. How may human resource needs be determined?
5. What are the possible sources of applicants for vacant positions in the firm?
6. What is the implication of the cost of the 'wrong decision" in the selection
process?
7. How may one determine the qualifications of a job candidate?
8. How may the types of tests be described?
9. In induction, what activities are undertaken?
10. How may the two general types of training be described?
RESEARCH
Prepare a forecast of the human resource needs of an engineering firm.
Chapter 6 Communicating
The achievement of the objectives of the engineering organization will depend on the
performance of the human and non-human elements attached to it. The task of
management is to 'program" these elements correctly so that each will respond
accordingly to their assigned tasks. Standard programming methods have already been
adapted by technologists for most machines and equipment.
The programming approach to the human element is different and must be dealt with
using methods espoused by behavioural scientists. Employees will perform according to
the dictates of their minds. If this is really so, then management must reach them through
powerful means of persuasion under an atmosphere conducive to effective
communication.
The issue now will be is management using the communication option effectively?"
The answer must be "yes-, for if not, trouble may be forthcoming, if it has not yet arrived.
1. Identify the functions of Communication;
2. Distinguish the Communication process;
3. Analyze forms of Communication;
4. Discuss barriers to Communication
5. Infer Management Information System
A. WHAT COMMUNICATION IS?
Morris Philip Wolf and Shirley Kuiper define communication as "a process of
sharing information through symbols, including words and message."'
Communication may happen between superior and subordinate, between
peers, between a manager and a client or customer, between an employee and a
government representative, etc. It may be done face-to-face, or through printed
materials, or through an electronics device like the telephone, etc.
In management, communication must be made for a purpose and because it
has a cast attached to it, it must be used effectively.
B. FUNCTIONS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication may be used to serve any of the following functions:
1. Information function — Information provided through communication may

be used for decision-making at various work levels in the organization. A
construction worker, for instance, may be given instructions on the proper
use of certain equipment. This will later provide him with a guide in deciding
which equipment to use in particular circumstances.
Another concern is the manager who wants to make sure that his
decision in promoting an employee to a higher position is correct. Through
communication, the information provided will minimize if not eliminate the
risk
2. Motivation function — Communication is also oftentimes used as a means

to motivate employees to commit themselves to the organization's
objectives.
3. Control function — when properly communicated, reports, policies, and

plans define roles, clarify duties, authorities and responsibilities. Effective
control is, then, facilitated.
4. Emotive function — When feelings are repressed in the organization,

employees are affected by anxiety, which, in turn, affects performance.
Whatever types of emotions are involved, whether satisfaction,
dissatisfaction, happiness, or bitterness, communication provides a means
to decrease the internal pressure affecting the individual.
C. THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS
The communication process consists of eight steps which are as follows:

develop an idea, encode, transmit, receive, decode, accept, use, and provide
feedback.
Develop an Idea
The most important step in effective communication is developing an idea. It is

important that the idea to be conveyed must be useful or of some value. An example
of a useful idea is how to prevent accidents in workplaces.
Encode
The next step is to encode the idea into words, illustrations, figures, or other
symbols suitable for transmission. The method of transmission should be determined
in advance so that the idea may be encoded to conform with the specific requirements
of the identified method. An example of an encoded message using telefax as a
means of transmission is shown in Figure 6.2.
Transmit
After encoding, the message is now ready for trans-mission through the use of
an appropriate communication channel. Among the various channels used include
the spoken word, body movements, the written word, television, telephone, radio, an
artist's paint, electronic mail, etc.
Proper transmission is very important so the message sent will reach and hold
the attention of the receiver. To achieve this, the communication channel must be free
of barriers, or interference (sometimes referred to as noise).
Receive
The next step is the communication process is the actual receiving of the
message by the intended receiver. The requirement is for the receiver to be ready to
receive at the precise moment the message relayed by the sender.
The message may be initially received by a machine or by a person. In any

case, communication stops when the machine is not turned or tuned on to receive the
message, or the person assigned to receive the message does not listen or pay
attention properly.
Decode
The next step, decoding, means translating the message from the sender into
a form that will have meaning to the recipient. If the receiver knows the language and
terminology used in the message, successful decoding may be achieved. Examples
of various terms encoded and decoded are shown in Figure 6.3.
If the receiver understands the purpose and the background situation of the
sender, decoding will be greatly unproved. In legal practice, for instance, the
declarations of a dying person have more weight.
Accept
The next step is for the receiver to accept or reject the message. Sometimes,
acceptance (or rejection) is partial. An example is provided as follows:
A newly-hired employee was sent to a supervisor with a note from his superior
directing the supervisor to accept the employee into his unit and to provide the
necessary training and guidance.
As the supervisor feels that he was not consulted in the hiring process, he thinks
that his only obligation is to accept the employee in his unit and nothing more.
The factors that will affect the acceptance or rejection of a message are as
follows:
1. the accuracy of the message;

2. whether or not the sender has the authority to send the message and/or
require action; and
3. the behavioral implications for the receiver.
Use
The next step is for the receiver to use the information. If the message provides
information of importance to a relevant activity, then the receiver could store it and
retrieve it when required. If the message requires a certain action to be made, then
he may do so, otherwise, he discards it as soon as it is received. All of the above-
mentioned options will depend on his perception of the message.
Provide Feedback
The last step in the communication process is for the receiver to provide
feedback to the sender. Depending on the perception of the receiver, however, this
important step may not be made.
Even if feedback is relayed, it may not reach the original sender of the message.
This may be attributed to the effects of any of the communication barriers.
D. FORMS OF COMMUNICATION
Communication consists of two major forms:
1. verbal and
2. nonverbal.
Verbal Communication
Verbal communications are those transmitted through hearing or sight. These

modes of transmission categorizes verbal communication into two classes: oral and
written.
Oral communication mostly involves hearing the words of the sender, although
sometimes, opportunities are provided for seeing the sender's body movements,
facial expression, gestures, and eye contact. Sometimes, feeling, smelling, tasting,
and touching are involved.
An alternative to oral communication is the written communication where the

sender seeks to communicate through the written word. The written communication
is, sometimes, preferred over the oral communication because of time and cost
constraints. When a sender, for instance, cannot meet personally the receiver due to
some reason, a written letter or memo is prepared and sent to the receiver.
The written communication, however, has limitations and to remedy these,

some means are devised. Perfume advertisers, for instance, lace their written
message with the smell of their products. In the same light, the now popular musical
Christmas card is an attempt to enhance the effects of the written note.
Nonverbal Communication
Nonverbal communication is a means of conveying message through body

language, as well as the use of time, space, touch, clothing, appearance, and
aesthetic elements. Body language consists of gestures, bodily movement, posture,
facial expression, and mannerisms of all kinds.'
Nonverbal expressions convey many shades of meaning and it is to the

advantage of the communicator to understand what messages are relayed.
E. THE BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
Various factors may impede the efficient flow of communication. Any, or all, of
these factors may, at any point, derail the process. Even if the message is trans-mitted
by the channel, the timing and the meaning of the message may be affected by the
factors.
The barriers to communication may be classified generally as:
1. personal barriers
2. physical barriers
3. semantic barriers
Personal Barriers
Personal barriers are hindrances to effective com-munication arising from a

communicator's characteristics as a person, such as emotions, values, poor listening
habits, sex, age, race, socioeconomic status, religion, education, etc.
Emotions cloud the communicator's ability to judge correctly the real meaning
of messages received. People with different values will find it hard to communicate
with each other. Poor listening habits of a receiver frustrate the communication efforts
of a sender.
Physical Barriers
Physical bathers refer to interferences to effective communication occurring in

the environment where the communication is undertaken. The very loud sound
produced by a passing jet temporarily drowns out the voice of a guest delivering a
speech. Such distraction does not allow full understanding of the meaning of the entire
message and is an example of a physical barrier.
Physical barriers include distances between people, walls, a noisy jukebox near
a telephone, etc. An office that is too tidy may sometimes inhibit a person from
meeting the occupant of the office face-to-face. A menacing pet dog (or secretary)
posted near the door may also prevent a person from directly communicating with the
object person behind the door.
A communication channel that is overloaded may also prevent important

information to reach the intended user. Another physical barrier to communication is
wrong timing. For instance, how may one expect a person who has just lost a loved
one to act on an inquiry from a fellow employee?
Semantic Barriers
Semantics is the study of meaning as expressed in symbols.' Words, pictures,

or actions are symbols that suggest certain meanings. When the wrong meaning has
been chosen by the receiver, misunderstanding occurs. Such error constitutes a
bather to communication.
A semantic barrier may be defined as an 'interference with the reception of a

message that occurs when the message is misunderstood even though it is received
exactly as transmitted?'
For example, the words "wise" and ''salvage* will have different meanings to an
English speaking foreigner than to an ordinary Filipino.
F. OVERCOMING BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION
When communication barriers threaten effective performance, certain

measures must be instituted to eliminate them. To eliminate problems due to noise,
selective perception, and distraction, the following are recommended:
1. Use feedback to facilitate understanding and increase the potential for
appropriate action.
2. Repeat messages in order to provide assurance that they are properly

received.
3. Use multiple channels so that the accuracy of the information may be

enhanced.
4. Use simplified language that is easily under-standable and which

eliminates the possibility of people getting mixed-up with meanings.
G. TECHNIQUES FOR COMMUNICATING IN ORGANIZATIONS
Communication may be classified as to the types of flow of the message which

are as follows: downward, upward, or horizontal. Each of the types of message flow
has its own purposes and techniques.
Downward Communication
Downward communication refers to message flows from higher levels of

authority to lower levels. Among the purposes of downward communication are:
1. to give instructions
2. to provide information about policies and procedures
3. to give feedback about performance
4. to indoctrinate or motivate
Among the techniques used n downward communication are as follows: letters,

meetings, telephones, manual, handbooks and newsletters.
Letters are appropriate when directives are complex and precise actions are
required. When orders are simple but the result depends largely on employee morale,
techniques that provide personal interchange like meetings and the telephone, are
appropriate. Modern technology has made it possible for people to hold meetings
even if they are thousands of kilometres apart from each other.
Manuals are useful sources of information regarding company policy,
procedures, and organization. Unlike using persons as sources of information,
manuals are available whenever it is needed.
Handbooks provide more specific information about the duties and privileges of
the individual worker. It has also the advantage of being available whenever needed.
Newsletters provide a mixture of personal, social, and work-related information.

Articles about new hiring, promotions, birthdays of employees, questions and answers
about work related issues are presented.
Upward Communication
There is a need for management to provide employees with all the necessary
material and non-material support it can give. The first requirement, however, ie for
management to know the specific needs of the employees. This is the primary reason
for upward communication.
Upward communication refers to messages from persons in lower-level

positions to persons in higher positions. The messages sent usually provide
information on work progress, problems encountered, suggestions for improving
output, and personal feelings about work and non-work activities.
Among the techniques used in upward communication are: formal grievance
procedures, employee attitude and opinion surveys, suggestion systems, open-door
policy, informal gripe sessions, task forces, and exit interviews.
Formal Grievance Procedures. Grievances are part of a normally operating

organization. To effectively deal with them, organizations provide a system for
employees to air their grievances.
Holley and Jennings define grievance as “any employee's concern over a

perceived violation of the labor agreement that is submitted to the grievance
procedure for eventual resolution." Grievances represent an open, upward
communication channel whereby employees can offer suggestions to management.
Depending on the size and nature of the company, the grievance procedure
may consist of a single step or a number of steps. Companies with a collective
bargaining agreement with its union must refer to the grievance procedure spelled out
in the law on labor relations.
Employee Attitude and Opinion Surveys. Finding out what the employees
think about the company is very important. The exercise, however, requires expertise
and the company may not be prepared to do it. If the organization's operation is large
enough to justify such activity, then it must be done. If the assistance of an outside
research firm is considered, a benefit-cost analysis must be used as a deciding factor.
Suggestion Systems. Suggestions from employees are important sources of

cost-saving and production enhancing ideas. Even if majority of the suggestions are
not feasible, a simple means of acknowledging them contributes to employee morale.
Open-Door Policy. An open-door policy, even on a limited basis, provides the

management with an opportunity to act on difficulties before they become full-blown
problems.
Informal Gripe Sessions. Informal gripe sessions can be used positively if

management knows how to handle them. When employees feel free to talk and they
are assured of not being penalized for doing so, then management will be spared with
lots of efforts determining the real causes of problems in the company.
Task Forces. When a specific problem or issue arises, a task force may be
created and assigned to deal with the problem or issue. Since membership of task
forces consists of management and non-management personnel, integration and
teamwork are fostered, creativity is enhanced, and interpersonal skills are developed.
Exit Interviews. When employees leave an organization for any reason, it is

to the advantage of management to know the real reason. If there are negative
developments in the organization that management is not aware of, exit interviews
may provide some of the answers.
Horizontal Communication
Horizontal communication refers to messages sent to, individuals or groups

from another of the same organizational level or position.
The purposes of horizontal communication are:
1. to coordinate activities between departments
2. to persuade others at the same level of organization
3. to pass on information about activities or feelings
Among the techniques appropriate for horizontal communication are: memos,

meetings, telephones, picnics, dinners, and other social affairs.
H. MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
It was mentioned at the beginning of this chapter that communication may

be used to serve the information function. This means that a way must be devised to
allow the organization to absorb information necessary for effective decision-making.
In this regard, companies of various sizes have organized systems to gather
information that will be useful to management.
Management information system (MIS) is defined by Boone and Kurtz as ''an

organized method of providing past, present, and projected information on internal
operations and external intelligence for use in decision making.”
The MIS currently used by corporate firms consists of 'written and

electronically based systems for sending reports, memos, bulletins, and the like." The
system allows managers of the different departments within the firm to communicate
with each other.
The Purposes of MIS
The MIS is established for various reasons. Wheelen and Hunger enumerate
them as follows:
1. To provide a basis for the analysis of early warning signals that can
originate both externally and internally.
2. To automate routine clerical operations like pay-roll and inventory reports.
3. To assist managers in making routine decisions like scheduling orders,

assigning orders to machines, and reordering supplies.
4. To provide the information necessary for management to make strategic or

non-programmed decisions.
SUMMARY
Communicating is a vital function of the engineer manager. Organizations cannot

function properly without effective communication. If the required outputs must be '
realized, communication must be managed.
Communication is used to serve the information function, motivation function, control

function, and emotive function.
The communication process consists of various steps, namely, develop an idea,

encode, transmit, receive, decode, accept, use, and provide feedback.
The forms of communication are verbal and non-verbal.
The barriers to communication may be classified as personal, physical, or semantic.
These may be eliminated or minimized by using feedback, repeating message*, using
multiple channels, and using simplified language.
Communication flows are either downward, upward or horizontal.
Management information systems are useful means of communication.
1. How important is communicating as a function of engineering management?
2. What is communication? How may it be done?
3. For what purposes may communication be used in the organization?
4. What are the stops in the communication process?
5. What is a communication channel? How may each of the channel types be

described?
6. What is meant by “noise”?
7. What is “decoding”? How may it be successfully achieved?
8. What are the forms of communication? How is one different from the other?
9. How may barriers to communication be classified? What is the possible effect of

emotion in communication?
10. How may communication barriers be overcome?
11. What techniques may be used in communication?
12. What is a management information system? What are its purpose?
RESEARCH
Scrutinize an existing engineering organization by classifying techniques used in

communication.
Chapter 7 Motivating
Productivity has always been a serious concern of the management of flans. If it

improves, it means greater chances for the company to grow and be more stable. One
reason why the Philippine economy cannot move steadily forward is our record of low
productivity for so many years.
Higher productivity, however, is not a result of chance. It happens because of harder,

more efficient, and more intelligent work made by the employees. To be willing partners,
however, the requirement is for them to be properly motivated. An example is the
management of construction firm wanting its employees to finish projects on time, with the
quality required at the least cast. To achieve this, various methods of motivation may be
applied.
When the cost of the other factors of production is seriously affecting the viability of
the firm, the remaining factor (i.e. labor) may save the company from financial difficulties.
However, this will depend on whether or not labor will be motivated to perform their
assigned task.
1. Identify factors Contributing to Motivation
2. Discover the theories of Motivation
3. Recognize the techniques of Motivation
A. WHAT IS MOTIVATION?
Motivating refers to the act of "giving employees reasons or incentives ... to work
to achieve organizational objectives." Motivation, on the other hand, refers to the
'process of activating behaviour, sustaining it, and directing it toward a particular goal.”
This definition is useful because it specifies three stages: activating, sustain ing, and
directing actions towards the achievement of objectives.
B. FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO MOTIVATION

There are certain factors influencing a person's desire to do his job well. They
are the following.
1. Willingness to do a job. People who like what they are doing are highly
motivated to produce the expected output.
2. Self-confidence in carrying out a task. When employees feel that they have
the required skill and training to perform a task, the more motivated they
become.
3. Needs satisfaction. People will do their jobs well if they feel that by doing
so, their needs will be satisfied.
C. THEORIES OF MOTIVATION
There are various theories of motivation, but only the four most influential ones
will be discussed. They consist of the following:
1. Maslow's needs hierarchy theory
2. Herzberg's two-factor theory
3. Expectancy theory
4. Goal setting theory
Maslow's Needs Hierarchy Theory
Abraham Maslow, a psychologist, theorized that human beings have five basic
needs which are as follows: physiological, security, social, esteem, and self-
actualization. These needs are hierarchical, which means, one need will have to be
satisfied first before the other need
Physiological Nerds. Three that are concerned with biological needs like food,
drink, rest, and sex fall under the category of physiological needs.' These needs take
priority over other needs.
Security Needs. After satisfying the physiological needs, people will seek to
satisfy their safety needs. These needs include freedom from harm coming from the
elements or from other people, financial security which may be affected by loss of job
or the breadwinner in the family, etc.
Social Needs. After satisfying his physiological and security needs, the
employee will now strive to secure love, affection, and the need to be accepted by
peers.
Esteem Needs. The fourth level of needs is called esteem needs and they refer
to the need for a positive self-image and self-respect and the need to be respected
by others.
Self-Actualization Needs. The fifth and the topmost level needs in the hierarchy
are called self-actualization needs and involve realizing our full potential as human
beings and becoming all that we are able to be.
The Relevance of Maslow's Theory to Engineering Management. Even if

Maslow's theory has been largely questioned, one basic premise cannot be
discarded: a fulfilled need no longer motivates an individual. If this is the situation the
subordinate is in, the engineer manager must identify an unfulfilled need and work out
a scheme so that the subordinate will be motivated to work in order to satisfy the
unfulfilled need.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
The two-factor theory is one developed by Frederick Herzberg indicating that a

satisfied employee is motivated from within to work harder and that a dissatisfied
employee is not self-motivated.
Herzberg identified two classes of factors associated with employee satisfaction

and dissatisfaction. In his research, Herzberg found out that satisfied employees
mentioned the following factors (called satisfiers or motivation factors) responsible for
job satisfaction: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement,
and growth. Dissatisfied employees mentioned the following factors (called
dissatisfiers or hygiene factors) as responsible for job dissatisfaction: company policy
and administration, supervision, relationship with supervisor, work conditions, salary,
relationship with peers, personal life, relationship with subordinates, MMus, and
security.
If Herzberg's theory will be considered by the engineer manager in motivating
employees, he must do something to eliminate the dissatisfiers and install satisfiers.
As shown in Figure 7.3, even if the dissatisfiers are eliminated (at point zero), the
employee is still not motivated to work
Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory is a motivation model based on the assumption that an

individual will work depending on his perception of the probability of his expectations
to happen.
The theory poses the idea that motivation is determined by expectancies and
valences. An expectancy is belief about the likelihood or probability that a particular
behavioural act (like attending training sessions) will lead to a particular outcome (like
a promotion). Valence is the value an individual places on the expected outcomes or
rewards.
Expectancy theory is based on the following assumptions:
1. A combination of forces within the individual and in the environment
determines behaviour.
2. People make decisions about their own behaviour and that of organizations
3. People have different types of needs, goals, and desires.
4. People make choices among alternative behaviours based on the extent to

which they think a certain behaviour will lead to a desired outcome. Shown
in Figure 7.4 is a model of the expectancy theory.
Goal Setting Theory
Goal setting refers to the process of "improving performance with objectives,

deadlines or quality standard." When individuals or groups are assigned specific
goals, a clear direction is provided and which later motivates them to achieve these
goals.
The goal setting model drawn by Edwin A. Locke and his associates consists of
the following components:
1. goal content
2. goal commitment
3. work behavior
4. feedback aspects
Goal Content. To be sufficient in content, goals must be challenging, attainable,

specific and measurable, to limited, and relevant.
When goals are challenging, higher performance be expected. The sales

quotas imposed by companies to individual members of their sales force indicate
reliance of these companies to the use of challenging goals.
Goals must be attainable if they are to be set. If they are not, then workers will
only be discouraged to perform, if at all.
Goals must be stated in quantitative terms when-ever possible. When exact

figures to be met are set, understanding is facilitated and workers are motivated • to
perform.
There must be a time-limit set for goals to be accomplished.
The more relevant the goals are to the company's mission, the more support it
can generate from various levels of employment in the organization.
Goal Commitment. When individuals or groups are committed to the goals they
are supposed to achieve, there is a chance that they will be able to achieve them.
Work Behavior. Goals influence behavior in terms of direction, effort,

persistence, and planning. When an individual is provided with direction, performance
is facilitated. In trying to attain goals that are already indicated, the individual is
provided with a direction to exert more effort. The identification of goals provide a
reason for an individual to persist in his efforts until the goal is attained.
Once goals are set, the first important input to planning is already in place.
Feedback Aspects. Feedback provide the individuals with a way of knowing how
far they have gone in achieving objectives. Feedback also facilitate the introduction
of corrective measures whenever they are found to be necessary.
D. TECHNIQUES OF MOTIVATION
Individual or groups of individuals may be motivated to perform through the use

of various techniques. These techniques may be classified as follows;
1. motivation through job design
2. motivation through rewards
3. motivation through employee participation
4. other motivation techniques for the diverse work force
Motivation through Job Design
A person will be highly motivated to perform if he is assigned a job he likes. The

first requisite, however, is to design jobs that will meet the requirements of the
organization and the persons who will occupy them. Job design may be defined as
“specifying the tasks that constitute a job for an individual or a group.”
In motivating through the use of job design, two approaches may be used: fitting
people to jobs or fitting jobs to people.
Fitting People to Jobs. Routine and repetitive tasks make workers suffer from
chronic dissatisfaction. To avoid this, the following remedies may be adapted:
1. Realistic job previews — where management provides honest explanations

of what a job actually entails.
2. Job rotation — where people are moved periodically from one specialized
job to another.
3. Limited exposure — where a worker's exposure to a highly fragmented and
tedious job is limited.
Fitting jobs to People. Instead of changing the person, management may

consider changing the job. This may be achieved with the use of the following:
1. Job enlargement — where two or more specialized tasks in a work flow

sequence is combined into a single job.
2. Job enrichment — where efforts are made to make jobs more interesting,
challenging, and rewarding.
Motivating Through Rewards
Rewards consist of material and psychological benefits to employees for

performing tasks in the work-place. Properly administered reward systems can im-
prove job performance and satisfaction.
Rewards may be classified into two categories:
1. Extrinsic — those which refer to payoffs granted to the individual by another

party. Examples are money, employee benefits, promotions, recognition,
status symbols, praise, etc.
2. Intrinsic rewards — those which are internally experienced payoffs which

are self-granted. Examples are a sense of accomplishment, self-esteem
and self-actualization.
Extrinsic and intrinsic rewards coincide with needs spelled out at the beginning
of the chapter.
Management of Extrinsic Rewards. To motivate job performance effectively,

extrinsic rewards must be properly managed in line with the following:
1. it must satisfy individual needs;
2. the employees must believe effort will lead to reward;
3. rewards must be equitable;
4. rewards must be linked to performance.
No single type of reward is generally applicable to all employees. This is so

because individual persons have needs different from other persons. As much as
possible the particular needs of an individual must be matched with the corresponding
reward if motivation is the objective. The administrative constraints inherent to such
systems, however, will be a hindrance to its adoption. Whenever feasible, however, it
must be used.
Employees must believe that efforts will lead to reward. Otherwise, they will not
strive to turn in more efforts in their particular job assignments.
Rewards that are not equitable will not produce the desired motivation.
When employees know that reward is tied up to individual performance,
management may expect extra efforts from them. A negative example is the practice
in some government offices where every employee, regardless of performance, is
given a productivity bonus. As a result, the majority are not motivated to exert extra
efforts.
Motivation Through Employee Participation
When employees participate in deciding various aspects of their jobs, the

personal involvement, oftentimes, is carried up to the point where the task is
completed.
The specific activities identified where employees may participate are as

follows:
1. setting goals
2. making decisions
3. solving problems, and
4. designing and implementing organizational changes.
The more popular approaches to participation includes the following:
1. quality control circles
2. self-managed teams
Quality Control Circles. A method of direct employee participation is the quality

control circle (QCC). The objective of the QCC is to increase productivity and quality
of output.
The circle consists of "a group of three to ten employees usually doing related
work, who meet at regular intervals (once a week for an hour, for example) to identify
problems and discuss their solutions."" The circle includes leader such as a foreman,
but rely on democratic pro-cesses?" The members are trained in various analysis
techniques by a coordinator.
The circle forwards its recommendations to management, which in turn, makes

decisions on its adaption.
Self-managed Teams. When workers have reached a certain degree of

discipline, they may be ripe for forming self-managed teams. Also known as
autonomous work groups or high performance teams, self-managed teams “take on
traditional managerial tasks as part of their normal work routine.”
The self-managed teams work on their own, turning out a complete product or
service and receiving minimal supervision from managers who act more as facilitators
than supervisors.
When a product or service is produced by a group of professionals or

specialists, they might as well be formed as a self-managed Warn to save on
supervisory costs.
Requisites to Successful Employee Participation Program
To succeed, an employee participation program will require the following:

1. a profit-sharing or gain-sharing plan.
2. a long-term employment relationship with good job security.
3. a concerted effort to build and maintain group cohesiveness.
4. protection of the individual employee's rights.
Other Motivation
Techniques The advent of theories on individual differences and the biological

clock of human beings" put pressure on the engineer manager to adapt other
motivation techniques whenever applicable. These refer to the following:
1. flexible work schedules
2. family support services
3. sabbaticals.
Flexible Work Schedules. There is an arrangement, called flexitime, which

allows employees to determine their own arrival and departure times within specified
limits. For example, an engineering firm may allow one group of employees to take
the 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM schedule, another group takes the 9:00 AM to 6:00 PM
schedule, and another takes the 10:00 AM to 7:00 PM schedule.
An alternative to this arrangement is the adoption of the forty-hour work in four

days allowing the employee to choose a "day-offs.”
An innovation of a popular bank in Makati is the hiring of part-time tellers to work

four hours a day from Monday to Friday.
There are certain benefits that are offered by flexible work schedules, although
it is not appropriate for all situations. Nevertheless, the engineer manager must decide
when it is applicable.
Family Support Services. Employees are oftentimes burdened by family

obligations like caring for children. Progressive companies provide day care facilities
for children of employees. A multinational company in far flung Davao province has
even opened an elementary and a high school within the plantation site.
Sabbaticals. A sabbatical leave is one given to an employee after a certain

number of years of service. The employee is allowed to go on leave for two months
to one year with pay to give him time for family, recreations, and travel.
It is expected that when the employee returns for work, his motivation is
improved.
SUMMARY
Motivating is the management action of giving employees reasons or incentives to

work to achieve organizational objectives. Motivation is the process of activating behavior,
sustaining it, and directing it towards a particular goal.
The factors contributing to motivation consist of: (1) willingness to do a job, (2) self-
confidence in carrying out a task, and (3) needs satisfaction.
There are four theories of motivation that are crucial to management: These are:
1. Maslow's need hierarchy theory
2. Herzberg's two-factor theory
3. Expectancy theory
4. Goal Setting theory
Various techniques of motivation consist of: a) motivation through job design, 2)

motivation through rewards, 3) motivation through employee participation, and 4) other
motivation techniques like flexible work schedules, family support services, and
sabbaticals.
1. Why is motivating relevant to the job of the engineer manager?
2. Are motivation techniques applicable to engineers? Site examples
3. When Maslow insinuated that needs are hierarchical, • what does he mean?
4. What factors are associated with employee satisfaction and dissatisfaction?
5. What are expectancies and valences? How do they affect performance?
6. What is meant by goal setting? What are the components of the goal setting
model?
7. How may an individual be motivated through job design?
8. How may rewards be classified?
9. In what specific activities may employees participate?
10. What benefits are made possible under flexible work schedules?
RESEARCH
List down the financial and nonfinancial benefits given to employees by an engineering
firm of your choice.
Chapter 8 Leading
There are times when in spite of great difficulties, jobs are needed to be done, projects
are needed to he finished on time, and services are needed to be provided. Employees in
the production lines tend to be irritated by delays in the arrival of necessary production
materials and supplies. Workers complain when difficult jobs are assigned to their units.
When calamities strike, employees of public works agencies need more than wages to
complete assigned tasks as quickly as possible. These and other difficulties found in the
workplaces provide sufficient reasons for poor productivity. The situations cited require
managers with effective leadership.
There are many instances, however, when the ill effects of whatever shortcomings
happen. They seriously affect the performance of workers. Effective leadership tends to
neutralize such difficulties. Good working conditions, however, cannot overcome the
disadvantages of bad leadership. These are proven by many cases which occurred in the
past and even in modern times.
Successful firms regard the leadership skill requirement CO a high priority concern.
Big companies like Warner Lambert Philippines. Shell, Fuji-Xerox, and Daewoo are
seriously involved in training their managers to become effective leaders.
Engineer managers, in whatever management level they happen to be, are not
exempted from the problem of effective leadership. If this is really so, then they must be
concerned with the management function of leading.
1. Understand the nature of Leading
2. Identify the behavioural approaches to Leadership Skills
3. Distinguish the contingency approaches to Leadership Style
A. WHAT IS LEADING?
Leading is that management function which 'involves influencing others to

engage in the work behaviours necessary to reach organizational goals."' The
definition indicates that a person or group of persons tasked with managing a group
must assume the role performed by leaders.
While leading refers to the function, leadership refers to the process.
B. HOW LEADERS INFLUENCE OTHERS
Engineer managers are expected to maintain effective work forces. To be able

to do so, they are required to perform leadership roles. Leaders are said to be able to
Influence others because of the power they possess. Power refers to the ability of a
leader to exert force on another.
Bases of Power
The power possessed by leaders may be classified according to various bases.

They are as follows:
1. legitimate power
2. reward power
3. coercive power
4. referent power
5. expert power
Legitimate Power. A person who occupies a higher position has legitimate

power over persons in lower positions within the organization. A supervisor, for
instance, can issue orders to the workers in his unit. Compliance can be expected.
Reward Power. When a person has the ability to give rewards to anybody who
follows orders or requests, he is said to have reword power. Rewards may be
classified into two forms: material and psychic.
Material rewards refer to money or other tangible benefits like cars, house and
lot, etc. Psychic rewards consist of recognition, praises. etc.
Coercive Power. When a person compels another to comply with orders through
threats or punishment, he is said to possess coercive power. Punishment may take
the form of demotion, dismissal, withholding of promotion, etc.
Referent Power. When a person can get compliance from another because the
latter would want to be 'den-tilled with the former, that person is said to have referent
power.
Expert Power. Experts provide specialized information regarding their specific

lines of expertise. This influence, called expert power, is possessed by people with
great skills in technology.
The expert power exercised by environmental scientist was enough to force

governments throughout the world to pass legislations favorable to environmental
protection.
C. THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership may be referred to as “the process of influencing and supporting

others to work enthusiastically toward achieving objectives.” Leadership is expected
of any manager in charge of any unit or division.
One cannot expect a unit or division to achieve objectives in the absence of

effective leadership. Even if a leader is present, but if he is not functioning properly,
no unit or division objectives can be expected to be achieved.
Traits of Effective Leaders
There are certain leadership traits identified by re-searchers and which may be
useful in developing effective leaders. Those traits are as follows:
1. a high level of personal drive
2. the desire to lead
3. personal integrity
4. self-confidence
5. analytical ability or judgment
6. knowledge of the company, industry or technology
7. charisma
8. creativity
9. flexibility
Personal Drive. Persons with drive are those identified as willing to accept
responsibility, possess vigor, initiative, persistence, and health. Drive is a very
important leadership trait because of the possibility of failure in every attempt to
achieve certain goals. If a chosen way to reach a goal is not successful, a leader finds
another way to reach it, even if it precedes a succession of failed attempts. This will,
of course, require a high level of personal drive from the leader.
An example of a person with a high level of personal drive is Paul Mediarito,

plant director of the Polo plant of San Miguel Corporation between 1992 and 1994.
He was instrumental in radically changing the problem-riddled Polo plant to a world-
class brewery with modern technology and a work force with a new attitude.' How he
was able to prove himself as a leader with enough drive is a feat worth emulating.
The Desire to Lead. There are some persons who have all the qualifications for
leadership, yet they could not become leaders because they lack one special
requirement: the desire to lead.
Even if they are forced to act as leaders, they will not be effective because their
efforts will be half-hearted. Leaders with a desire to lead will always haves reservoir
of extra efforts which can be used whenever needed.
Personal Integrity. A person who is well-regarded by others as one who has

integrity possesses one trait of a leader. One who does not have personal integrity
will have a hard time convincing his subordinates about the necessity of completing
various tasks. If this is the case, the leader will, then, resort to “exercising his authority
and getting things done entirely by the use or threat of use of the coercive powers
vested in him by virtue of the rank and position he occupies in the hierarchy.” If this
happens, the economic and emotional costs will be too high to be maintained for a
desirable length of time. As it is, the better option is to have personal integrity.
According to V.K. Saraf, integrity means and includes “honesty, honour,

incorruptibility, rectitude, righteousness, uprightness, and similar virtues.”
Self-Confidence. The activities of leaders require moves that will produce the
needed outputs. The steps of conceptualizing, organizing• and implementing will be
completed if sustained efforts are made. For the moves to be continuous and precise,
self-confidence is necessary.
McKinsey and company found in a study they conducted that leaders of mid-
sized, high growth companies were "almost inevitably consummate salesmen who
radiate enormous contagious self-confidence."
Wess Roberts was very precise when he declared the following as one of the
traits of a good leader.
“A chieftain cannot win if he loses his nerve. He should be self-confident and

self-reliant and even if he does not win, he will know he has done his best.”
Analytical Ability. Leaders are, oftentimes, faced with difficulties that prevent the
completion of assigned tasks. A subordinate, for instance, may have a record of
continually failing to produce the needed output. A leader with sufficient skill to
determine the root cause of the problem may be able to help the subordinate to
improve his production.
The ability to analyze is one desirable trait that a leader can use to tide him over
many challenging aspects of leadership.
Knowledge of the Company, Industry or Technology. A leader who is well-

informed about his company, the industry where the company belongs, and the
technology utilized by the industry, will be in a better position to provide directions to
his unit.
A company, for example, may be the industry leader because it satisfies the
need of its particular market, i.e., providing quality products at affordable prices. When
a competing firm is fast catching up with the leader, and the leader's managers know
this, they will better serve the interest of their company.
Charisma. When a person has sufficient personal magnetism that leads people
to follow his directives, this person is said to have charisma. Great personalities in
history like Napoleon Bonaparte, Julius Caesar, Adolf Hitler, George Washington,
Elvis Presley and others are said to possess charisma. This characteristic was greatly
responsible for whatever accomplishments they achieved.
When used properly, charisma will help the leader in achieving his goals. With
some adjustments, subordinates may be expected to do their tasks willingly.
Creativity. Ronnie Millevo defines creativity as “the ability to combine existing

data, experience, and preconditions from various sources in such a way that the
results will be subjectively regarded as new, valuable, and innovative, and as a direct
solution to an identified problem situation.”
As leaders are tasked to provide solutions to problems besetting their particular

units or divisions, creativity will be a very useful trait. Problems, are oftentimes,
complex and challenging, and if they are, the leader will need all, the creative abilities
he has.
Flexibility. People differ in the way they do their wort. One will adapt a different
method from another person's I method. A leader who allows this situation as long as
the' required outputs are produced, is said to be flexible.
There is wisdom in being flexible. It allows the other' means of achieving goals
when the proscribed manner is not appropriate.
Leadership Skills
Leaders need to have various skills to be effective. They are:
1. technical skills
2. human skills, and
3. conceptual skills.
These skills are used in varying degrees at different management levels (Figure
8.1).
Technical Skills. These are skills a leader must possess to enable him to
understand and make decisions about work processes, activities, and technology.
Technical skill is the specialized knowledge needed to perform a job. When a leader
has the technical skill related to his area of responsibility, he will be more confident in
performing his functions. The engineer manager, for instance, must be able to perform
engineering jobs, if he wants to maintain n motivated work force.
The engineer manager of a construction firm must have sufficient technical skills
to undertake construction works. The manager of an electrical engineering firm must
possess the skill to install and maintain electrical facilities and equipment.
Human Skills. These skills refer to the ability of leader to deal with people, both
inside and outside the organization. Good leaders must know how to get along with
people, motivate them, and inspire them.
Apart from motivating, human skills include coaching, communicating, morale

building, training and development, help and supportiveness, and delegating.
Conceptual Skills. These skills refer to “the ability to think in abstract terms, to
see how parts fit together to form the whole" A very basic requirement for effective
implementation is a clear and well-expressed presentation of what must be done. A
leader without sufficient conceptual skills will fail to achieve this.
D. BEHAVIORAL APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP STYLES
Those in positions of leadership exhibit a pattern of behavior that is unique and

different from other patterns. This total pattern of behavior is called leadership style.
There are several approaches used in classifying leadership styles.
They are as follows:
1. According to the ways leaders approach people to motivate them.
2. According to the way the leader uses power
3. According to the leader's orientation towards task and people.
Ways Leaders Approach People
There are two ways, a leader may approach people to motivate them. They are:
(1) positive leadership and (2) negative leadership.
When the leader's approach emphasizes rewards, the style used is positive
leadership. The reward may be economic, like an increase in monthly salary, or it may
be noneconomic like membership in an advisory committee.
When punishment is emphasized by the leader, the style is said to be negative

leadership. The punishment may take the form of reprimand, suspension, or
dismissal.
Leaders, sometimes, alternately use positive and negative leadership

depending on the characteristics of the individual subordinates.
Ways Leaders Uses Power
Leadership styles also vary according to how power is used. They are as
follows: (1) autocratic, (2) participative, and (3) free-rein.
Autocratic Leaders. Leaders who make decision' themselves, without
consulting subordinates are called autocratic leaders. Motivation takes the form of
threats, punishment, and intimidation of all kinds.
The autocratic style is effective in emergencies and when absolute followership

is needed. An example is a civil, engineer in charge of constructing a temporary bridge
over one that has been currently damaged.
The disadvantages of autocratic leadership is that the leader “receives little, if

any, information and ideas from, his people as inputs into his decision-making.”
Participative Leaders. When a leader openly invites his subordinates to

participate or share in decisions, policy-making and operation methods, he is said to
be a participative leader.
The advantage of participative leadership is that it generates a lot of good ideas.

Another advantage is the increased support for decisions and the reduction of the
chance that they will be unexpectedly undermined.
The disadvantage of participative leadership is that it is time-consuming and

frustrating to people who prefer to see a quick decision reached.
Free-Rein Leaders. Leaders who set objectives and allow employees or

subordinates relative freedom to do whatever it takes to accomplish these objectives,
are called free-rein leaders. They are also referred to as laissez-faire lenders. This
leadership style is most applicable to certain organizations manned by professionals
like doctors and engineers. An example is the engineering department of a university
which is headed by the dean.
If free-rein leadership fits the situation, there is full managerial delegation

resulting to optimum utilization of time and resources. This happens because many
people are motivated to full effort only if given this kind of free-rein.
The weakness of free-rein leadership is that there is very little managerial

control and a high degree of risk. If the leader does not know well the competence
and integrity of his people and their ability to handle this kind of freedom, the result
could be disastrous.
Leaders Orientation Toward Tasks and People
Leaders may be classified according to how they view tasks and people.
Consequently, a leader may either be: II) employee oriented or (2) task oriented.
Employee Orientation. A leader is said to be employee-oriented when he

considers employees as human beings of “intrinsic importance and with individual and
personal need” to satisfy.
Task Orientation. A leader is said to be task-oriented if he places stress on

production and the technical aspects of the job and the employees are viewed as the
means of getting the work done.
E. CONTINGENCY APPROACHES TO LEADERSHIP STYLE
The contingency approach is “an effort to determine through research which

managerial practices and techniques are appropriate in specific situations.” The
various contingency approaches are as follows:
1. Fiedler's Contingency Model
2. Hersey and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model
3. Path-Goal Model of Leadership
4. Vroom's Decision Making Model
Fiedler's Contingency Model
According to Fred Fiedler, "leadership is effective when the leader's style is

appropriate to the situation'" The situational characteristics is determined by three
principal factors:
1. the relations between leaders and followers
2. the structure of the task, and
3. the power inherent in the leader's position.
The situational characteristics vary from organization to organization. To be

effective, the situation must fit the leader. If this is not so, the following may be tried:
1. Change the leader's trait or behaviours.
2. Select leaders who have traits or behaviours fitting the situation.
3. Move leaders around in the organization until they are in positions that fit
them.
4. Change the situation.
Hersey and Blanchard Situational Leadership Model
The situational leadership model developed by Hersey and Blanchard suggests

that the most important factor affecting the selection of a leader's style is the
development (or maturity) level of subordinate. The leader should match his or her
style to this maturity level.
Maturity has two components:
1. job skills and knowledge, and
2. psychological maturity.
Blanchard and others elaborated on the leadership styles appropriate for the
various maturity level of subordinates. They are as follows:
Style 1: Directing — is for people who lack competence but are enthusiastic and
committed. They need direction and supervision to get them started.
Style 2: Coaching — is for people who have some competence but lack
commitment. They need direction and supervision because they're still relatively
inexperienced. They also need support and praise to build their self-esteem, and
involvement in decision-making to res-tore their commitment.
Style 3: Supporting — is for people who have competence but lack of

confidence or motivation. They do not need much direction because of their skills, but
support is necessary to bolster their confidence and motivation.
Style 4: Delegating — is for people who have both competence and

commitment. They are able and willing to work on a project by themselves with little
supervision or support.
Path-Goal Model of Leadership
The path-goal model of leadership espoused by Robert J. House and Terence

R. Mitchell, stipulates that leader-ship can be made effective because leaders can
influence subordinate's perceptions of their work goals, personal goals, and paths to
goal attainment.
By using the path-goal model, it is assumed the effective leaders can enhance
subordinate motivation by:
1. clarifying the subordinate's perception of work goals,
2. linking meaningful rewards with goal attainment, and
3. explaining how goals and desired rewards can be achieved.
The path-goal process is shown in Figure 8.4.
Leadership Styles. The leadership styles which may be used by path-goal
proponents are as follows:
1. Directive leadership — where the leader focuses on clear task

assignments, standards of successful performance, and work schedules.
2. Supportive leadership — where subordinates are treated as equals in a

friendly manner while striving to improve their well-being.
3. Participative leadership — where the leader consults with subordinates to

seek their suggestions and then seriously considers those suggestions
when making decisions.
4. Achievement-oriented leadership — where the leader set challenging

goals, emphasize excellence, and seek continuous improvement while
maintaining a high degree of confidence that subordinates will meet difficult
challenges in a responsible manner.
Vroom's Decision-Making Model
Vroom's model of leadership is one that prescribes the proper leadership style
for various situations, focusing on the appropriate degrees of delegation of decision-
making authority.
Five distinct decision-making styles are identified under the Vroom model. Two
of them are autocratic, two others are consultative, and one is group directed.
The Vroom model, shown in Figure 8.5, may be useful as a guide for the leader.
It may also be helpful as a training guide.
SUMMARY
Managers are expected to provide the required out-puts by utilizing the various
inputs including labor. Those who provide labor, however, will perform when properly led.
As such, engineer managers are required to possess leadership skills.
The management function which involves influencing others to engage in the work
behaviors necessary to reach organizational goals is referred to as leading.
Leaders influence others because of the power they possess. Power may be
classified as (1) legitimate, (2) reward, (3) coercive, (4) referent, and (5) expert.
In developing effective leaders, certain leadership traits have been identified by

researchers.
Leaders need to have technical, human, and conceptual skills to be effective.
Leadership style may be classified in terms of behavior as follows: (1) according to

the ways leaders approach people to motivate them, (2) according to the way the leader
uses power, and (3) according to the leader's orientation towards task and people.
Leadership style may also be classified in terms of contingency as follows: Fiedler's

contingency model, Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership model, Path Goal
model of leadership, and Vroom's decision-making model.
QUESTION FOR REVIEW AND DISCUSSION
1. What is leading? Why is it important to the engineer manager?
2. How do leaders influence others?
3. What is meant by referent power? Give an example of a person with referent

power
4. Why is it important for a leader to have "the desire to lead"? What happens if
the said desire is not present?
5. What is meant by "charisma"? Is it a necessary ingredient for leadership
6. What is meant by "human skills"? How may these skills help the leader?
7. How is positive leadership different from negative leadership?
8. What are free-rein leaders? When is free-rein leader-ship appropriate?
9. When the situation does not fit the leader, what options do management have?
10. What leadership styles may be used by path-goal proponents?
RESEARCH
Identify an engineer of your choice. Describe his leadership style. Are there important
changes that have to be made in his style? What are those? List down the proposed
character change applicable.

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ENGINEERING MANAGEMENT

ENGR. EDMUNDO A. OBINA

Republic of the Philippines

An example of the ill-effects of staffing errors was provided by the TV program

When interviewed by the TV program's staff, a former construction worker said he

This type of tragedy underscores the importance of defiling in any organization,

At the end of this chapter, the students shall be able to:

2. Understand staffing and its procedure

B. THE STAFFING PROCEDURE

The staffing process consists of the following series of steps:

1. human resource planning

Human Resource Planning

The planned output of any organization will require a systematic deployment of

Human resource planning may involve three activities, as follows:

1. Forecasting — which is an assessment of future human resource needs in

2. Programming — which means translating the forecasted human resource

3. Evaluation and control — which refers to moni-toring human resource action

Methods of Forecasting. The forecasting of man-power needs may be

2. Explanatory, or causal models — which are at-tempts to identify the major

a) regression models (presented in Chapter 2)

c) leading indicators — refers to time series that anticipate business

3. Monitoring methods — are those that provide early warning signals of

Recruitment refers to attracting qualified persons to apply for vacant positions

1. The organization's current employees. Some of the organization's current

2. Newspaper advertising. There are at least three major daily newspapers

3. Schools. These are good sources of applicants. Representatives of

4. Referrals from employees. Current employees sometimes recommend

5. Recruitment firms. Some companies are specifically formed to assist client

6. Competitors. These are useful sources of qualified but underutilized

Ways of Determining the Qualifications of a Job Candidate

Companies use any or all of the following in deter-mining the qualifications of a

1. Application blanks. The application blank provides information about a

2. References. References are those written by previous employers, co-

3. Interviews. Information may be gathered in an interview by asking a series

4. Testing. This involves an evaluation of the future behavior or performance of

Tests may be classified as follows:

1. Psychological tests — which is "an objective, standard measure of a

a) aptitude test — one used to measure a per-son's capacity or potential

b) performance test— one used to measure a person's current knowledge

c) personality test — one used to measure personality traits as

d) interest test — one used to measure a person's interest in various fields

Induction and Orientation

In orientation, the new employee is introduced to the immediate working

Training and Development

If the newly-hired (or newly-promoted) employee is assessed to be lacking the

Training refers to the "learning that is provided in order to improve performance

1. training programs for non-managers, and

Training Program for Non-managers

This type of training is directed to non-managers for specific increases in skill

1. On-the-job training — where the trainer is placed in an actual work situation

2. Vestibule school — where the trainee is placed in a situation almost exactly

3. Apprenticeship program — where a combination of on-the-job training and

4. Special courses — are those taken which provide more emphasis on

1. In-basket — where the trainee is provided with a set of notes, messages,

2. Management games — is a training method where "trainees are faced with

The interpersonal competence of the manager may be developed through any

1. Role-playing — is a method by which the trainees are assigned roles to play

2. Behavior modeling — this method attempts to influence the trainee by

3. Sensitivity training — under this method, aware-ness and sensitivity to