Math AA HL: Topic 3 – QuickNotes 29/04/22, 8:17 PM

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Analysis and Approaches: Topic 3

COMPLEX NUMBERS

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3.1 Quadratic Equations and Inequalities

Quadratic Formula

The quadratic formula is a formula that provides the solution(s) to a quadratic equation. There are other ways of
solving a quadratic equation instead of using the quadratic formula, such as factoring, completing the square,
graphing, and others, however, using the quadratic formula guarantees success every time with ease. The
quadratic formula is simply a formalized form of completing the square.
For a quadratic equation of 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 , where 𝑎 ≠ 0 , the two roots of that equation is given by this
formula, which is expanded to have a plus version and minus version represented by the plus-or-minus sign:

−𝑏 ± √‾𝑏‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
− 4𝑎𝑐‾ −𝑏 + √‾𝑏‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
− 4𝑎𝑐‾ −𝑏– √‾𝑏‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
− 4𝑎𝑐‾
𝑥1,2 = ⟹ 𝑥1 = and 𝑥2 =
2𝑎 2𝑎 2𝑎

Many different methods to derive the quadratic

formula are available in the literature. The standard one
is a simple application of the completing the square
technique with a sequence as follows:

a. Multiply each side by 4𝑎 .

b. Rearrange.
c. Add 𝑏 2 to both sides to complete the square.
d. Take the square root of both sides.
e. Isolate 𝑥 .

In which case, the quadratic formula is derived as:

𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
4𝑎2 𝑥2 + 4𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
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4𝑎 𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 4𝑎𝑐 =
0
4𝑎2 𝑥2 + 4𝑎𝑏𝑥 =
−4𝑎𝑐
4𝑎2 𝑥2 + 4𝑎𝑏𝑥 + 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
=
(2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 2 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐
=
2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = ±√‾𝑏‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
− 4𝑎𝑐‾

2𝑎𝑥 = −𝑏 ± √‾𝑏‾‾‾‾‾‾
− 4𝑎𝑐‾
Figure 3.1 These three quadratic functions are all translations of one
2
another. The red one has two x-intercepts, thus, it has two roots, thus
its discriminant is positive. The green one has one x-intercept, thus, it
has one root, thus, its discriminant is zero. The blue one has no x-
−𝑏 ± √‾𝑏‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
− 4𝑎𝑐‾ intercepts, thus, it has only complex roots, thus its discriminant is
𝑥= negative. The roots of the blue function are not shown here.
2𝑎

Discriminant (Δ) is the radicand section of the quadratic formula, Δ = 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 . Therefore, it is a quantity that
depends on the coefficients and determines various properties of the roots. One of the most important properties
of discriminant is its ability to determine the number of roots an equation has:

If the discriminant is positive, Δ > 0 , then there are two distinct real roots of the equation.
If the discriminant is equal to zero, Δ = 0 , then there is one double real root of the equation.
If the discriminant is negative, Δ < 0 , then there are no real roots, but there are two complex roots of it.

Solving Quadratic Inequalities

The sign table method, in quadratic (or higher) inequalities, is a method used to determine the desired range
of the results of a quadratic inequality and compare the resultant range with the desired range of the inequality.
Videlicet, the ranges of inequalities should be considered in the final answer such that it is in line with the desired
result. Sign tables can be confusing at times, but it is a very straightforward process indeed.

Examine this worked example of a quadratic system inequality for clearer understanding. Bear in
mind that the complexity of this inequality is for demonstration purposes only.
Find the solution range of the inequality provided below:
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Find the solution range of the inequality provided below:

?

(𝑥 2 − 25)(𝑥 − 4)2
≥0
(𝑥 − 3)

16
Step 1: Factorize the inequality by either algebraic
𝑥 3 − 5𝑥2 − 24𝑥 + 128 − ≥0
𝑥−3
methods or by using the formula. Remember that
before doing so, one side of the inequality that is Roots: (𝑥 + 5), (𝑥 − 5), (𝑥 − 4) 2 , (𝑥 − 3)
unequal to zero can be treated as it were.
Zeroes: 5, 4, 4, 3, −5

Step 2: Draw the sign table. The sign table is a

number line with dissections at the zeroes of an
equation. Write down each zero at each dissection.
Remember that repeated zeros and zeros
originating from the denominator are treated as
specials. Mark such special zeros accordingly,
double lines for double roots and dashed lines for
denominator roots, as demonstrated here.

Step 3: Multiply the coefficients of the 𝑥 variables

in the extended equation. If the product is positive,
write a plus sign in the rightmost zone of the table.
If the product is negative, a negative sign should
be placed.
In this case, the sign of the multiplied coefficients
of the equation is positive.

Step 4: From right to left, fill out the table. Every

time a root is crossed, the sign needs to be
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time a root is crossed, the sign needs to be

changed. Remember that double roots change the
sign twice, therefore, the sign remains unaltered.

Step 5: With the guide of the inequality sign,

highlight the desired intervals. If the sign is has
equality in it (like less than or equal to and greater
than or equal to), the zeroes can also be added to
the range. If not, then they cannot be added.
Remember that zeroes originating from the
denominator cannot be included.
In this case, it is greater than or equal to.

Step 6: Write the newly-found solution range.

Remember that brackets include the number they
𝑅𝑆 = [−5, 3 ) ∪ [5, ∞ ] ∪ {4}
represent, while parentheses exclude them. Curly
brackets only denote numbers, not intervals.

3.2 Complex Numbers

Approaches Towards Complex Numbers

Imaginary unit (𝐢 ) is a solution to the quadratic equation 𝑥2 + 1 = 0 ; it is

2 -4 to -1 0 to 3 4 to 7
expressed as i = −1 or sometimes as i = √−1 ‾‾‾. Although there are no real
numbers with this property, the imaginary unit can be used to extend the i−4 = +1 i0 = +1 i4 = +1
real number system, ℝ , to the complex number system, ℂ , in which the
roots for some polynomial exist. The term “imaginary” is used here because i−3 = +i i1 = +i i5 = +i
there is no real number with a negative square.
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i = +i i = +i i = +i
there is no real number with a negative square.
The powers of the imaginary unit follow a cyclic pattern as illustrated i−2 = −1 i2 = −1 i6 = −1
0 1 2 3
here. The core values of i = 1, i = i, i = −1, and i = −i repeat as the
powers increase and decrease by an amount of 4 per cycle, sequentially. i−1 = −i i3 = −i i7 = −i

Complex numbers (𝐳) are numbers like 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏i ,

where 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ and i is the imaginary uniy. This form of
a complex number is called the cartesian form, named
after the cartesian system and the unit circle it uses to
express itself. In such notation, 𝑎 is the real part of the
complex number 𝑧, represented as Re(z) or as ℜ(𝑧),
and 𝑏 is the imaginary part of the complex number 𝑧,
represented as Im(z) or as ℑ(𝑧) .
A complex number 𝑧 can, thus, be identified as an

ordered pair (Re(z), Im(z)) of real numbers, which in

turn may be interpreted as coordinates of a point in a
two-dimensional space, which is then called complex
plane.
Modulus of a complex number is its geometric
absolute value; it always gives positive real numbers as
answers since it is a measure of distance to the origin. It
uses the same notation as the absolute value and can
be calculated as such,
|𝑧| = √‾𝑎‾‾‾‾‾
2 + 𝑏‾2
= √‾Re
‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾‾
2
(𝑧) + Im2 (𝑧)‾ .
Figure 3.2 This unit circle represents the cyclic powers of the
imaginary unit. The complex number, z, and its conjugate, z*, exists
int the complex plane with their properties listed here.

As a point in a 2D space can also be expressed as the tip of a line with an angle 𝜃 around a unit circle, where the
length of the line can be modified with the modulus, complex numbers can be expressed as such constructions,
which are called polar forms. A complex number 𝑧 can, therefore, be expressed as |𝑧| (cos 𝜃 + i sin 𝜃) or simply as
|𝑧| cis 𝜃 , which are explained in greater detail later.
Conjugate of a complex number (𝐳∗ ) is the horizontal reflection of a complex number, 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏i , in the
complex number plane, 𝑧∗ = 𝑎 − 𝑏i . The real parts of the conjugates are equal, Re(z) = Re(z∗ ) , while the
Im(z) = −Im( ∗ )
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= 𝑎 − 𝑏i Re(z) = Re( )
imaginary parts are opposites of each other, Im(z) = −Im(z∗ ) .
Adding two conjugates together results in twice the real part, 𝑧 + 𝑧∗ = 𝑎 + 𝑏i + a − bi = 2a , while subtracting
results in twice the imaginary part, 𝑧 − 𝑧∗ = 𝑎 + 𝑏i − a + bi = 2bi . Multiplying a number with its conjugate
results in its modulus squared, 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑧∗ = |𝑧| 2 .

Operations with Complex Numbers

As explained before, complex numbers can be added, subtracted, multiplied, or divided; become exponentials
or radicals. Although the basics of calculations in complex numbers remain the same, it can be helpful to have
quick reference guides to refer to for ease of use and quick appliance in situations where carrying out the long
calculation would be cumbersome.

! Here are two complex numbers undergoing stated calculation.

The addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, exponentiation, and taking a root of two complex numbers
𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏i and 𝑧2 = 𝑐 + 𝑑i are demonstrated and formalized here.

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏i + c + di
Addition
𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + (𝑏 + 𝑑)i

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = 𝑎 + 𝑏i– (c + di)
Subtraction
𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (𝑎 − 𝑐) + (𝑏 − 𝑑)i

𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏i) ⋅ (c + di)
Multiplication
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𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = (𝑎 + 𝑏i) ⋅ (c + di)
Multiplication
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + (𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑)i

𝑧1 𝑎 + 𝑏i 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2
= =
𝑧2 𝑐 + 𝑑i |𝑧|2
Division
( 𝑐2 + 𝑑2 ) ( 𝑐2 + 𝑑2 ) i
𝑧1 (𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑) + (𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑)i 𝑎𝑐 + 𝑏𝑑 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑑
= = +
𝑧2 𝑐2 + 𝑑2

𝑛 ∈ ℝ, 𝑧1𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑏i)𝑛
Exponential
𝑧21 = (𝑎 + 𝑏i)2 = 𝑎2 – 𝑏2 + 2𝑎𝑏i

1
𝑛 ∈ ℝ, √𝑛 𝑧1 = (𝑎 + 𝑏i) 𝑛
Radical
√‾‾𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏i ∴ z = (a + bi)2

3.3 Polynomial Equations and Inequalities

Polynomial Functions

Polynomials (P) are special types of functions that only use natural numbers as powers of their variables and
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Polynomials (P) are special types of functions that only use natural numbers as powers of their variables and
string those variables together with addition or subtraction. Like most functions, they map real numbers to real
numbers, 𝑃 : ℝ → ℝ . Polynomials are generally represented as follows, where ∀𝑎 ∈ ℝ:

𝑛
𝑛 𝑛−1 2
𝑃 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛
∑
𝑛=0

Coefficients of a polynomial are the numbers represented as 𝑎 that come before the variables.
The leading coefficient (𝐚𝐧 ) is the coefficient of the variable with the highest power, 𝑛, in the polynomial.
The degree (𝐝𝐞𝐠) of the polynomial is the highest power of the variable, 𝑛 = deg [𝑃 (𝑥)] .
The constant term (𝐚0 ) is the coefficient of the variable with the zero power, which is often left out.

Power functions (fn) are functions that only have a variable raised to a designated power. Archetypally, they
range as: 𝑓0 (𝑥) = 1, 𝑓1 (𝑥) = 𝑥, 𝑓2 (𝑥) = 𝑥2 , 𝑓3 (𝑥) = 𝑥3 , 𝑓4 (𝑥) = 𝑥4 , 𝑓5 (𝑥) = 𝑥5 …
Linear combination is the process of adding two or more functions together after optionally multiplying them
with coefficients, 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑓 (𝑥) + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑔 (𝑥) … For polynomials, it can be said that all polynomials are the linear
𝑛
combination of power functions and some coefficients, ∑ 𝑛=0 𝑎𝑛 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥) .

Although are infinitely-many polynomials, some

frequently-used ones have special nomenclature to
themselves:

Zero polynomial is simply the x-axis, 𝜃 (𝑥) = 0 .

Constant polynomial is a polynomial of zeroth
degree, deg [𝑓 (𝑥)] = 0 . It is a horizontal line,
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑐.
Linear polynomial is a polynomial of first degree,
deg [𝑓 (𝑥)] = 1 . It is a straight line. Its steepness
and the y-intercept are altered through the
parameters 𝑚 and 𝑏 , 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏.
Quadratic polynomial is a polynomial of second
degree, deg [𝑓 (𝑥)] = 2 . Its graph is a parabola as
discussed earlier. Its shape is altered through the

2
parameters , , and , 𝑓 (𝑥) =𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 .
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parameters 𝑎 , 𝑏 , and 𝑐 , 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 .

Cubic polynomial is polynomial of third degree,
deg [𝑓 (𝑥)] = 3 , 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥3 + 𝑏𝑥2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 . Its
shape, as illustrated here, is two parabolas
conjoined at a common point. The U-shapes of
the graph can have an altitude difference or they Figure 3.3 The red and blue functions represent quadratics with each
may be completely flat. both global maxima and minima respectively. The purple graph
represents a cubic with both local maxima and minima.

The steeps and indents (respectively called the maxima and the minima) are the extremes (called the extrema)
of polynomial graphs higher than the second degree. If the extrema represent a turning point, i.e. the slope of the
graph changes from positive to negative or vice versa, and the lowest or greatest possible answer in the range of a
polynomial, they are referred to as global extrema. The vertices of quadratics are global extrema.
If the extrema represent a turning point, however, does not represent the lowest or greatest possible answer in
the range of the polynomial, which is usually infinity in such cases, but rather represents an answer that is
regarded as the lowest or greatest possible answer out of all the turning points of the polynomial, they are referred
to as local extrema. The turning points, of which there are two, of cubics are usually local extrema.

Polynomial Remainder Theorem

The polynomial remainder and factor theorems have a few statements that are quite resourceful in handling
polynomial divisions. These theorems can be used to determine otherwise undeterminable quotients and
remainders.

For polynomials 𝑓 (𝑥) and 𝑔 (𝑥) , there are unique polynomials 𝑞 (𝑥) , the quotient, and 𝑟 (𝑥) , the remainder,
such that 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝑞 (𝑥) + 𝑟 (𝑥) , where deg [𝑄 (𝑥)] > deg [𝑅 (𝑥)] .
For polynomial 𝑃 (𝑥) , and number 𝑟 , which is 𝑟 ∈ ℝ , the remainder of 𝑃 (𝑥) when divided by a linear
polynomial (𝑥 − 𝑟) is 𝑃 (𝑟) . If 𝑃 (𝑟) is zero, that means the linear polynomial (𝑥 − 𝑟) is a factor of 𝑃 (𝑥) .
For polynomial 𝑃 (𝑥) , and number 𝑎 and 𝑏 , which is 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, the remainder of 𝑃 (𝑥) when divided by a
linear polynomial (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) is 𝑃 ( 𝑏𝑎 ). If 𝑃 ( 𝑏𝑎 ) is zero, that means the polynomial (𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏) is a factor of 𝑃 (𝑥) .

𝑓(𝑥) = 3 2019 +5 1019 − 7𝑥 + 4 𝑔(𝑥) = 2 −1

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? Find the remainder of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 2019 + 5𝑥 1019 − 7𝑥 + 4 when it is divided by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1 .

Step 1: Write down the

remainder theorem and
𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝑄 (𝑥) + 𝑅 (𝑥)
populate the vacant spaces
𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 2 − 1) ⋅ 𝑄 (𝑥) + 𝑅 (𝑥) ⇒ 𝑅 (𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
from the question.

Step 2: Use the zeroes of the

divisor, 𝑔(𝑥) , to get two
equations where the quotient,
𝑄(𝑥), is nulled, therefore, only 𝑓 (1) = 3 ⋅ 12019 + 5 ⋅ 11019 − 7 ⋅ 1 + 4 = 5
leaving the remainder. 𝑓 (−1) = 3 ⋅ (−1) 2019 + 5 ⋅ (−1) 1019 − 7 ⋅ (−1) + 4 = 3
In this case, the zeroes of 𝑔(𝑥) ,
which are 1 and −1 , are used to
get two linear equations.

Step 3: Use the results gathered

from above and place them in 𝑓 (1) = (12 − 1) ⋅ 𝑄 (1) + [𝑎(1) + 𝑏] = 5 𝑎 = 1
the theorem equations to ⇒
deduce the true equation of the 𝑓 (−1) = [(−1) 2 − 1] ⋅ 𝑄 (−1) + [𝑎(−1) + 𝑏] = 3 𝑏 = 4
remainder.

Step 4: Write down the

𝑅 (𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4
remainder, 𝑅(𝑥) .

Polynomial long division is an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower
degree, a generalized version of the familiar arithmetic technique called long division. It can be done easily by
hand because it separates an otherwise complex division problem into smaller ones. Sometimes using a
shorthand version called synthetic division is faster, with less writing and fewer calculations.
Synthetic division is a method for manually performing polynomial divisions, with less writing and fewer
calculations than occur with polynomial long division. However, its only shortcoming arises from the fact that only
linear polynomials can be used as divisors. Synthetic division can be used sequentially, meaning dividing a
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linear polynomials can be used as divisors. Synthetic division can be used sequentially, meaning dividing a
polynomial with a linear polynomial after another, without beginning from scratch.
Multiplicity is the number of instances of a factor that is present in a polynomial, or in other words, the power of
a factor in a polynomial. Multiplicity can be observed easily in the synthetic division.

? Divide 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 4 + 4𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 1 by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2.

Step 1: Multiply the divisor by a

coefficient and a variable to
match the leading coefficient
and variable of the dividend,
then subtract, like done in
normal long division.

Step 2: Repeat the process until

the remainder’s degree is
smaller than the divisor’s, and
sum the used coefficients and
variables to form the quotient.

Step 3: Finalize the division by 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝑄 (𝑥) + 𝑅 (𝑥)

writing down the quotient and
the remainder. 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) ⋅ (3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 7) + (−2𝑥 + 13)

? Divide 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 3 + 11𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 − 9 by 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2 .

Step 1: Find the zero of the divisor. 𝑥 2 + 2 = 0 ∴ 𝑥 = −2

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Step 2: Form a division table from the coefficients

of the dividend. The coefficients are placed, from
left to right, with the highest power coming first.
Below last coefficient is a box representing the
remainder. The rest of the below line is the
quotient. To begin performing the division drop
down the leading coefficient as is.

Step 3: Move rightwards by multiplying the

number below the line with the zero of the divisor
and adding it to the number next to it above the
line until the table is completely filled.
The remainder, 𝑅(𝑥) , is the number in the box
since it is always a constant polynomial. The
quotient, 𝑄(𝑥), is all the rest numbers below the
line. In order to transform the numbers to
polynomial, assign the numbers as coefficients
with variables, except start the power of the
variables one less from the degree of the dividend.

Step 4: Finalize the division by writing down the

𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑔 (𝑥) ⋅ 𝑄 (𝑥) + 𝑅 (𝑥)
quotient and the remainder.
𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 17) + (15)

Given that a function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 − 9𝑥 4 + 36𝑥 3 − 108𝑥 2 + 243𝑥 − 243 , what is the real root and
?
multiplicity of this polynomial, if one of its root is 3i?

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Math AA HL: Topic 3 – QuickNotes 29/04/22, 8:17 PM

Step 1: In such circumstances, the polynomial

should be divided until its desired factor is reached. Roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3i, −3i, 𝑛 𝑚 ; 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℝ
This polynomial can be divided by its root 3i and
−3i since for every complex root, its conjugate is = (𝑥 2 + 9), (𝑥 − 𝑛) 𝑚 ; 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℝ
also a valid root of that polynomial.

Step 2: The division process

continues as normal since
synthetic divisions can be
stacked on top of each other.
When all known roots are
exhausted, it becomes a
guessing game, unfortunately.
In this case, the remaining
numbers can be identified as
multiple of 3, therefore, it would
be an educated guess to try

dividing it by 3. Upon the

conclusion that there is
remainder besides 0, which in
this case is not, it would mean
that this guess is wrong.

Step 3: By continuing the division with the

successful guess of 3 until the division can no Roots of 𝑓(𝑥) = 3i, −3i, 3, 3, 3
longer be continued, the unknown real root and its
multiplicity has been discovered. = (𝑥 2 + 9), (𝑥 − 3) 3
In this case, it is 3 with a multiplicity of again 3.

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