Mechanical 

System Design
Dr. Arun Kumar Jalan
BITS Pilani Mechanical Engineering Department
Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

DE ZG525
MECHANICAL SYSTEM DESIGN
LECTURE NO: 2
Ref: Pahl, G.and W.Beitz, Engineering Design–A Systematic Approach – Springer, 3rd Ed.
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Discuss on last lecture

Concept of system design
• Task and activities
• Position of design process and trends
• Necessity for systematic design
 Requirements and needs for systematic design
 Historical Background
 Current methods

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Fundamentals of systematic design

• Fundamentals of Technical systems

 Technical artefacts
 Conversion of energy, materials and signals
 Functional interrelationship
 Working interrelationship
 Constructional interrelationship
 System interrelationship
 Systematic guideline

• Fundamentals of systematic approach

 Problem solving process
 Characteristics of good problem solver
 Information processing
 Working methodology
 Applicable methods
 Role of computer support
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1. Technical artefacts

 Technical tasks are performed with the help of technical

artefacts that include plant, equipment, machines,
assemblies and components
 Variation in use of these terms reflect historical
developments and application areas.
 Attempts to define standards in which energy-
transforming technical artefacts are referred to as
machines, material-transforming artefacts as apparatus
and signal-transforming artefacts as devices.
 It is evident that a clear division on the basis of these
characteristics is not always possible and so current
terminology is not ideal.
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Technical artefacts Contd….

 Hubka’s suggests [1984-88] that technical artefacts

should be treated as systems connected to the
environment by means of inputs and outputs.
 A system can be divided into subsystems, whatever
belongs to a particular system is determined by the
system boundary. The inputs and outputs cross the
system boundary
 this approach defines appropriate systems at every stage
of abstraction, analysis or classification, and such
systems are parts of larger, superior systems.
 Depending on their use, any number of subdivisions may
be made. For example:
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Technical artefacts Contd….

 But we have to establish or define viewpoints, required to

divide the system depends on intended purpose of the
division.
 Common viewpoints are:
Function: used to identify or describe the functional
relationships
Assembly: used to plan assembly operations
Production: used to facilitate production and production
planning.
 Designers have to establish particular systems for
particular purposes, and must specify their various inputs
and outputs and fix their boundaries.
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2. Conversion of energy, Material and Signals

 The analysis of technical systems—plant, equipment,

machine, device, assembly or component—makes it clear
that all of them involve technical processes in which energy,
material and signals are channelled and converted
 In technical processes, one type of conversion (of energy,
material or signals) may prevail over the others, depending
on the problem or the type of solution.
 prevailing one as the main flow and accompanied by a
second type of flow, and quite frequently all three come into
play.
 Some examples:

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2. Conversion of energy, Material and Signals

 In every type of proposed conversion, quantity and quality,

both be taken into consideration for the choice of solutions
and for evaluation are to be established.
• For example: No statement is fully defined unless its
quantitative as well as its qualitative aspects are taken into
account. Thus, the statement “100 kg/s of steam at 80 bar
and 500 ◦C” is not a sufficient definition of the input of a
steam turbine unless there is the further specification that
these figures refer to a nominal quantity of steam and not,
for instance, to the maximum flow capacity of the turbine,
and the admissible fluctuations in the state of the steam are
fixed at, say, 80 bar ± 5 bar and 500 ◦C ± 10 ◦C, that is,
extended by a qualitative aspect.
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2. Conversion of energy, Material and Signals

• In many applications, it is also essential to stipulate the cost

or value of the inputs and the maximum permissible cost of
the outputs
• All technical systems, therefore, involve the conversion of
energy, material and signals, which must be defined in
quantitative, qualitative and economic terms.

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3. Functional interrelationship : Task specific

 In order to solve a technical problem, we need a system

with a clear and easily reproduced relationship between
inputs and outputs.
 In the case of material conversions, for instance, we require
identical outputs for identical inputs.
 Also, between the beginning and the end of a process there
must be a clear and reproducible relationship.
 Such relationships must always be planned—that is,
designed to meet a specification.
 For the purpose of describing and solving design problems,
it is useful to apply the term function to the intended
input/output relationship of a system whose purpose is to
perform a task.
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Functional interrelationship : Task specific

 overall function can often be divided directly into identifiable

sub-functions corresponding to subtasks.
 The relationship between sub-functions and the overall
function is very often governed by certain constraints
 it is usually possible to link sub-functions in various ways
and hence to create variants. In all such cases, the links
must be compatible.
 The meaningful and compatible combination of sub-
functions into an overall function produces a so-called
function structure which may be varied to satisfy the overall
function
 it is useful to make a block diagram in which the processes
and subsystems inside a given block are initially ignored
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Function structure

Ref: Engineering Design by G. Pahl and

others

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Functional interrelationship : Task specific

 main functions are those subfunctions that serve the overall

function directly,
 Auxiliary functions are those that contribute to it indirectly.
They have a supportive or complementary character and
are often determined by the nature of the solutions for the
main functions
 Distinction not always possible between the functions.
 The division between them should be managed in a flexible
manner. For example, a change in the system boundary
resulting from a change of focus can transform an auxiliary
function into a main function and vice versa.
 Example:

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Case study : Packing of carpet tiles

Ref: Engineering
Design by G. Pahl
and others

There is need of auxiliary functions because:

• the stamping-out process creates offcuts that must be removed
• rejects must be removed separately and reprocessed
• packing material must be brought in.

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Case study : Packing of carpet tiles

Ref: Engineering Design

by G. Pahl and others
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Functional interrelationship : Generally valid

 Various design methodologists have put forward wider or

stricter definitions of generally valid functions
 it is possible to classify functions so that the lowest level of
the function structure consists exclusively of functions that
cannot be subdivided further while remaining generally
applicable
 Some studies has defined generally valid functions in terms
of binary logic or, in terms of their general applicability or, in
terms of the required physical effects.
 examined general functions for possible computer
applications during the conceptual design, paying attention
to the relationship between inputs and outputs, a design
methodology is presented.
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Functional interrelationship : Generally valid

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Functional interrelationship : Generally valid

Ref: Engineering
Design by G.
Pahl and others
•the description that uses generally valid functions has a
higher level of abstraction
•it leaves open all possible solutions and makes a systematic
approach easier.
•However, using generally valid functions can represent a
problem because such an abstract level can sometimes
hinder the direct search for solutions
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Functional interrelationship : Logical

 “if–then” relationship
 binary logic such as true/false, yes/no, in/out,
fulfilled/unfulfilled, present/not present,
 AND function, OR function, NOT function, their combination
NOR functions (OR with NOT), NAND functions (AND with
NOT), these are called logical functions.

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Functional interrelationship : Logical

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4. Working interrelationship : Physical

 a working interrelationship comes into existence through
physical effects in combination with the chosen geometric
and material characteristics.
 Physical effects can be described quantitatively by means of
the physical laws governing the physical quantities involved.
e.g: Friction force, lever law, expansion law etc.
 Several physical effects may have to be combined in order
to fulfill a subfunction. Ex: operation of a bimetallic strip is
the result of a combination of two effects, namely thermal
expansion and elasticity
 A subfunction can often be fulfilled by one of a number of
physical effects. Ex: a force can be amplified by the lever
effect, the wedge effect, the electromagnetic effect, the
hydraulic effect, etc
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Working interrelationship : Geometric

 The place where the physical process actually takes effect
is the working location, i.e. the specific active location that is
the focus of interest at the time. A function is fulfilled by the
physical effect, which is realised by the working geometry,
i.e. the arrangement of working surfaces.
 The working surfaces are varied with respect to and
determined by: Type, Shape, Position, Size, and Number
 Similarly, the required working motions are determined by:
• Type: translation–rotation
• Nature: regular–irregular
• Direction: in x-, y-, z-directions and/or about x-, y-, z-axes
• Magnitude: velocity, force etc.
• Number: one, several, etc.
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Working interrelationship : Material

 In addition, we need a general idea of the type of material

with which the working surfaces are to be produced, for
example, whether it is solid, liquid or gaseous; rigid or
flexible; elastic or plastic; stiff, hard or tough; or corrosion-
resistant.
 A general idea of the final embodiment is often insufficient;
the main material properties must be specified before a
working interrelationship can be formulated adequately.

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Working interrelationship Examples

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5. Constructional interrelationship
 The working interrelationship established in the working
structure is the starting point for further concretisation
leading to the construction structure.
 This interrelationship represents the concrete technical
artefact or system by defining the components, assemblies
and machines and their interconnections.
 The construction structure takes into account the needs of
production, assembly, transport, etc.
 The construction structure must satisfy the requirements of
the selected working structure plus any other requirements
necessary for the technical system to operate as intended.
To identify these requirements fully, it is usually necessary to
consider the system interrelationship
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6. System interrelationship
 Technical artefacts and systems do not operate in isolation
and are, in general, part of a larger system.
 To fulfill its overall function, such a system often involves
human beings who influence it through input effects
(operating, controlling, etc.).
 The system returns feedback effects or signals that lead to
further actions. In this way, human beings support or enable
the intended effect of the technical system.
 Apart from desired inputs, undesired ones from the
environment and from neighboring systems can affect a
technical system. Such disturbing effects (e.g. excess
temperatures) can cause undesired side-effects (e.g.
deviations from shape or shifts in position).
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System interrelationship

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System interrelationship

Intended effect: Functionally desired effect in the sense of

system operation.
Input effect: Functional relationship due to human action on
a technical system.
Feedback effect: Functional relationship due to the action
of a technical system on a human or another technical
system.
Disturbing effect: Functionally undesired influence from
outside on a technical system or human that makes it
difficult for a system to fulfill its function.
Side effect: Functionally undesired and unintended effect of
a technical system on a human or on the environment.
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7. Systematic Guideline

 The solution of technical tasks is determined by the

general objectives and constraints.
 general objectives.
 Economic feasibility is another essential requirement,
and concern with human and environmental safety must
impose itself for ethical reasons.
 ergonomics, production methods, transport facilities, the
intended operation, etc.
 industrial, ergonomic, aesthetic, distribution, delivery,
planning, design, production and economic factors.

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Systematic Guideline

• Safety: also in the wider sense of reliability and availability

• Ergonomics: human–machine context, also aesthetics
• Production: production facilities and type of production
• Quality control: throughout the design and production
process
• Assembly: during and after the production of components
• Transport : inside and outside of the factory
• Operation: intended use, handling
• Maintenance : upkeep, inspection and repair
• Expenditure : costs and schedules
• Recycling : reuse, reconstitution, disposal, final storage.
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II. Fundamentals of
systematic approach

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II. Fundamentals of systematic approach

 Before dealing with the specific steps and rules of

systematic design, need to discuss cognitive
psychological relationships and general methodical
principles.
 It help to structure the proposed procedures and
individual methods so that they can be applied to the
solution of design tasks in a purposeful way.
 The ideas come from a host of different disciplines,
mainly non-technical ones, and are usually built on
interdisciplinary fundamentals. Work science,
psychology and philosophy are among the main
inspirations, consider that methods designed to improve
working procedures impinge on the qualities, capacities
and limitations of human thought
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1. Problem solving process

Generally a problem has three components:

• an undesirable initial state, i.e. the existence of an
unsatisfactory situation
• a desirable goal state, i.e. the realisation of a satisfactory
situation
• obstacles that prevent a transformation from the
undesirable initial state to the desirable goal state at a
particular point in time.

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Problem solving process Contd…

An obstacle that prevents a transformation can arise from :

• The means to overcome the obstacle are unknown and
have to be found (synthesis or operator problem).
• The means are known, but they are so numerous or
involve so many combinations that a systematic
investigation is impossible (interpolation problem,
combination and selection problem).
• The goals are only known vaguely or are not formulated
clearly. Finding a solution involves continuous deliberation
and the removal of conflicts until a satisfactory situation is
reached (dialectic problem, search and application
problem).

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Problem solving process Contd…

 A problem has some typical characteristics:

• Complexity: many components are involved and these
components, through links of different strength, influence
each other.
• Uncertainty: not all requirements are known; not all criteria
are established; the effect of a partial solution on the
overall solution or on other partial solutions is not fully
understood, or only emerges gradually. The difficulties
become more pronounced if the characteristics of the
problem area change with time.

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Problem solving process Contd…

 We should know distinction between Tasks and problems

 What is the role of Thinking processes ?
 heuristic structure of human thought.
 The memory can be thought of as a semantic network
with nodes (knowledge) and connections (relationships)
which can be modified and extended.
 Thinking involves building and restructuring such
semantic networks, and the thinking process itself can
proceed intuitively or discursively.

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Problem solving process Contd…

 Intuitive thinking is strongly associated with flashes of

inspiration. The actual thinking process takes place to a
large extent unconsciously. Insights appear in the
conscious mind suddenly, caused by some trigger or
association. This is referred to as primary creativity and
involves processing quite complex relations.
 Discursive thinking is a conscious process that can be
communicated and influenced. Facts and relationships
are consciously analysed, varied, combined in new ways,
checked, rejected, and considered further. In this is
referred to as secondary creativity.

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Problem solving process Contd…

 The heuristic structure includes explicit knowledge (i.e.

knowledge that can be explained) as well as implicit
knowledge.
 Ex: The so-called TOTE model represents an important
fundamental sequence for thinking processes It consists
of two processes: a modification process and a testing
process.

 But need a good problem solver

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2. Characteristics of good problem solver

1. Intelligence and creativity

– intelligence is thought to involve a certain cleverness, combined
with the ability to understand and judge. Analytical approaches
are often emphasised.
– Creativity is an inspirational force that generates new ideas or
produces novel combinations of existing ideas, leading to further
solutions or deeper understanding. Creativity is often associated
with an intuitive, synthesising approach.
– For problem solving, a minimum level of intelligence is required
and it appears that people with high Intelligence Quotients are
more likely to be good problem solvers.
– Creativity tests too are often at such a low level that they do not
address complex problem solving which involves planning and
guiding one’s own approach.

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Characteristics of good problem solver

2. Decision making behaviour

– Apart from having well-structured factual knowledge, applying a
systematic approach, and using focused creativity, designers
have to master decision making processes.
– For decision making, some mental activities and skills are
essential
• Recognising Dependencies
• Estimating Importance and Urgency
• Continuity and flexibility
• Failures cannot be avoided

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Characteristics of good problem solver

On conclusion Good problem solvers:
• have a sound and structured technical knowledge, i.e. they
have a well-structured model in their minds
• find an appropriate balance between concreteness and
abstraction, depending on the situation
• can deal with uncertainty and fuzzy data
• continuously focus on the goals while adopting a flexible
decision making behaviour.

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Characteristics of good problem solver

The study reveals that good designers demonstrate the following
behaviour :
• They thoroughly analyse the goals at the beginning of a task and
continue to do so throughout the design process when formulating
partial goals, in particular when the original problem formulation is
vague.
• They first generate or identify the most suitable solution principles in a
conceptual phase before developing concrete embodiments.
• They initially adopt a diverging search without generating too many
variants and then quickly converge onto a small number of solutions;
they choose the appropriate level of concretisation and switch easily
between perspectives.
• They regularly assess their solutions using a comprehensive set of
criteria, avoiding emphasising personal preferences.
• They continuously reflecton their approach and adapt it to the
situation at hand.
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• Fundamentals of systematic approach

 Problem solving process
 Characteristics of good problem solver
Information processing
 Working methodology
 Applicable methods
 Role of computer support

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Questions?
Contact : [email protected]

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