Karl’s Study Guide!

IB HL Physics 2014

IB Higher Level Physics

Study Guide

By: Karl Bocker

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Karl’s Study Guide! IB HL Physics 2014

Topic 2: Mechanics! 5
2.1:Kinematics! 5

2.2:Forces & Dynamics! 7

2.3: Work and Power! 10

2.4: Uniform Circular Motion! 12

Topic 3: Thermal Physics! 14

3.1: Thermal Concepts! 14

3.2: Thermal Properties of Matter! 15

Topic 4: Oscillations and Waves ! 18

4.1: Kinematics of Simple Harmonic Motion! 18

4.2: Energy Changes During Simple Harmonic Motion! 19

4.3: Forced Oscillations and Resonance! 19

4.4: Wave Characteristics! 21

4.5: Wave Properties! 23

Topic 5: Electrical Currents! 25

5.1: Electric Measurements! 25

5.2: Electric Circuits! 27

Topic 6: Fields & Forces! 29

6.1: Gravitational Force and Field! 29

6.2: Electric Force and Field! 30

6.3: Magnetic Force & Field! 32

Topic 7: Atomic and Nuclear Physics ! 35

7.1: The Atom! 35

7.2: Radioactive Decay! 37

7.3: Nuclear Reactions! 40

Topic 8: Energy, power and climate change! 43

8.1: Energy degradation and power generation! 43

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Karl’s Study Guide! IB HL Physics 2014

8.2: World energy sources! 43

8.3: Fossil fuel power production! 45

8.4: Non-fossil fuel power production! 45

8.4: Solar Power! 46

8.4: Hydroelectric Power! 46

8.4: Wind Power! 47

8.4: Wave Power! 47

8.5: Greenhouse Effect! 48

8.6: Global Warming! 51

Topic 9: Motion in fields! 52

9.1: Projectile Motion! 52

9.2: Gravitational field, potential and energy! 52

9.3: Electric field, potential and energy! 53

9.4: Orbital Motion! 54

Topic 10: Thermal Physics ! 56

10.1: Thermodynamics! 56

10.2: Processes! 56

10.3: Second law of thermodynamics and entropy! 57

Topic 11: Wave Phenomena! 58

11.1: Standing Waves! 58

11.2: Doppler Effect! 59

11.3: Diffraction! 60

11.4: Resolution! 61

11.5: Polarization! 61

Topic 12: Electromagnetic Induction! 64

12.1: Induced electromotive force (emf)! 64

12.2: Alternating Current! 65

12.3: Transmission of Electrical Power! 66

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Topic 13: Quantum and Nuclear Physics ! 67

13.2: Nuclear Physics (discussed earlier in topic 7)! 69

Topic 14: Digital Technology ! 70

14.1: Analogue and Digital Signals! 70

14.2: Data Capture; digital imaging using charge-coupled devices (CCD’s)! 71

Option E: Astrophysics! 73
E1: Introduction to the universe! 73

E2: Stellar Radiation and Stellar Types! 74

E3: Stellar Distances! 77

E4: Cosmology! 79

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Karl’s Study Guide! IB HL Physics 2014

Topic 2: Mechanics
Mechanics is the branch of physics which investigates motion and the forces
which induce motion.

2.1:Kinematics

2.1.1: Definitions
Displacement (Vector) Distance between two points in a straight line

Velocity (Vector) Rate of change of displacement

Speed (Scalar) Distance travelled per unit time

Acceleration (Vector) Rate of change of velocity

The above properties can be said to have both average and instantaneous values. The
instantaneous value of the property is the magnitude which it possesses at one point in
time. The average value is however the mean magnitude over the entire motion (total
change divided by total time)

2.1.3: UVATS
The set of equations that can be used to calculate various properties of the motion of an
object undergoing constant acceleration are often referred to as the UVATS equations.

U Initial Velocity

V Final Velocity

A Acceleration (CONSTANT)

T Time taken

S Distance travelled

UVATS Equations:

v = u + at v 2 = u 2 + 2as ⎛ u + v⎞
s=⎜ ⎟ t
1
s = vt − at 2
2
1
s = ut + at 2
2
⎝ 2 ⎠
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Karl’s Study Guide! IB HL Physics 2014

Any object close to earth will experience a force acting on it due to the mass of the earth.
This force is equal to an acceleration of 9.81ms-2

2.1.6: Air Resistance

All objects traveling through an environment which is not a vacuum will experience air
resistance. This resistance which it will experience is in the opposite direction of its
acceleration and when these two forces are balanced the object will reach terminal
velocity. This can be seen in the below graphs.

2.1.7: Analyzing graphs

Through looking at displacement, velocity and acceleration time graphs several inferences
about the motion of an object can be made. These graphs can be seen below.

Area = Change in Velocity

Slope = change in
Acceleration

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2.1.9: Relative Velocity

Relative velocity occurs when an object is moving through a medium which is also moving
in relation to the observer. Two common examples are a plane flying through wind as seen
below or a ship sailing through current.

2.2:Forces & Dynamics

The weight of an object is defined as the gravitational force that it experiences. It can be
calculated by using the equation w=mg. Where w is the weight of the object (measured in
Newtons, N), m is the mass of the object (measured in kilograms, Kg) and g is the
gravitational field strength of the planet which the object is on (measured in N).

2.2.2: Free-body Diagrams

Tension is the force that

Tension arises when a body is
being stretched

If a body touches
another body, there is a
Normal reaction force (R)
Reaction between the two bodies.
Force This force is
perpendicular to the
body exerting the force

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Drag forces are forces

that oppose the motion
of a body through a fluid
(gas or liquid). They are
Drag directed opposite to the
Force velocity of the body and
generally depend on the
speed of that body.
Higher speed equals
higher drag force.

An object placed in a
fluid medium will
experience up thrust. If
Up Thrust the up thrust force on a
body is equal to the
weight, the body will float
in the fluid.

Frictional forces (f) are

Friction forces that oppose the
motion of a body 

Hooke’s law states that

up to the elastic limit,
the extension, x of a
spring is proportional to
Hooke’s the tension force, F. The
Law constant of
proportionality k is called
the spring constant. SI
units of spring constant
are N m-1.

2.2.3: Resultant Forces

The resultant force is the overall force acting on an object when all the individual forces
acting on that object have been added together.

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In order to determine the resultant force acting upon an object, we need to add the
individual forces. Consider the figure below:

2.2.4: Newton’s first law of motion

Newton’s first law of motion states that “an object at rest will remain at rest unless acted
upon by an external force” this is also true for an object in motion. An example of this is a
block on a table. As long as no external force is applied to the block it will remain at rest.

2.2.6: Translational Equilibrium

Translational equilibrium occurs when all forces in one frame of reference are balanced,
thus there is no acceleration but rather constant velocity.

2.2.8: Newton’s second law of motion

Newton’s second law of motion states that the force exerted by an object is equal to the
product of its mass and acceleration. F=ma, this can also be expressed as the change in
momentum divided by the change in time.

2.2.10: Momentum & Impulse

Momentum is defined as the product of the mass and the velocity of an object (p=mv).
Momentum is measured in Newton seconds (Ns). Impulse is defined as the change in
momentum that a body experiences. The area underneath a force time graph will be equal
to the impulse of any object.

2.2.12: Conservation of momentum

The law of conservation of momentum applies to any system where no external forces act.
This is often exemplified through the us of two colliding objects and their resultant velocity
and direction must be calculated.

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2.2.14: Newton’s third law of motion

Newton’s third law states that every action has an opposite and equal reaction. One
example of Newton’s third law is the flight of birds. As a bird flaps it’s wings to push air
down the same pressure is applied by the air on the bird upwards, this enables the bird to
fly.

2.3: Work and Power

2.3.1: Work
The work done in a s specific motion is defined as the product of the force applied over the
distance moved. w=Fs. If the force is however not applied in the same direction as the
movement the following equation must be used. w=Fscos(a), where a is the angle at which
the force is applied.

In any force displacement graph the work done is equal to the area underneath the curve.

2.3.4: Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object as a result of its velocity. It can be
found using the equation below.

1 2
ke = mv
2
In the above equation, m is the mass of the object in motion and v is the velocity of it.

2.3.5: Gravitational Potential Energy

Gravitational potential energy is the energy possessed by an object as a result of its
location within an area where it experiences a gravitational pull. It can be expressed using
the below equation.

pe = mgΔh
In the above equation, m is equal to the mass of the object, g is the gravitational field
strength and h is the altitude of the object.

2.3.6: Conservation of Energy

“The amount of energy in an isolated system is the same all the time. Additionally, energy
may neither be created not destroyed.” This statement is the basic law of the conservation
of energy, in essence initial energy=final energy.

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2.3.7: Types and Conversion of Energy

There are many forms of energy below are a a few.

Energy
Kinetic Energy Any object in motion will possess kinetic energy

Gravitational Potential Energy Energy that exists as the result of the location of an
object

Chemical Energy Energy possessed due to the ability of an object to

undergo chemical reactions

Strain Energy Energy released when atoms in an object are allowed

to rearrange, for example in a rubber band.

Nuclear Energy Energy held within the nucleus of an atom that can be
released when the state of the atom is altered

Thermal Energy Energy possessed by an object due to its temperature

Energy can be converted in many ways, some examples are through a battery where
chemical energy is turned into electrical energy, friction where kinetic energy is converted
into thermal energy and a microphone which converts sound into electrical energy.

2.3.8: Types of collisions

Collisions
Elastic Momentum is Kinetic energy is Can only occur at very
collisions conserved conserved small scale as energy
is otherwise lost due to
heat and light

Inelastic Momentum is Kinetic energy is not All visible collisions are

collisions conserved conserved inelastic

2.3.9: Power
Power is the rate at which work is done.

Work
Power =
Time

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2.3.10: Efficiency
Efficiency is measured as the percentage of input energy which is returned as useful work
from a system. For example a small percentage of the energy put into a car in the form of
petrol will be wasted through the production of sound rather than mechanical power to
move the car forwards.

Useful Energy Out

Efficiency =
Total Energy In

2.4: Uniform Circular Motion

2.4.1: Diagram

In the above diagram speed is constant while the velocity changes as it is a vector and the
direction is under constant change. Some examples of this phenomena is satellites where
the centre seeking force is the gravitational pull, a car driving in a circle experiences the
same force from friction between the tires and the ground.

2.4.2: Centripetal Acceleration

The magnitude of the acceleration toward the centre during circular motion can be found
using the below equation. (Centripetal means centre seeking)

v 2 4π 2 r
a= = 2
r T
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2.4.4: Solving Questions

In the data booklet there are two listed equations, the one mentioned above and the
equation for angular velocity, seen below. Omega is the angular velocity measured in rad/s.

2π
ω=
t

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Topic 3: Thermal Physics

3.1: Thermal Concepts
The most important concept in thermal physics is that temperature will always flow from a
hot object to a cold one. Once these two objects are at the same temperature they are
said to be in thermal equilibrium. In thermal physics Kelvin is often used instead of Celsius.
This is because the Kelvin scale begins at 0K which is absolute zero, the coldest
temperature attainable by any material.

Kelvin = Celsius + 273

3.1.3: Internal Energy
The internal energy of a substance is determined by two factors, the kinetic and potential
energy of its molecules.

Internal Energy
Kinetic Energy The kinetic energy of the particles is determined by their
individual translational (movement) and rotational (Rotating...
DUH!) kinetic energy.

Potential Energy Potential energy of the particles comes from their respective
intermolecular forces, this energy is from the work required to
pull the particles apart.

3.1.4: Macroscopic Thermal Measurements

Measurements
Temperature Scalar quantity, measures how hot something is (measured in
Kelvin)

Internal Energy Total Kinetic and Potential energy of a substance (measured in

Joules)

Thermal Energy Energy that is given to a substance when it is heated

(measured in Joules)

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3.1.5: Mole & Molar Mass

Mole Amount of substance, in a certain number of particles
(avogadro’s constant)

Molar Mass The mass of one mole of a specific substance.

Avogadro’s constant is the number of atoms in one mole, 6.02 x 1023, the number of atoms
in 0.012 kg of carbon-12.

3.2: Thermal Properties of Matter

3.2.1: Specific Heat Capacity
Specific The amount of thermal energy Q = mcΔT
Heat required to raise the temperature of Thermal Energy= mass x specific
Capacity (c) 1 kg of a substance by 1K (1oC) heat capacity x change in temp.

Thermal The amount of thermal energy Q = CΔT

Capacity required to raise the temperature of Energy= Heat capacity x change in
a body by 1K (1oC) temperature

3.2.3: States of Matter

Solid Particles are in order, only movement is in the form of vibration,

strong intermolecular forces, shape and volume are constant.

Liquid Particles are in some order, particles can vibrate and slide around
each other, moderately strong intermolecular forces, volume is
constant but shape is not.

Gas Particles are in disorder, particles can move freely, very weak
intermolecular forces, shape and volume are both variable.

3.2.4: Changing states of matter

The state of matter can change due to outside forces. If a solid is heated until the point
where the particles contain sufficient energy to weaken the bonds between them they
material will melt. When a liquid is heated the energy will be used to break intermolecular
bonds creating a gas.

When a material is changing matter it will not be heating up as all the energy will be used
to weaken or break intermolecular bonds.

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3.2.6: Evaporation vs. Boiling

Evaporation, unlike boiling, occurs at all temperatures, but the rate of evaporation
increases as temperatures increases. Boiling occurs only when the liquid has reached a
temperature of 100℃. Evaporation occurs only at the surface of a liquid while boiling
occurs everywhere. Boiling is an endothermic (takes in energy) reaction while evaporation
is exothermic as only the most energetic molecules are released. Boiling occurs when a
liquid is heated from the bottom while evaporation occurs when the liquid is heated from
the top.

3.2.7: Specific Latent Heat

The specific latent heat of a substance is the energy required for a specific mass of a
substance to change state. It can be calculated using the below equation, in which Q is the
energy required, m is the mass of substance and L is the latent heat in J/kg.

Q = mL
3.2.9: Pressure (for gases)
Pressure can be defined as the force exerted by a gas on the sides of its container.
Measured in Nm-2.

Force
Pressure =
Area
3.2.10: Kinetic Model of an Ideal Gas
In order to more easily measure and predict the behavior of gases scientists have
developed the kinetic model of ideal gases. This model makes several assumptions about
the behavior of gases.

Assumptions:
1. Gas molecules are assumed to behave in an idealized way, that is, Newton’s laws of
mechanics apply to the motion of individual molecules.
2. It is assumed that intermolecular forces are negligibly small.
3. Molecules are assumed to be spherical and possess negligible volume (when compared
with gas as a whole)
4. Molecules are assumed to be moving randomly.
5. Collisions between molecules are assumed to be elastic.
6. The time for a collision to take place is also assumed to be negligible.

Temperature is a measure of the average random kinetic energy of an ideal gas.

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3.2.12: Macroscopic Behavior of an Ideal Gas

When investigating a gas at the macroscopic level several things about the gas can
change.

Possible Changes:
1. An increase in the number of molecules, this will cause more collisions and therefore
more powerful collisions with the sides of the container.
2. When volume is decreased pressure will increase as there will be an increase in the
number of collisions causing stronger and more frequent collisions with the container
sides.
3. When temperature is increased there will be an increase in pressure because gas
molecules will be moving faster and collide with more force with the container sides.

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Topic 4: Oscillations and Waves

4.1: Kinematics of Simple Harmonic Motion
An oscillating object is an object which is moving back and forth with a constant time
period.

4.1.2: Definitions
Displacement Distance travelled from equilibrium point

Amplitude Maximum value of Displacement

Frequency The number of oscillations per second, Hz

Period The time taken for one oscillation.

Phase Difference A way of comparing different oscillating objects, often

in terms of wavelengths

4.1.3: Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple harmonic motion is defined by two principles:
1. The force or acceleration is always directed towards the centre of motion
2. The force of acceleration is proportional to the distance from the equilibrium point

a = −ω 2 x

acceleration= -(angular frequency)2 × displacement

There are other equations which can be used to find displacement or velocity along
different waves, these equations can be seen below. These are all in RADIANS.

v = v0 sin(ω t)
v=v0 cos(ω t)
v = ±ω (x02 − x 2 )
x = x0 cos(ω t)
x = x0 sin(ω t)

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4.2: Energy Changes During Simple Harmonic Motion

During simple harmonic motion energy is continously transferred between potential and
kinetic energy. In a pendulum for example an object is gaining potential and losing kinetic
energy as it is moving away from the equilibrium point.

To find the amount of different forms of energy in simple harmonic motion the below
equations can be used. ET is the total energy.

1
ET = mω 2 x02
2
1
EK = mω 2 (x02 − x 2 )
2
1
EP = mω 2 x 2
2
4.3: Forced Oscillations and Resonance
4.3.1: Damping
Damping is the use of a force in the opposite direction of the motion of an object in simple
harmonic motion. It causes the amplitude of an oscillation to decrease.

Damping is used in bridges, swing doors and car suspensions etc. There are three forms
of damping:

Damping
Under Occurs when the damping force
Damped is small so the amplitude is only
slightly decreased each
oscillation

Critically Occurs when the damping force

Damped is sufficiently large, it decreases
the amplitude rapidly and causes
it to stop at 0.

Over Occurs when the damping force

Damped is large, this causes the
amplitude to decrease very
slowly.

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4.3.3: Natural Frequency & Forced Oscillation

The natural frequency is the frequency that an object will oscillate at when displaced from
its equilibrium.

A forced oscillation is when an object is made to oscillate due to an external force.

The above diagram illustrates the amplitude of an object undergoing forced oscillation.

4.3.5: Resonance
Resonance is when an object is oscillating at its natural frequency, hence with a large
amplitude.

Resonance can be very damaging to bridges and airplanes as it can cause them to break
apart. It can however be good to have resonance in musical instruments as it enables
them to play loudly.

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4.4: Wave Characteristics

All waves posses certain characteristics:
1. All waves transfer energy
2. The substance that the wave moves through does not move
3. They all possess SHM

Waves
Transverse Oscillations are at a right angle
Wave to the direction of energy
transfer
e.g. Water Waves, Vibrations
along a string

Longitudinal Oscillations are parallel to the

Wave direction of energy transfer
e.g. Sound Waves, Seismic
Waves

Wave Characteristics Definitions

Wave Front Highlights the part of the waves moving together. e.g.
all crests

Rays Rays highlight the direction in which a wave is moving

Crest The highest point on a transverse wave

Trough The lowest point on a transverse wave

Compression The point of highest pressure on a longitudinal wave

Rarefaction The point of lowest pressure on a longitudinal wave

Wave Speed The speed at which an oscillation passes a stationary

point

Intensity Power that the wave carries per oscillation,

proportional to the square of the amplitude.

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Different graphs of waves can be drawn, for example a displacement time graph, below,
can be used to show how a point along a waves moves with time.

A displacement position graph, below, can be used to show how points along a graph
possess different displacement at any point.

v = fλ
The above equation is the equation which can be used to find, velocity, frequency or
wavelength of any wave.

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4.4.9: Electromagnetic Waves

All waves along the electromagnetic spectrum travel at the same speed (speed of light) in
a vacuum.

4.5: Wave Properties

Reflection and Refraction of Waves

Reflection When a wave reflects off a
surface, can be seen in diagram
to the right.

Refraction When light is incident on a

refractive material

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4.5.2: Snell’s Law

Snell’s law states that there is a relationship between the angle of incidence, the refractive
index of the two materials and the angle of refraction.

4.5.3: Diffraction
When a wave passes by an obstacle or passes through an aperture it will diffract and
spread out. Maximum diffraction occurs when the wavelength is equal to the slit width.

Diffraction occurs in a range of situations, for example in a harbor, and when sounds pass
by corners so you can hear things you can’t see.

Interference & Superposition

Constructive When two waves interfere and are moving in the same direction, the
Interference resultant displacement is the sum of the two displacements

Destructive When two waves meet and are displaced in opposite directions, this
Interference causes them to partially cancel out, the sum is the resultant
displacement

Superposition The superposition of two waves is the sum of their displacement

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Topic 5: Electrical Currents

5.1: Electric Measurements

Electrical Currents Definitions

Electric Potential Difference The potential difference between two points on a circuit
is equal to the work done per unit charge to move a
small positive charge between these points. Measured
in Volts.
ΔE
ΔV =
q
Electronvolt 1eV The amount of energy acquired by an electron when it
is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 Volt.
1 eV = 1.6x10-19J

Electric Current Electric current is a flow of charge, either due to

electrons moving through a metal or through ions
moving in a solution or gas. Electrons in metals flow as
electrons move through a lattice of positive metal ions.
Metals can conduct as some of the electrons in metals
can move freely. Measured in Amperes.
Δq
I=
Δt
Resistance Resistance is a measure of how easily charge can flow
in a material. The resistance is defined as the ratio of
the potential difference across a material to the current
flowing through it.
V
R=
I
Electromotive Force (emf) Emf is the work (or energy) per unit charge made
available by an electrical source. Emf is the maximum
potential difference that an electric source can supply.

5.1.7: Resistance
Resistance depends on 3 factors:
1. Length of material which current is moving through
2. Cross sectional Area of the material which the current is moving through
3. The resistivity of the material which the current is moving through.

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Resistivity is a measure of how good of a conductor a material is. Good conductors have
low resistivity. Measured in Ohm Meters.
Resistance of an object can therefore be calculated using the following equation (where
rho is the resistivity):

ρL
R=
A
5.1.8: Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law states that ohmic materials are materials where voltage is proportional to
current. Ohmic materials do not change temperature when a current is passed through
them.

Non-Ohmic materials heat up when a current is passed through them.

Below are diagrams showing the relationship between voltage and current for several
conductors.

5.1.10: Power
Electrical Power is the rate that an electrical device uses energy.

V2
P = VI = I R = 2

R
These equations can be derived from the below working:

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W q
P= I=
t
t
Vq
W = Vq P= = IV
t

! ! And as R=V/I. All of the above equations can be derived.

5.2: Electric Circuits

5.2.2: Internal Resistance
Internal resistance is the concept that a cell itself has resistance that the current needs to
pass through. This can be proven as the cell heats up and this resistance increases.

5.2.3: Resistance Equations

Resistance Equation
Series RTotal = R1 + R2 + R3 + ...
Parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
RTotal R1 R2 R3

5.2.4: Circuit Diagrams

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Strain Gauge, a resistor that can be pulled and when it does its resistance increases.

5.2.5: Ammeter and Voltmeter

Ammeter & Voltmeter

Ammeter Measures the current at a point in a circuit. Should be connected in
series. Should ideally have 0 resistance so no p.d. is dropped across it.

Voltmeter Measures the voltage across a part of a circuit. Should be connected in

parallel. A voltmeter should have a very high almost infinite resistance.

5.2.6: Potential Divider

Resistors connected in parallel can be used to control voltages. By changing the ratio of
the resistors it is possible to vary how much potential is dropped across either R1 or R2.
This can be used to supply different objects by the same cell without supplying to much
current to the various objects.

5.2.7: Sensors in Circuits

Sensors can be used to activate different parts of a circuit at any time. For example a light
sensor can be used to activate lights only at night. A Light Dependent Resistor will have
lower resistance with higher light intensity.

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Topic 6: Fields & Forces

6.1: Gravitational Force and Field
Newton’s Universal law of gravitation states “Every mass attracts every other mass with a
force proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square
of their separation”

m1m2 Gm1m2 G = 6.67 × 10 −11 Nm 2 kg −2

F∝ 2 F=
r r2

6.1.2: Gravitational Field Strength

Gravitational field strength is defined as the force per unit mass acting on a small test
mass placed at a point in a field. Measured in Nkg-1ms-2

Gm1m2
F 2 Gm
g= = r = 2
m m r
Planets are surrounded by a radial field where masses will experience a force. This force
becomes less as you get further away from the planet, the potential energy increases as
an object moves further away as it can travel further. When it is an infinite distance away it
however the potential becomes 0 as the planet has no effect on the mass.

The equation for change in potential energy when moving in relation to a planet is equal
to:

w
ΔV =
m
For an object to reach the point where the potential is 0 and it no longer experiences a
force it must leaver the planet with a specific velocity, escape velocity.

GMm
Energy Required=
r
1 2 GMm
mv =
2 r
2GM
v=
r

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6.2: Electric Force and Field

Charge exists either as positive or negative charge. According to the law of conservation of
charge, charge always remains constant within an isolated system.

A conductor is a material or object which can easily carry a charge. This is because it has
free electrons within itself which can carry the charge. Metals are often conductors.

Insulators are materials or objects which do not carry a charge. Most materials are
insulators.

6.2.4: Coulomb’s Law

Every charge attracts or repels every other charge with a force proportional to the product
of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of their separation.

q1q2 kq1q2 k = 8.99 × 10 9 Nm 2C −2

F∝ 2 F= 2
r r
6.2.5: Electric Field Strength
Similar to gravitational field strength, electric field strength is the force per unit charge
acting on a small positive test charge placed at that point. Electric field strength is
calculated using the below equation:

kq1q2
F r 2 kq
E= = = 2
q q r
A change in the potential energy of a test charge in a field can be measured using the
below equation:

(−)kq
ΔV =
r
The negative signifies that since charge can be both negative and positive.

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6.2.7: Electric Field Diagrams

The dotted lines are lines where the field strength is equal. (On the below diagrams the
lines on the sides are caused by the edge effect)

The above diagram shows a uniform electric field. To find the electric field strength
between these two plates the following equation can be used:

V
E=
d
E is the electric field strength (Vm-1 or NC-1), V is the potential difference between the two
plates and d is there separation.

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6.3: Magnetic Force & Field

Magnetism is the phenomena that causes certain materials to be able to attract or repel
each other. A moving current will also give rise to a magnetic field.
There are three elements that can be magnetic:
1. Iron
2. Nickel
3. Cobalt

Magnetism
Hard Magnetic (Permanent) Difficult to magnetize and demagnetize

Soft Magnetic (Temporary) Easy to magnetize and demagnetize

A current carrying wire will give rise to the magnetic field seen below (this is known as the
grip rule)

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Similarly a solenoid with a current through it will generate a magnetic field as seen in the
diagram below.

When a charge is moving through a magnetic field it will thus experience a force. To find
the direction of this force Fleming’s left hand rule can be used.

The above rule can be used when investigating the direction in which a charged particle
will experience a force when moving through a magnetic field (B). I is the direction of
current and F is the force.

When a current carrying wire moves through a magnetic field it will experience a force.
This force can be calculated by using the following equation.

F = BIL sin θ

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In this equation F is the force experienced, B is the magnetic flux density of the magnetic
field and I is the current in the wire, L is the length of the wire and theta is the angle
between the wire and the field.

When an charged particle is moving through a magnetic field another equation can
however be used, it is stated below.

F = BQvsin θ
F is similarly to before the force experienced by the object, B is the magnetic flux density,
Q is the charge of the object, v is the velocity of the object and theta is the angle between
the field and the movement of the object. The left hand rule can after this be used to find
the direction of the force. Remember that current is the flow of negative charge.

6.3.5: Definitions of a Magnetic Field

Magnitude of a magnetic field is the strength of the field, measured by it’s magnetic flux
density.

The direction of a magnetic field is from north pole to south pole. The direction determines
how objects within the field will react to the field.

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Topic 7: Atomic and Nuclear Physics

7.1: The Atom
In historic times atoms were described as being made of a so called plum pudding model,
seen below. This was however disproved by Rutherford.

Rutherford was able to disprove this method through several observations he made when
performing the now famous ‘Rutherford experiment’ where he fired alpha particles through
a gold leaf with a detector behind to detect wether any alpha particles flew through.

Observation Conclusions
Most alpha particles went straight through Most of atom must be empty space

Some positive alpha particles experienced Matter in the atom must be positive
large deflections

Very few alphas returned Matter must be concentrated into very

small space

Through this experiment Rutherford could thus disprove the plum pudding model, and the
current atomic model was developed.

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This model, often called the Bohr model is however severely limited as it is only accurate
for hydrogen.

7.1.4: Atomic Energy Levels

As seen by the Bohr model of the atom electrons are circling in layers around the nucleus,
these different layers are referred to as atomic energy levels. The existence of these levels
has been proven through the fact that when an element is heated it will give off light. This
can be said to prove the existence of energy levels as the release of certain frequencies of
light is due to electrons moving between energy levels. Energy levels correspond to
specific energy levels and in order for an electron to move to a specific level it must be
given the precise difference in energy from it’s current state to it’s new state. This is often
achieved by shining light on a tube of the gas form of the element in question. When
however investigating the emission spectrum a charge can be applied across a gas of the
element to be investigated. This will result in the excitement and then relaxation of
electrons, causing emission of specifically charged photons, as seen on the below spectra.

The release of this photon of a specific energy will correspond to a specific wavelength of
light. To calculate this wavelength the below calculation must be made. Values of energy
levels are often measured in electronvolts. To convert between eV and J you must multiply
by 1.6x10-19 and divide by the same number to go the other way.

E = hf
Energy = Planck's Constant × Frequency
c=fλ
Speed of light = frequency × wavelength

This calculation to find the wavelength of the emitted light from an atom has proven the
existence of energy levels.

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7.1.5: The Nucleus

Definitions
Nuclide A nuclide is a specific nucleon, determined by it’s number of
neutrons and protons

Isotope Isotopes are different versions of the same element, differing only
in the number of neutrons that it possesses

Nucleon A nucleon is either of the two components of a nucleus, a proton

or a neutron

Nucleon Number The nucleon number of an element is the number of protons and
(A=Z+N) neutrons in a stable nucleus

Proton Number (Z) The proton number of an element is the number of protons in the
nucleus of an atom of this element.

Neutron Number (N) The neutron number is the number of neutrons in the nucleus of
an atom of a specific element.

Inside the nucleus nucleons are kept together due to short range nuclear interactions,
forcing the neutrons and protons together. This force that keeps the nucleons together
causes the masses of bound together nucleons to be less than if they were separated. It is
this phenomena that enables nuclear power.

7.2: Radioactive Decay

There are four types of radiation, these are listed in the table below.

Types of Radiation
Alpha radiation is the release of
Po →
Alpha (α) 210 4 206
a helium nucleus from an
84 2 He + 82 Pb
unstable nucleus.

Beta- (β-) Beta minus radiation is the

release of an electron from the
14
6 C → −1β + N+υ
0 − 14
7
0
0 e
nucleus of an element. This The creation release of this electron in
release is enabled through the one direction causes an electron
creation of a proton from a flavored anti neutrino to be launched in
neutron. the opposite direction, in order to keep
momentum constant

0υ e
0 +
Ga → e + 70
Beta+ (β+) Beta plus radiation is similar to 70 0
beta minus but instead of 31 1 30 Zn +
releasing an electron, a positron Beta plus radiation causes the release
is released. of electron flavored neutrino.

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Types of Radiation
Gamma (Ɣ) Gamma radiation is caused by Gamma rays that are emitted have
the decay of a nucleus from one discrete energy levels and thus
energy level to another. This nuclear energy levels are also
causes the release of a high discrete.
energy electromagnetic wave
(>10keV)

All of these types are ionizing radiation, particles that have sufficient energy to liberate
electrons from their atoms, causing the atom to become ionized. Alpha particles are very
ionizing but because of their large size they can easily be stopped by a few centimeters of
air or a sheet of paper. Beta radiation is less ionizing but because of its very high speed it
is able to penetrate more. Gamma radiation is also ionizing and it is very hard to stop, it
requires thick sheets of lead to shield from gamma radiation.

Exposure to ionizing radiation can be very harmful as particles causing electrons to be

liberated can cause cancer and other severe conditions. In the short term this radiation
can cause skin damage and damage to the reproductive organs. In the long term however
it may cause cancer and hereditary issues.

The above graph shows a graph of most elements. As seen on the graph the number of
neutrons increases exponentially the larger the nucleus. This causes large nuclei to
become unstable as the forces keeping the nucleus together become weaker as the
nucleus grows, no longer enabling it to remain stable. Elements along the top of this graph
often undergo alpha radiation, while elements to the left of the stable line will undergo beta
minus and elements to the right will undergo beta plus.

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7.2.6: Half-Life
Half-life is defined as the time taken for half the remaining radioactive nuclei of a
substance to decay or as the time taken for the activity of a radioactive substance to halve.

As radioactive decay is a random process half life can not always with complete accuracy
predict the behavior of a radioactive sample. The rate of decay does however always
decrease.

The above graph of the activity of a specific radioactive element can be used to calculate
the half life by finding the time taken for the activity to halve, in this case 2 days.

When working with half-life the following equation is useful:

N = N 0 e− λt
In this equation, N is the number of atoms remaining, N0 is the original number of atoms,
lambda is the decay constant and t is the time taken. In order to find the time of one half
life the below derivation can be performed.

N = N 0 e− λt ⎛ 1⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ = − λ t1/2
1 = 2e− λt1/2 ⎝ 2⎠
1
=e − λt1/2
ln ( 2 −1
) = − λ t1/2
2 − ln(2) = − λ t1/2
⎛ 1⎞
ln ⎜ ⎟ = ln ( e− λt1/2 ) t1/2 = ln(2)
⎝ 2⎠ λ
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7.3: Nuclear Reactions

An artificial transmutation is the process by which an atom changes into an atom of a
different element. This can occur as a result of exposure to radioactivity as the atom may
have been exposed to and thus been hit by radioactive products, such as alpha or beta
particles. This situation can be described using a nuclear equation:
14
7 N + 24α → 148 O + 11 H

The term unified atomic mass unit is a measurement of the mass of objects at very small
scale.

E=mc2
The Einstein mass energy equivalence relationship is a very useful. The equation creates
a way in which mass can be represented as energy, this is based on the energy that would
be released if all the intermolecular bonds in a substance was broken. When discussing
this relationship there is one critical value, 931.5 MeVc-2. This number represents the
mass of 1 atomic mass unit, in terms of energy and the speed of light. This can be used
wen finding for example the binding energy of a nucleus. The binding energy is found in
atomic mass units. This is then multiplied by 931.5. This will then give you the binding
energy in terms of MeV.

Definitions
Mass Defect Mass defect is the difference in mass between an atom and the
constituent parts of this atom. This is what enables energy to be
released from nuclear reactions.

Binding Energy Binding energy is the energy which holds a nucleus together, it is
equal to the mass defect.

Binding Energy Per The binding energy per nucleon is what it sounds like...
Nucleon

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The above graph shows the relationship between the binding energy per nucleon and
number of nucleons for all elements. The two arrows also indicated the directions in which
fusion and fission can occur.

Fission and Fusion

Definitions
Fission Fission occurs as a neutron is fired
onto a target nucleus. This nucleus
is because of this impact split into
two new nuclei as well as releasing
a few solitary neutrons. These
neutrons will then continue to hit
other nuclei increasing the reaction.
In order to keep a fission reaction
under control it is necessary to
absorb some of the neutrons, this is
done using Boron or Cadmium.

Fusion Fusion works by the joining of

hydrogen isotopes, which at very
high temperatures can bond and will
form helium and neutrons. Not yet
possible on earth due to the high
temperatures required.

The graph seen previously with the bonding energy per nucleon can be used to illustrate
the energy released during a nuclear reaction, as the energy per nucleon increases
energy will be released, this enables energy to be retrieved.

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This diagram illustrates the structure of a nuclear fission reactor. The graphite core is in
place to slow down the neutrons as they have to strike the fuel nuclei at a specific speed
for the reaction to take place.

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Topic 8: Energy, power and climate change

8.1: Energy degradation and power generation
When producing energy the most common method is to heat up water which is then used
to turn a steam turbine to generate electricity.

Degraded energy is the process through which energy is lost due to heat, light, sound or
other methods to the surrounding environment when electricity is produced.

The above diagram is known as a Sankey diagram, it represents how energy can be lost
during the production or use of electricity. In this situation it is apparent that 90% of the
input energy is output as heat and 10% is output as light.

8.2: World energy sources

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The above chart illustrates the relative amount of resource use for the production of
electricity on earth.

The above diagram illustrates the different energy sources used to produce electricity,
those on the right are non-renewable, meaning that there is only a finite amount of it
available on earth, those on the left are available in unlimited amounts. Biomass, fossil
fuels and natural gas also release CO2 when burnt to produce electricity.

Energy density is the amount of energy per kg of a specific fuel. It is measured in JKg-1.
The cost of fuels is often closely related to its energy density as fuels with high energy
densities are more desirable.

Advantages & Disadvantages of different fuels

Releases large amounts of air
Inexpensive pollution
Coal
Relatively easy to collect Causes acid rain and global warming
Heavy and difficult to transport

Fuel is inexpensive Very high capital cost

Nuclear High energy density Difficult long term storage of fuel
No greenhouse gas release Very dangerous if incident occurs

Very location dependent

Very inexpensive after initial
Hydroelectric Effects wildlife
investment
Potential collapse very dangerous

Major contributor to greenhouse

Easy to obtain effect
Gas/Oil
High energy density Large price swings dependent on
demand

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Expensive equipment to maintain

Wind Free fuel source Very climate dependent
Limited energy production

Very climate dependent

Rare materials needed in production
Solar Free fuel source of equipment
Large land area for small amounts of
energy generation

Early life of industry

Inefficient when small plants are used
Biomass Job creation as small plants
Global warming contributor
must be used

8.3: Fossil fuel power production

Fossil fuels have historically been widely used, both because of their ease of extraction but
also because they have a high energy density.

The use of fossil fuels to produce electricity is however quite inefficient because of the
sheer mass of fuel which must be transported. Fossil fuel power plants have an efficiency
around 40%.

8.4: Non-fossil fuel power production

In a nuclear power plant energy is released due to the collision between neutrons and
nuclei which due to the collision splits. This process releases energy which heats water
surrounding the reactor which is then used to produce electricity. The reaction is kept in
control by using control rods which absorb some of the neutrons in order to prevent a
runaway reaction, the type of reaction desired in a nuclear weapon.

The fuel enrichment which is done before uranium can be used in a nuclear reactor
involves placing the fuel in a centrifuge where the lighter Uranium-235 collects together
apart from the Uranium-238 which is not desired. The Uranium can through this process
become more than the required proportion of 3.5% Uranium-235, as opposed to the prioo
0.7%.

The moderator, often heavy water, is a liquid which is placed within the core of the nuclear
reactor, it works to slow down the neutrons, this is required as the neutrons have to hit the
nuclei at a specific velocity in order for a successful reaction to take place. The faster
neutrons are likely to be captured by uranium-238 and produce plutonium-239.
Plutonium-239 is however also a viable nuclear fuel which has a low critical mass (see
later)

The heat exchanger is a device where hot water comes in and the energy from it is
transferred to cold water, the cold, now warm water can then be used to power a generator
to create electricity.

Critical mass is the minimum amount of fuel required in order to sustain a nuclear reaction.

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The use of nuclear power to generate electricity has however been greatly contested
because of the risks which it brings. The four main issues are:
1. The risk of a meltdown, which may cause severe damage to surrounding areas and
health risks for hundreds of years
2. Nuclear waste is difficult to transport and store due to its large health risks
3. The mining of uranium can also like most mining be very dangerous.
4. A nuclear energy program can also be used as a cover-up by a country to produce
nuclear weapons

Nuclear fusion is not yet possible on earth due to the very high temperature needed to
maintain a successful reaction.

8.4: Solar Power

There are two ways of retrieving electricity directly from the sun, the first method is to use
a photovoltaic cell. A photovoltaic cell is able to directly transfer solar energy into electricity
but it is expensive to build. A solar heating panel however works by heating water with the
energy which it receives, this energy can in turn be used to power a steam turbine and
produce electricity.

Solar power is however very dependent on seasonal and regional changes, as the
northern hemisphere for example has less incident light in the winter, due to the slant of
the earth.

8.4: Hydroelectric Power

There are three main processes through which electricity can be produced from the motion
of water. The first method is through the use of a dam where water can be backed up and
released through turbines which generate electricity. Electricity can also be produced from
the movement of tides by using underwater propellers which can generate electricity from
the movement of currents. A third method through which electricity can be produced is the
use of a “wave-snake”, in practice a tube which lays on top of the ocean and moves due to
the waves pushing pistons within it back and forth, a motion which can generate electricity.

In any hydroelectric scheme the main process which is taking place is the transfer of
kinetic energy into electrical energy.

The power produced by a hydroelectric dam can be calculated as below (rho is density, V
is volume, Ep is potential energy, g is acceleration due to gravity, m is mass, h is heigh, P
is power and t is time):

E p = mgh E p = ρVgh
P = Et
ρ=m V
P = ρVgh t

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8.4: Wind Power

A wind generator consists of a propeller which due to the force of the wind will turn, this will
cause the production of electricity in a generator. Thus transferring kinetic energy into
electrical energy.

To calculate the energy available to a wind power plant the below calculation and
simplification can be made.

Volume = velocity × Area

EK = 1 2 mv 2
m = ρV
EK = 1 2 ρVv 2
EK = 1 2 ρ Av 3

This equation can be used to find the energy produced by a wind mill, when the air
continues on the other side the change in velocity should be considered.

8.4: Wave Power

When looking at wave power the potential energy that a wave possesses because of its
amplitude is the most important consideration. The water drops on average half of the
amplitude when the wave moves. The below derivation illustrates this energy retrieval.

V = Aλ L
E p = mgh
E p = ρVgh
E p = ρ Aλ L g h
E p = ρ Aλ Lg A 2
E p = 1 2 ρ A 2 λ Lg
1 ρ A 2 λ Lg
P= 2
t
P = 2 ρ A 2 vLg
1

In the above equation, V is volume, A is amplitude (of half the wave), lambda is the
wavelength and L is the three dimensional depth of the wave.

On method through which wave power power can be extracted is through an Oscillating
Water Column (OWC). An OWC can be seen below:

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This machine works by the wave pushing water into the column compressing the air which
in turn turns a turbine which generates electricity.

8.5: Greenhouse Effect

To find the amount of light which is incident on the earth the below calculation can be
performed.

Solar Energy Output= 3.9 × 10 26 Js −1

Surface area of sphere around sun at distance of earth:4π R 2

( )
2
SA = 4π 1.5 × 1011
SA = 2.83 × 10 23
3.9 × 10 26
Energy output per m 2 =
2.83 × 10 23
E = 1400Wm −2
Cross sectional area of earth=π r 2

( )
2
A = π × 6.4 × 10 6
A = 1.29 × 1014
Power hitting Earth=1400 × 1.29 × 1014
P = 1.8 × 1017

The albedo of a celestial body is the fraction of incoming light that is directly reflected
away. The albedo for Earth is approximately 0.3. The albedo of a body depends heavily on
the material that the planet is covered in, as the reflectiveness of the surface determines

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albedo. For example glaciers will keep the albedo high as they reflect a lot of incoming
light.

The greenhouse effect is primarily caused by the earths ability to keep some of the energy
which is incident on it as a result of gases in the atmosphere.

The main gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect are, CH4 (Methane), H2O (Water
vapor), CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) and N2O (Nitrous Oxide). These gases are released
naturally (CO2 and H2O) but some are also released due to human environmental
interference, for example we release more CO2 today than ever before.

The above gases are able to retain energy on earth due to their ability to absorb infrared
radiation. The gases are hit by the radiation, this causes them to vibrate, and light in the
infrared region in particular is able to vibrate these molecules at their natural frequency
which enables them to absorb the light.

The above graph shows the relationship between the wavelengths of light incident and the
ability of greenhouse gases to absorb the light, and as shown by this graph greenhouse
gases absorb infrared in the wavelength 13-18µm the best.

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A black body is a an object that absorbs and emits all types of radiation. The graph above
shows the emission spectrum of a black body at different temperatures. The peak at each
temperature is known as the ‘most prevalent wavelength’. Wein’s Law is a rule that states
that the most prevalent wavelength emitted by a black body is equal to:

2.90 × 10 −3
λmax =
T
The Stefan Boltzmann law relates the Power emitted by a planet to various other factors,
such as emissivity, surface area, and temperature, it is written below:

Power=Emissivity × Stefan Boltzmann Constant × Surface Area × Temperature 4

P = εσ AT 4
Emissivity is the fraction of a black body that a planet is. For Earth: 0.7.

Surface Heat Capacity is a measurement for how much energy is required to raise the
temperature of one unit area of a planets surface by 1°. The equation can be seen below:

Heat energy
Surface Heat Capacity=
Surface Area × ΔTemperature
Q
Cs =
AΔT
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8.6: Global Warming

There have been several explanations provided that aim to explain increasing
temperatures on earth, a few are: Change in composition of greenhouse gases, increased
solar flare activity, cyclical changes in Earth’s orbit and volcanic activity.

The enhanced greenhouse effect is an influence that humans have had on Earth as the
greenhouse effect is a good thing while the enhanced greenhouse effect can be
damaging. One contribution that humans have had to this effect is the increased
combustion of fossil fuels, a combustion which has caused more greenhouse gases to be
released into the atmosphere.

Three processes that help increase the rate of global warming are:
1. Melting of ice and snow caps, alters the albedo and thus increases heat absorption
2. Temperature increases decreases the solubility of CO2 in the sea which increases the
amount of CO2 in the atmosphere.
3. Deforestation decreases carbon fixation.

The coefficient of volume expansion is a way to measure the increase in volume of a

substance per degree of temperature rise.

Water levels are likely to rise from an increase in earths temperature for two reasons:
1. Increased expansion
2. Melting ice and snow caps.

The enhanced greenhouse effect is the major cause of global climate change. Several
methods to decrease it’s effects have however been proposed:
1. Increasing power production efficiency
2. Replacing coal and oil with natural gas (which releases less greenhouse gases)
3. Carbon dioxide capture and storage
4. Use of hybrid vehicles

There have been many international meetings and protocols established such as:
1. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
a. A scientific intergovernmental body established to monitor worldwide data on climate
change
2. Kyoto Protocol
a. An international protocol established to force ratifying countries to limit greenhouse
gas emissions
3. Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APPCDC)
a. An international voluntary partnership between a select number of countries that
works to improve energy efficient technology.

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Topic 9: Motion in fields

9.1: Projectile Motion
In a uniform field the vertical and horizontal components of motion are independent. If you
drop one ball and throw another horizontally from a helicopter they will land at the same
time.

The above graph shows an object undergoing projectile motion in the absence of air
resistance. If air resistance is present the path would be shorter and steeper.

9.2: Gravitational field, potential and energy

Definitions
Gravitational Potential energy per unit mass at one point in a gravitational
Potential field.

Gravitational Is the energy possessed by an object due to it’s location in the

Potential Energy gravitational field of a planet.

Gravitational potential can be calculated by either of the two expressions below.

−Gm W
V= ΔV =
r m
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The below graph shows the potential gravitational potential of an object in relation to its
distance from earth:

The potential energy can then be calculated using the equation above. Around planets
there is a similar kind of circular field that circles an electric charge, thus equipotential lines
can be drawn around one or more objects. Escape velocity have been discussed earlier
but is required for this unit.

9.3: Electric field, potential and energy

Definitions
Electric Potential Potential energy per unit charge at one point in a electric field.

Gravitational Is the energy possessed by a charge due to it’s location in the

Potential Energy electric field of another charge.

The equation for electric potential is stated below:

W
ΔV =
q
(−)kq
V=
r

The below diagram shows equipotential field lines for a few electric charges:

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9.4: Orbital Motion

The force of gravity provides the centripetal force which enables circular orbital motion.
The derivation of Kepler’s third law can be seen below:

mv 2 GMm
Centripetal Force= = 2
r r
mv 2 GMm
= 2
r r
GM ⎛ 2π r ⎞
v2 = v= ⎜
r ⎝ T ⎟⎠
⎛ (2π r)2 ⎞
v =⎜
2

⎝ T 2 ⎟⎠
⎛ 4π 2 r 2 ⎞
v =⎜
2

⎝ T 2 ⎟⎠
4π 2 r 3
GM =
T2
4π 2 r 3
T =
2

GM
T ∝ r3
2

To find the energy of an orbiting object the below calculations can be made:

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GMm
We know: E P = −
r
GMm mv 2
To find Kinetic Energy: F= =
r2 r
GMm mv 2
= = Kinetic Energy
2r 2
Total energy=Potential+Kinetic
GMm GMm
E= − +
r 2r
GMm
E=−
2r

The below graph shows the variation in different forms of energy as a satellite moves away
from a planet.

In space humans will experience weightlessness, this is due to the fact that you will be
falling constantly thus creating the sensation of weightlessness.

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Topic 10: Thermal Physics

10.1: Thermodynamics
Ideal Gas:

The equation for an idea gas is equal to:

PV = nRT
Where P is pressure, V is volume, n is the number of moles of substance, R is the ideal
gas constant (8.314 J/molK) and T is the temperature.

An ideal gas is ruled by a set of assumptions about the movement of particles in a gas that
makes it easier to predict and calculate the behavior of this gas. The assumptions made
are:
1. Gas molecules are assumed to behave in an idealized way, that is, Newton’s laws of
mechanics apply to the motion of individual molecules.
2. It is assumed that intermolecular forces are negligibly small.
3. Molecules are assumed to be spherical and possess negligible volume (when compared
with gas as a whole)
4. Molecules are assumed to be moving randomly.
5. Collisions between molecules are assumed to be elastic.
6. The time for a collision to take place is also assumed to be negligible.

A real gas may however not follow these assumptions but the similarity is sufficiently close
for a comparison to be made.

Absolute zero or 0K is a temperature at which particle motion no longer occurs as the

energy possessed by particles is insufficient for motion to occur. Nothing can ever achieve
a temperature lower than 0K.

10.2: Processes
When changing the attributes of a gas the relationship below may be used:

P1V1 P2V2
=
T1 T2
The first law of thermodynamics states that the internal energy of a closed is equal to the
amount of heat supplied to the system minus the amount of work done by the system on
it’s surroundings:

Heat energy exchanged (J)=Internal energy (J) +Work done by gas (J)
Q = ΔU + W
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This first law of thermodynamics is very similar to the law of conservation of energy as it
proposes that the energy of a system cannot increase or decrease unless energy is being
transferred to and from outside the system.

The above diagram shows a PV graph of a gas. To calculate the work done at any part of
this diagram one can multiply the Pressure and Volume changes, this will give you work
done. There are a few special transformations that can take place on a diagram such as
the one above they are:

Special Cases
Isochoric change of When a gas changes state while volume is constant, shown on
state the graph as a vertical shift

Isobaric change of Occurs when a gas changes state while the pressure remains
state constant, illustrated by a horizontal line.

Isothermal change of Occurs when a gas changes state while temperature remains
state constant illustrated by a curved line on the graph

Adiabatic change of An adiabatic change of state occurs when no energy leaves or

state enters the system. Thus when the change in internal energy is
equal to the work done by the gas.

10.3: Second law of thermodynamics and entropy

The second law of thermodynamics states that energy cannot randomly transfer from a
region of low temperature to a region of high temperature.

Entropy is a property that expresses that the amount of disorder in a system can only
increase due to natural causes. The overall level of entropy in the universe is constantly
increasing. Local levels of entropy can however increase due to human or animal
influence.

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Topic 11: Wave Phenomena

11.1: Standing Waves
Standing waves are different to traveling waves for three main reasons:
1. There is no energy transfer
2. Amplitude varies from particle to particle
3. Phase is the same for neighboring particles

Below are some standing waves:

Standing waves can be created as a result of the superposition of two waves with the
same speed, frequency and amplitude traveling in opposite directions.

A Place along a standing wave where there is no motion is called a node

A Place along a standing wave where there is maximum motion is called an antinode

Problems involving standing waves can often be solved using the equation for waves
linking velocity, wavelength and frequency.

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11.2: Doppler Effect

The Doppler effect is described as the apparent change in frequency of a wave when there
is a difference in the motion between the emission of the wave and the observer.

The above diagram illustrates how a moving source emits light that appears to have a
different wavelength as it moves towards an observer.

The below diagram shows how a moving observer will perceive the waves emitted by a
source:

As illustrated by this diagram, the observer moving towards the source will see each wave
faster than they were radiated, thus the wavelength appears lower.

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When calculating the effect on frequency due to the doppler effect the following equations
can be used.

⎛ v ⎞
Moving Source: f ' = f ⎜
⎝ v ± us ⎟⎠
⎛ v ± uo ⎞
Moving Observer: f ' = f ⎜
⎝ v ⎟⎠

In this equation, f’ is the observed frequency, f is the emitted frequency, v is the speed of
the wave, us is the speed of the source and uo is the speed of the observer.In the above
equation use addition when the source is moving away and subtraction when it is moving
towards the observer. For the lower equation use addition when the observer is moving
towards the source and subtraction when it is moving away.

When investigating the doppler effect with a electromagnetic wave the below
approximation can be used:

v
Δf = f
c
In this equation, v is equal to the speed of the object which is moving, and c is the speed
of light. This simplification is possible due to the sheer magnitude of the speed of light.

The doppler effect has a variety of uses such as to measure the speed of a moving car.

11.3: Diffraction

The above diagram shows how the intensity of diffracted light differs depending on the
angle from the slit which it has diffracted. Huygen’s Principle states that “Every point on a
wavefront acs as a source of secondary circular wavelets” this is the phenomena that
occurs when light passes through a single slit as shown above.

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When investigating the location of the first minimum of a diffraction pattern the below
equation can be used:

λ
θ=
b
In this equation, b is equal to a on the diagram. This equation can be derived as the
difference in distance between D and the line to the first minimum is so minute. When
working with a circular aperture rather than a single slit the fraction in the above equation
should be multiplied by 1.22.

11.4: Resolution

The above diagram illustrates how light from two sources undergoing diffraction may
interact on a viewing screen. The Rayleigh Criterion states “The central maximum of one
pattern must fall on (or beyond) the first minimum of the other pattern”. This criterion is
what determines whether two independent light sources will be separable when viewed
through a slit.

The ability for two light sources to be differentiated between has been critical in the
development of technologies such as microscopes and DVD’s, this is due to the fact that
these technologies requires light to be interpreted and presented.

11.5: Polarization
Polarized light is light which waves only travel in one plane. This is unlike regular
electromagnetic light where a magnetic and electric field are at 90 degrees to each other.
Polarization of light can occur through different processes. Firstly it can happen due to
reflection. When light reflects off a reflective surface only light which is parallel to the
reflective surface will be reflected.

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The above diagram shows how light incident on a reflective surface has been polarized.
There is an angle at which the incident light becomes perfectly polarized, this angle is
known as Brewster’s angle. And it occurs when the angle between the reflected and
refracted ray is 90 degrees.

The above diagram shows the difference between a polarizer and an analyzer. A polarizer
is a screen which allows light in a certain plane through. An analyzer is however angled
differently to the polarizer and thus only some, or no light will be able to pass through.
There is an equation which allows the intensity of light after it has passed through a
polarizer and an analyzer this equation is known as Malus‘ law. Malus’ law can be seen
below:

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I = I 0 cos 2 θ
In this equation I is final intensity, I0 is the original intensity and theta is the difference in
angle between the polarizer and analyzer.

An optically active substance is a substance which can alter the plane of polarization of
light. Polarization can be used to investigate concentration of a substance if this substance
is an optically active substance as such a substance will rotate light differently depending
on the concentration. Polarization can also be used to analyze stress levels in for example
plastics as these parts of the plastic will rotate light differently.

In an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) polarization of light can be used to change the plane of
polarization of light and thus display contents on a screen. This works by using electrically
activated polarizers.

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Topic 12: Electromagnetic Induction

12.1: Induced electromotive force (emf)
When a conductor moves in relation to a magnetic field, an electromotive force will be
induced. When a wire performs this action there are three variable that determine the
strength of the induced electromotive force. These variable are bound by the below
equation:

emf = Blv

In this equation B is the strength of the magnetic field, l is the length of the wire and v is
the speed of the wire. The resulting electromotive force is measured in Volts. The induced
electromotive force being ‘created’ when a wire is moved through a field arises from the
electrons inside the conductor experiences a force due to the motion within the field. As
the wire is moved down the field these electrons cause a virtual current to be transferred
upwards, the positive nuclei however cause a virtual current to be transferred downwards.
This in turn results in force on electrons along the wire. The eventual movement of the
electrons causes a potential difference to be induced.

The following derivation can be performed to find the above equation:

FElectric = FMagnetic
V
FE = Ee = e
l
FM = Bqv
V
Bqv = e
l
Bqlv = Ve
Blv = V

Definitions
Magnetic flux is the strength of a magnetic field, in graphical
Magnetic Flux representation a magnetic field is stronger when the field lines
are closer together

Magnetic Flux Flux linkage is the amount of flux which a wire can ‘cut’ hence
Linkage the more turns of wire the more linkage

An emf can only be induced when a conductive material experiences a force in a direction,
hence a conductor with constant velocity will not experience the induction of an
electromotive force.

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Faraday’s Law:
Faraday’s law states that the induced e.m.f. in a coil is equal to the rate of change of the
flux linkage of the coil.

Lenz’s Law:
Lenz’s Law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that if a complete circuit
were available, the current direction would oppose the change that caused the induced
e.m.f. This means that the object will experience a force in the opposite direction of
motion.

12.2: Alternating Current

When a coil rotates within a magnetic field the amount of flux linked is changing
continously, forming a sinusoidal graph. This motion is the basis of a generator, that due to
the motion of a coil in a field can generate an alternating current.

A faster rotating coil will mean that the rate of change of the flux linked is greater, hence
the produced current will be greater.

r.m.s. is a measure for the voltage of mains power supply, r.m.s. is measured by squaring
the voltage at all points and then finding the square root of the average of these points.
This will give you the correct voltage value. This will be greater than the mean value for
mains electricity (which is 0, due to sinusoidal wave around x-axis) but it will be less than
the peak value. This can be practiced on page 172 in the physics textbook.

Transformer:

The above diagram shows a transformer. A transformer works by an alternating voltage

being placed across the primary coil. This voltage will induce a voltage on the secondary
coil. By changing the number of coils on either side of the core the r.m.s. value of the
output current can be altered. A transformer works due to the below steps:
1. Alternating voltage input on primary creates an alternating magnetic field.
2. The core ensures that most of the flux created links with the secondary coil.

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3. The changing magnetic field means that that the flux linkage constantly changes across
the secondary.
4. The change in flux linkage causes an alternating voltage to be induced across the
secondary
5. Increasing the number of turns on the secondary increases the flux linkages so the
voltage induced will increase.

There are two types of transformers, a step-up and a step-down. A step-up will increase
the voltage and a step-down will decrease the voltage.

The following relationship between voltage and the number of turns can thus be
established:

VSecondary N Secondary
=
Vprimary N primary
Although seemingly breaking the law of conservation of energy a transformer is able to
perform these transformations due to the fact that the current changes as well as the
voltage. The below relationship can hence be produced between power input and output.

Pin = Pout
Vs I s = Vp I p

12.3: Transmission of Electrical Power

When energy is transferred across power lines energy is lost, this is due to the fact that all
transmission lines have resistance , this resistance causes the lines to heat up and hence
dissipate power. This resistance can however be decreased by increasing the width of the
wire, this is however more expensive and hence the decision between the cost of thicker
wire vs. the cost of energy lost to the environment must be made.

Because of this issue, transformers are used for the transmission of energy across power
lines. Resistance in a wire only affects the current traveling across it and hence if a lower
current is used in transmission less energy will be wasted. This can be achieved by using
powerful transformers that can increase the voltage before energy is transmitted across
the power lines, thus decreasing the current. This high voltage is then stepped down to
safe levels before being used in homes.

Losses can however also occur in the transformer itself through processes such as:
1. Heating in coils
2. The core would heat up wasting significant energy
3. Losses due to magnetic flux ‘escaping’

The use of high voltage power lines can however lead to potential health issues as a result
of the electromagnetic radiation that they emit.

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Topic 13: Quantum and Nuclear Physics

The photoelectric effect:

The photoelectric effect is the emission of electrons from a surface when it is exposed to
light or ultraviolet radiation. These electrons require energy in order to leave the surface of
the object however. There is thus a threshold energy that the electrons need in order to
leave the surface. The wave model of light however fails to explain how this is occurs as
the traditional model works by assuming that the energy incident is constant.

Because of this the concept of a photon was created. A photon is a single ‘particle’ of light.
The energy of a photon is given by the equation:

E = hf
Where h is planck’s constant (6.63x10-34Js) and f is the frequency of light, in Hz.
When photons are incident on an object it is therefore possible for the electrons of the
material to absorb photons, as the electron gains the energy hf. The energy required for an
electron to be released from the material is known as the ‘work function’, W. The work
function can be calculated using the equation below:

1 2
mv = hf − W
2
This is the equation as all the incident energy which is not used to ‘release’ the electron is
transferred into kinetic energy of the electron.

Wave-Particle Duality:

The existence of this duality suggests that matter can behave like a wave. The de Broglie
hypothesis states that all matter has a probability wave. The wavelength can be calculated
from the momentum of the particle using the below equation:

h
p=
λ
The information from this equation is often displayed as a wave function where the
amplitude of the wave represents the probability that the particle exists in any given region.

The de Broglie hypothesis has been proved using the Davisson-Germer Experiment, this
experiment was performed by firing a beam of electrons onto a nickel plate. The electrons
scattered and by looking at the angles that they scattered at and the energy that they
possessed it could be determined that the electrons experienced constructive interference.

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Atomic Spectra and Atomic Energy States:

When an element is exposed to light or is heated up it will radiate light, each element will
radiate light. The light that an element radiates can be observed through an emission
spectrum. These spectra can be observed by heating up an element in a tube and passing
the radiated light through a thin slit. This will produce a line spectra.

Absorption spectra are diagrams that illustrate a continuos spectra with a few frequencies
of light missing. This diagram can be created by shining white light on a gas of an element
and observing the light that passes through through a slit.

These line spectra can be used to prove that the quantization of electrons in an atom
exists. This is due to the fact that light of specific frequencies is radiated hence only certain
amounts of energy can have been absorbed by the atom.

In the atom electrons can only possess certain amounts of energy, hence if a photon with
a specific amount of energy is incident on an electron it will absorb the energy and move
up to a higher energy state. Later if an electron moves down an energy level it will release
a photon with the same amount of energy.

The above diagram shows these energy levels and their respective values.

The electron in a box can be used to explain the existence of atomic energy levels, pg.216
in book.

The Schrödinger model of model of the hydrogen atom explains where electrons exists as
follows:
Electrons are continuos standing waves that depending on the energy level has different
number of periods represented. The probability of the existence of an electron at a specific
point in an energy level can be found by using the square of the amplitude of the wave in
this location. The wavelength of the electron can be found by the below equation:

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2L
λ=
N

Where L is the length of the representative box an N is the energy level.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is a way to describe the uncertainty by which

momentum and location of a particle. The equation can be seen below:

h
ΔxΔp ≥
4π

The x and p represent location and momentum and they can never both be known, as one
become more certain the other becomes less.

13.2: Nuclear Physics (discussed earlier in topic 7)

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Topic 14: Digital Technology

14.1: Analogue and Digital Signals
When converting signal digitally binary numbers are used, binary numbers are numbers
which consist solely of 1’s and 0’s. A binary number can be evaluated as below:

Storage of Data:

Data can be stored in several ways, both in analogue and digital form. For example:
- DVD - Digital
- Vinyls - Analogue
- Hard Disk - Digital

CDs:

A Compact Disc (CD) can be used to store digital files. It is constructed as below:

A laser is shown on the CD as it spins, when the laser is reflected off the edge of a ‘bump’
on the disc (each bump is the height of 1/4 of the wavelength of the light). negative
interference will occur. This negative interference will be detected by the reader which will
read this as a binary 1. When constructive interference occurs it will be read as binary 0.

A CD can store approximately 700MB of data in a spiral track which are 1.6micrometers
apart, pits are a minimum of 0.83micrometers long and 1.5micrometers apart.
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Advantages of Digital Storage:

1. Easier to reproduce data

2. Quality is consistent and does not degrade
3. Retrieval speed is higher
4. Data is more portable

Implications:

1. More data stored, know more about people

2. Environmental damage due to excessive storage
3. Expensive

14.2: Data Capture; digital imaging using charge-

coupled devices (CCD’s)
Capacitance:

Capacitance is the ability to store a charge. Achieved by using capacitors

Equation for the charge across a capacitor is:

q = CV
In the above equation, q is the charge stored, C is the capacitance (F), and V is the
potential difference.

CCD’s:

A CCD is a silicon chip which is divided into sections, each section is a small capacitor
which can store a charge.

Through the photoelectric effect a charge can be built up on the pixels of the CCD as light
is incident on them.

Once an image has been taken an electrode can measure the potential difference across
each pixel and this information together with the location of the pixel can be used to
convert this to a binary signal representing location and color of a pixel and hence a
picture can be produced.

Quantum Efficiency:

Quantum efficiency can be defined as the number of photoelectrons that are released for
every photon which is incident on the pixel. This is often discussed as a percentage.

Magnification:

Magnification is the ratio between the length of an image on a CCD and in reality.

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Resolution:

Two points on an object may be resolved if they are separated by at least one pixel (or 2
pixel lengths)

Advantages:

A CCD is better for film for a variety of reasons:

1. Reproducibility of image
2. Speed of photo taking
3. Quality of image

A CCD can be used on a variety of tools, such as: Digital Cameras, Telescopes etc.

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Option E: Astrophysics
E1: Introduction to the universe
The universe is a collection of a vast number of galaxies, each galaxy consisting of
countless solar systems, each solar system consisting of a star with orbiting planets.

Our Solar System:

Distribution of Stars:

Stars in the galaxy are arranged in different ways, there are stellar clusters, a small
number of stars that interact with each other due to gravity. A stellar constellation are
however collections of stars that appear close when viewed from earth although they may
be located very far away from each other.

Light Year:

A light year is a measure of distance which is equal to the distance that light will travel in
one year (9.46x1015m). The closest star (Proxima Centauri) is 4.27 light years away.
Distances between stars within a galaxy are much smaller that distances between
galaxies.

The night sky will change in appearance at different locations and seasons at earth as the
earth rotates and changes angle towards the sun and the rest of space.

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E2: Stellar Radiation and Stellar Types

Stars gain the energy that they radiate from fusion. The most common reaction that takes
place in a star is the fusion between hydrogen atoms that creates helium. This releases
large amounts of energy that is radiated out into space.

A stable star, one that does not expand or contract and keeps a constant temperature can
be said to be in a thermal and hydrostatic equilibrium. As it does not expand or contract
the pressure that it exerts due to the reactions that are taking place inside must therefore
equal in force the gravitational pressure from outside.

Luminosity:

The luminosity (L) of a star is the total power that it radiates.

The apparent brightness (b) of a star depends on the power received from the star over a
given area on earth, it depends on the distance away that the star is as well as its
luminosity.

These two variables can be bound by the equation:

b
L=
4π r 2
Where ‘r’ is the distance between the two objects.

Wien’s Law:

Wien’s Law links the temperature of a star with the wavelength of a light it will emit. This
relationship can be written as below:

2.90 × 10 −3
λmax =
T
Where T is the temperature in Kelvin and lambda is the wavelength in meters.

Stefan-Boltzmann Law:

Stefan-Boltzmann Law enables the surface area of a star to be calculated given that the
temperature and luminosity is known. The relationship can be seen below, σ is equal to the
Stefan Boltzmann constant (5.67x10-8):

L = σ AT 4

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Stellar Spectra:

By analyzing the spectrums of light radiated by stars they can be grouped into divisions.
There are 7 categories, seen below:

Types of Stars:

Star Types
A cepheid star changes in size and luminosity in regular
Cepheids
intervals, often less than a month

Red Giants A red giant is in stellar class K and M and have relatively low
surface temperatures but are very large

Red Supergiants An exaggerated red giant

White Dwarfs A white dwarf has a very high surface temperature but are not
very large

There are also as well as solo stars, binary stars. Binary stars are two or more stars that
are in orbit around each other. Due to this they may look like they are becoming more and
less luminous in cycles.

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Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram:

The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram can be used to classify stars, seen below:

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E3: Stellar Distances

Parallax Method:

Parsec, is a measurement of distance equal to 3.25ly.

Below is a diagram showing how the distance to a star can be measured by using the
parallax method.

The parallax angle can be measured by comparing the apparent location of a star at two
moments 6 months apart. The found angle can then be used to calculate the distance to
the star. The found angle must however first be converted from degrees into arcsec, one
arcsec is equal to 1/3600 of one degree.

1
d=
p
The distance found from the equation above will be the distance to the star measured in
parsecs.

Stellar Parallax is however only an efficient method of measuring the distance to a star
when it is just a few hundred parsecs away as the angles become far to small to measure
after that distance.

Absolute and Apparent Magnitudes:

When comparing the brightness of different stars they are compared using the magnitude
scale. The brightness of a star is recorded as a number, a bright star is rated as a 1 and a
dim star as a 6. The difference between these two is approximately 100 times. Hence each
step along this scale the brightness may be divided 2.512, or 1000.2. Apparent magnitude
is noted as m.

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Absolute magnitude (M) is the magnitude of a star if the observer was located 10pc away.
The same scale is however also used for absolute magnitudes and the below equation
can hence be produced:

⎛ d⎞
m − M = 5 log ⎜ ⎟
⎝ 10 ⎠
In order to find the distance it can be arranged as:

( m−M +5 )
d = 10 5

Spectroscopic Parallax:

When a star is over 1000pc away it becomes feasible to use spectroscopic parallax. By
examining the the emission spectrum of the star the temperature and spectral type can be
found and hence by using the HR diagram the luminosity can also be found. The above
equation can then be used to calculate the distance to the star. This is only reliable when
stars are closer that 10Mpc.

Cepheid Variables:

When stars are further away than 10Mpc, it becomes acceptable to use cepheid variables
to calculate the distance. It has been proven that cepheid stars with a longer period of
oscillation will have a greater absolute magnitude. Hence if you want to find the distance to
a star which is close to a cepheid you can find the distance to the cepheid and assume
that it will be close. Below is a graph of the relationship between period of oscillation and
absolute magnitude for cepheid stars.

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E4: Cosmology
Olbers’ Paradox:

Newton’s model of the universe states that the universe is infinite in all directions. Heinrick
Olbers however realized that this must mean that there is an infinite number of stars in
each direction, and hence the night sky would be bright white due to the infinite number of
stars. It has therefore been determined that the universe must be expanding.

The Big Bang Model:

The redshift that we can experience when looking at far away galaxies suggests that they
are moving away from us, hence the universe must be expanding. The universe is
however not expanding into a void but rather is expanding space itself, universe is a sheet
of rubber being pulled in all directions.

As all stellar bodies are moving away from each other they must have in the past been
closer together, this is what lies behind the big bang theory. Einstein has been able to
prove that not only space but also time began with the big bang.

Background radiation from the big bang can still be found today, this background radiation
is in the form of microwaves. This means that these waves must have expanded together
with space as they are longer now than they were then.

Development of the Universe:

There are three different possibilities for what could happen to the universe in the future,
they can be seen below:

We are currently at the point where the different possibilities intersect. If the average
density of the universe is a certain value then the force of gravity will continously slow
down the rate of expansion but will take an infinite time to reach 0, hence the ‘flat’
universe. If the density is lower, there will be an open universe and if it greater the universe
will collapse in on itself and it will be a closed universe.
It is however very difficult to determine the density of the universe because of it’s sheer
size and the existence of dark matter, very dense matter which can’t be directly observed.
Because of this it is currently believed that the universe is open.
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