MG Farticle Physics (Long Answer Type CORR) UNIT-1 Nuclear Forces Qh. Give an account of the meson theory-of nuclear forces. Ans. Meson theory of nuclear forces : In 1935, a Japanese Physicist H. Yukawa proposed a theory of nuclear forces, which is usually referred as meson theory of nuclear forces. Yukawa proposed the existence of a new kind of field between nucleons, now known as meson field and pointed out that the nuclear forces arise due to continuous exchange of positive and negative particles (mesons) between the nucleons. These Yukawa particles are termed as mesorjs because of their mass- being intermediate between two nucleons develops an attractive force between them. According to meson theory, all’ nucleons consist of indentical cores surrounded by a cloud of one or more mesons, which may be neutral or may carry either charge. ‘Accordingly the neutron and proton differ only in the composition of their respectively meson cloud. The exchange between protons and neutrons can be represented by wel F pontyt : noptwe (1) where p* and u~ represent positive and negative mesons respectively. : To account for the binding force betweenneutron-neutron and proton- proton pairs the existence of a neutral meson (or neutrino) was similarly ,postulated. ae . n=n'+p° . - paps "| © where n’ and p’ represent neutron and proton respectively with different . Coordinates. : ; According to Yukawa the proton-neutron interaction may be understood is as follows. : fs Let the proton and the neutron carry a mesonic charge, say f. This is not the electrical charge ‘e’, but is a new fundamental phenomenon i-_hysics. Yukawa proposed that the potential in the meson field between the proton and a neutron at distance r apart is expressed as Physics.C.C.- 11Anmol P.G. Guide and Guess 8 _ fe ge a A where 4 is a constant which depends upon the system of units, and n is g constant with dimensions [L~']. The value of n was asserted to be= 5 ~10 My 1 If ris put equal to the diameter of the smallest nucleus containing a proton and neutron (i.e., the deuteron), then r=3 x 10" mand e” willbe & . ifr is put equal to diameter of a large nucleus with mass number 4 = 25, then re 12x Jo 5m and-e-¥ willbe’: The exponential introduced is suitable in accord with fact that the nucleus éxert considerable forces only on their immediate neighbours. In analogy with’ the emission of radiation by an accelerated charge, Yukawa proposed that in producing the exchane force the mesonic charge oscillates:between the proton and the neutron. Using expression (3) for potential; Yukawa showed that the frequency v of these waves was given by 2. wee we stg ww 4x where 2 is the wavelength. In this electrical case the last term on R-H.S. would be absent. How we are ina position to deduce the rest mass my of the meson, whervit is Considered as a particle instead of a wave, in accordance with dual nature'ofmatter. Froin the particle point of view, the total energy E of the particle is 4) B=pe+mect e (5) hy h From the wave point of view E = Av and P = (2) (6) Substituting values of any A from (6) in equation (4), we get i B . 2 - ne? Re. (hip? an? 272 5 We? B= poe+t ane AD) Comparing equations (5) and (7), we get wire? GA as mee 4x?\ Neuclear and Particle Physics a) _ ne y= 50 (8) Substituting h= 6.62 x 10]-34286°3 10g mvsand y= § x 10! ml, we get 5x10! x 662 x 10734 2x314x3x108 The rest mass of the electrons 9.1 x. 10-3! kg. Therefore, the mass of Yukawa meson must be about 193 ‘m.. where m, is,the rest mass of electron. 4" Adopting Yukawa theory the question arises why-Yukawa mesons are not emitted by radioactive nuclides insted of B-paricles. Yukawa argued that this is due to the fact that- Yukawa (negative) meson are unstable and decay with a mean life less than 10-’ second into an electron and a neutrino. . 1 = er! + Neutrino Yukawa mesoris was eventually shown to be identical with the x-meson discovered eleven years later in cosmic radiation. These a:mesons:has-the same order of mean life-as Yukawa mesons and react strongly with nucleons; but the mass of x meson is 276 m,, i.e., heavier that predicted by Yukawa. Yukawa original theory has been considerably modified in recent years to take into account the properties of late discovered n-mesons_— Nuclear Stability— bP uate On the basis of proton-neutron model of the nucleus, it is obvious that for stable nuclei, the strong nuclear forces between nucleons:dominiate over the Coulomb's repulsive forces between protons: Therefore, the, neutron- proton ratio‘has significant role to determine the stability of nucleus. So far about more that 900-nuclei are known. Out of them only about 274 are stable nuclei. These strong nuclei are classified according to even and odd number of protons and neutrons as below : No. of protons (Z) himber of Neutrons (N) even m= = \-28 0 1.76 x 10° kg. - No. of Strong Nuclei even odd odd Total: 274 The table shows that the maximum number of strong nuclet ‘corresponds to combination of even Z and even N. The number of nuclei for even-odd or Gdd-even combinations are nearly the same. The odd-odd combinations are least preferred by nature and are limited to only light nuclei.as proposed by Jastrow are V =50.8 MeV, = 375 MeV r,=0.75 fm, r,= 0.4 fm, 7,=0.6 fin, ; fe tried to soften and diffusify the core. Beyond it aken to be purely static and the where the parameters, The theoreticians hav the radial interacton between two nucleons is t radii of the core and static force are adjusted to give a good fit to low energy as well as high energy. characteristics of the nucleon-nucleon system, where the incoherent superposition of triplet and singlet states takes place. Thus p. p scattering can be described by a singlet even potential with a repulsive core surrounded by an attractive outer region and that the triplet odd potential contains a tensor force whcih is attractive in the *P, state. Q.4. Give an account of n-p ‘scattering at low energy. He can the spin dependence of n-p, interaction be verified. Ans. Neutron-proton Scattering at Low Energies—The fact that the deuteron is a bound system, shows that the attractive forces exist between neutrons and protons. Further information on the inter-nucleon forces can be obtained from a study of the scattering of free neutrons by protons. In such experiments a parallel beam of neutrons is allowed to impinge upon a target containing hydrogen atoms and the number of neutrons deflected through various angle is determined as a function of neutron energy. Since neutrons have no charge, they are uneffected by the electrostatic field and their scattering will directly reflect the operation of the nuclear forces. ' Tivo kinds of the reactions can be involved in neutron proton interaction : One scattering and other radiative capture. The latter has low probability and cross section for high energy neutrons, as the cross section for the competitng radiative capture reaction decreases with I/y, where y is the neutron velocity. In practice protons are bound in molecules. The chemical binding energy of the proton ina molecule is about 0.1 eV. This for neutron energies > | eV the proton can be assumed as free. This sets a lower limit to the neutron energy. If the neutron energy is less than 10 MeV, only the S-wave overlaps with the nuclear potential and is scattered. In the centre of mass system, the Schrodinger equation for the two body (n-p system) problem is M e vey + ;7 [E-VNlw=0, wl) h where M = Proton or neutron mass = 2 x Reduced mass of the system. | E = Incident kinetic energy in C-M system = (incident K.E. in L-co- ordinates) and V(r) = Inter-nucleon potential energy.Neuclear and Particle Physics At large distances from the centre equation is expected to be of the form : aot wae +S 7@Qy, rs 21 of scattering the solution of this (2) PLANE wave SCATTERING — ai505 CENTER —_— — — 'searrento ‘Devecran § — SomepicAE Fig. 1. Scattering Process. The term e represents a plane wave describing a beam of particles moving in the z-direction towards the origin (scattering centre). The second term represents the scattered wave, The complex quantity (0) is the scattering amplitude in the direction 6 and is to be evaluated in terms of k. In the case of aspherically symmetric potential the entire arrangement is axially symmetric about the incident direction and hence does not depend on the azimuthal angle $. The 1//* dependence is necessary for the conservation of particles in the outgoing wave. The volume of a spherical shell, between r and r+ dr is nr? dr and hence the density of particles in it or the probability of finding one particle in the spherical shell must vary with 1/? which is proportional to the square of the amplitude of the scattered wave in the shell. Hence the amplitude of the scattered wave must vary with I/r. * To compute the differential scattering cross section, we must find the number of particles dN scattered in unit time by one target nucleus into solid angle dQ and the incident flux F. If v is the speed of an incoming particle with respect to the scatterer. then Incoming flux of particles F ; . Similarly dN is equal to the flux of scattered particles multiplied by the area 2dQ cut out by dona spherical surface of radius r and is given by UN = Wy Wy, 972 dO = OVP VIO The differential cross section do= a= fis(@da=2n fis1OP sin 00. AG) e of a scattering ty = in, Vine > (RO) PdO w= HO)? dQ or First of all let us consider the wave equation in the absenc centre [¥(r) = 0 for all values of 7]. 2 on vay +(ME/N?) y= 0 aAnmol F.G. GUlee dle auess 22 i sks This has the solution yw > e™. (3) where k= WA= (ME) /h ; _ Lord Rayleigh proposed that this type of wavefunction can be exp, : into aseries in terms of spherical harmonic functions. Thus equation (5) cae written as an infinite series ya ok = ell cost = 2 RI()Y,0(0). a Where / is the integer representing the number of the partial waves, Tha usual, signifies the orbital angular momentum of the system. ‘The radia, functions Ri(r) are solutions of the radial part of equation (4). 2 M+ 1 Z(e #).(e ( 2)R=0. a dr dt This equation has two solutions, one is not finite at the origin and can not represent the plae wave. The other is finite at origin and can be represented in terms.of spherical Bessel functions as ‘ Rw) =# 4n ls Dl Acker). (8) The square of this givs the r-dependence of the probability dejnsity fo cach partial wave in expression (6). The values of first few spherical Besse functions are sin kr sinkr coskr cA (kr) = Sinkr _ coskr re sate Jy (kr) = 3cos kr cary’ * oO Polynominal of order /. The square of th he angular dependence of the probabilit) Legendre polynomials are Where P, (cos6) is the Legendre spherical harmonic function gives th density. The values of the first few Po (cos®) = 1, P, (cos8) = cos0, P, (cos) = 7 (3.c0s°6 - For incident neutrons kinetic energy the only partial wave involved in scatte -1). y less than 10 MeV (in the lab-system) ting is the /= 0 or-S-wave, The scattering Momentum. In the absence of the a scatteri i: oa be it ing potent Ui (6) can written as * Potential equation (6)Neuclear and Particle Physics 23 sin kr ( in kr + el WH Rg (1) Yo gO) + x RUDY, => ) w (10) i kr The averaged value of the quantity within the brackets over all directions kr in space is zero. The first term corresponds to the spherically symmetric partial wave (S-wave). For S-wave scattering, only the first term is affected and can therefore be written as w, = u(r)/r. Outside the range of the scattering potential. the amplitude of the outgoing wave is unchanged, The only possible change in the waye is therefore a change of phase. , Thus as r— x, the solution w() asstimes the form ¢ sin (kr + 5), where cis an arbitrary constant and 5, is same phase angle. Thus the complete wave function outside the scattering potential is __ esin(kr +89) -{e snk) F kr ikr iby e This scattered wave must contain no incoming wave. Therefore we can write the coefficient of e "as zero. Thus we have ce —1/k=0 or. c=(1/h) e®, wih ony hence ee Ee el San) hence y =e aE Comparing this with the standard solution, we have sin ylbn go gle fo ff =< sindy. - (12) k 2i k The total elastic scattering cross section is = sin? 4n 9 a3 cya 2a ff Se pesinoad = Fsin? 3g 3) 0 x 2 =4n 2? sin?) ¢ is carried through only for / = 0 scattering. Higher ves also have to be considered at higher energies. e written as a sum of partial cross-sections, one s-sections are The analysis her | Orbital angular momentum wa | The total cross-section can b | for each /-wave. The partial cro: o =4x 22 (2/4 1) sin’ 6, (14) oe ngth— For neutrons of very low energy scattered by free large and hence & is very small. It can be seen from eqn. Scattering le! Protons, A is veryAnmol P.G. Guide and Guess 24 that as k > 0, 6, must also approach zero, other 0) would beco, ste me infting Thus for low energy neutrons /(0) can be written as | 590 Where the quantity +a is called the scattering length in the co, of Fermi and Marshall. Hence for low energy neutrons u(r) = c (kr +8) = ; | lg This is the equation of a straight line intersecting the r-axis at y= 4, ang is obtained by extrapolating the radial wave function (r) from the Point jug “Aly AVENtion ee an i d y Dp eee | Ob yl Fig. 2. (left) Positive scattering length (bound state); (right) Negative scattering length (unbound state) beyond the range of the nuclear force. Scattering from a potential bound state produces a positive a. If the potential gives only a virt the slope of the inner wave function at r = b is positive and @ is ne From eqns. (13) and (16) the 4 giving « ual state gative, Zero energy scattering cross-sectin becomes wn (I7, This is identical with the Scattering cross-section ofan impenirable sphert of radius a, in the limit of zero energy. The measurement of , determines thi magnitude of the scattering length a but not its sign. Determination of the phase shift §,—We shall now attempt to determin the phase shift 5, for low energy rieutron-proton scattering by solving als the Schrodinger's equation in the region where the interaction between thi two particles takes place. For this we make the simple assumption ofa quart well for the nuclear potential. Inside the well of depth V, and radius 5 th, radial wave equation for particles whose total energy has the positive value E is du M a pl + Volar =0. (18 Inside the square well this equation has the simple solution uG)= Asin kyr, where k, = JIMESVG)1/ 0. oll9 Outside the square well, the solution can be written u(r)= Bsin (kr+8,), (20, At the edge of the rectangular well (r = 5), the two solutions and theitNeuclear and Particle Physics derivatives with respect to r must be continuous. ; A sin 4, b= B sin (kb +5,) and k,A cos b= Bk cos (kb+ 8). Hence &, cos k,b = k cot (kb = 8). Ql) “This relationship is analogous in from to equation K cot Kb=~o, . b i ww(22) which describes the binding energy B of the deuteron in terms of the same rectangular well (Vo, 4). Here K = JM(Vp—B)] /h ando= /(MB) /n For low energy neutrons (E < V,), we may assume K = k, (as Vp = B), hence the wavefunction x(r) inside the well is nearly the same for the deuteron and the n-p-scattering system. Thus for approximation we can write (ME) (ME) (MB) bb +8) |= - 7 cot ( h 5} th As the scattering length a is much larger than the range 6 of the potential, thus for very low energy neutrons kb can be neglected in comparison to 3y. cot, =- (2) or, sin 8) = (23) E E+|B) Substituting this value of sin? 8, in equation we obtain the approximate value of total scattering cross-section as E 4x 1 ooh EB) M E+xBi ag os ‘te in Dependence of Nuclear Forces. At very low energie: steno fe dineren Numerical substitution of B=2.22 MeV in equation gives a predicted value for zero energy neutrons (E=0), 6)=2.3 a wh is in violet disagreement with the measured value 69 ed 20.36+0.10 Dams. aH is disagreement is a sign of some fundamental error in our assumptions. his point was cleared up by E. P. Wigner in 1935. He suggested that the seating occurs not only in the triplet state (°S), but in the singlet state ('S) as ve a Experimentally the total angular momentum of the Sever nie es is Unity. The spins are, therefore, correlated in the ground nae 0 the ae ron The situation is different in n-p scattering expesimet Wier whe tnrzed Neutrons strike randomly oriented protons, their uncorre’ ate oe - ae ina unity in three fourths of the collisions ad to zero in one fourth of Hs pole ee In other words we can say that the triplet state (S= » bid ' ve sane Statistical weight (2S + 1) of a singlet (S = 0) state. The total n-p cross-section will then be o= 4nh°Anmol P.G. Guide and Guess 26 3.1 o ri +59n / here 6, and . indicate the cross-sections in triplet and singlet States where o, and o, espectively. : ; eo ; ey One tet of Wigner’s hypothesis is by measurement of the CrOSS-sectig, ar the range 0 to 5 MeV, where the theoretical expression for oy should holg We can use the calculated value o,=2.3 bams and the experimental informatioy on , (zero energy cross-section) to calculate 6,. To fit the experimental datg we must have (in barns) - ( 3 93446 20.36= 7 (23) 4° 6,=74 barns. Introducting the singlet and triplet scattering lengths a, and a, where 6, . =4na, and o, = 4na?, we obtain the rough estimates a,~4.3 fermi and a, ~243 fermi. Coherent Scattering of Slow Neutrons. Equation (11.17) shows that we . can find the magnitude. but not the sign, of the scattering length a. The most important evidence is the scattering of neutrons by ortho and para hydrogen. An experimental comparison of the coherent scattering from ortho and para hydrogen was first suggested by Teller in 1936 to test the spin dependence of the neutron proton interaction. Not only we are able to verify that the scattering is spin dependent but also will be able to show that singlet state scattering length is negative. In para-hydrogen molecules the proton spins are/aftl= parallel. The molecules can rotate with energies given by E,=JU+1)h/2g, (J=0,2,4,....), Where g is the moment of interia. In ortho hydrogen proton spins att parallel. The rotational states are given by J = 1,3, 5... Iftemperature ig lov enough practically all the para hydrogen will be in the state J= 0 and all th ortho hydrogen will be in state J = 1, E We shall now derive an expression for the scatter molecule of ortho or para hydrogen when the incident small that 2, is much greater than 0.78 x 19 0 atoms in hydrogen molecule. The theoretical expr. for the special case of neutron enery of 0.00146: 19-5°K, as derived by Schwinger and Teller in 1 yar 6.69 (3a, +a)? yang = 6-69 [(3a, +a)? +2 sy +2 (a,—a)) + 1.74(a ap QS: Explain the ground state propa unit , Properties of the deuteron. Discuss th Spin dependence of nuclear forces. ed intensity from’ neutron energy is § m, the distance between th essionis for total cross-sectio 3 eV and agas temperature 0 937, are i (24 Ans. The ground state of the deu es t 'teron—The deuteron groun state wa" function in the presence of a tensor for Tce can be written as(i Purely (Non-leptonic/h; MoptTtiKkK »7 Do> Ki +n At adronic Processes - " TILK? yay it Ati At os MOA tn © AY PAK 430 (B) Neutral Weak Inter: Neutrino-lepton sc (AS = 1) (c= 1) ‘actions ola altering » Neutrino-nucl ing’ cleon Scattering y +N y 4 N q Lepton-lepton Scattering ¢! i = Fe ste we ectron-nucleon Scattering e-+N e+ feo, te I" Competes with em - interaction N Competes with em and strong interactions. The strong interactions act between a pair of tucleons (p, ), strange baryons (A. 5), mesons (a, p) and Strange mesons (K). The strong nuclear interaction is always attractive and independent of the electric of the electric charge. The force is same between p—p and n—n. For this purpose the proton and neutron are one but in different electric charge states. Its range is very much shorter than that of gravitational or electromagnetic interaction, Strong interaction energy falls off rapidly when the distance between two particles increases. The interaction has a short range of about 10°! m. Yukawa in 1935 predicted the existence of heavy quanta, which played the same role in nuclear forces (or strong forces) a photons in electromagnetic ones. From estimates of the range of nuclear forces. Yukawa predicted that the new particles, called mesons. should have a mass of the order of 200 to 300 electron masses. The interaction for relatively large distances between nucleons is generated by the exchange of single pions. At shorter separation (distances) the exchange of two pion systems. such as p-mesons, dominates. The interaction between the strange baryons and between the strange baryons and the nucleons arises in part from the exchange of pions, but the exchange of kaons is also equally important. The Tange of the interaction can be calculated as h/ mc, where m is the mass of the exchanged particles. Thus for the exchange of a single pion the interaction Would be 1.4 x 10°15 mand for the double pion it would be 0.7 » 10°!” m. Inthe chapter of nuclear forces, we outlined an clementary theory of pion-nucleon interaction and introduced the concept of an exchange nucleon charge g ‘Malogous to the electric charge ¢. The strength of the nuclear interaction is "presented by the magnitude of the dimensional coupling constant g7/4z fi *'4). Itis about a thousand times the electromagnetic coupling constant «. org tng nuclear force can now be pictured as arising through an exchange ur quanta called gluon. It has zero rest mass and spin 1. Hadron-hadron interaction N +N N+ (d) Strong Interaction— hadrons. The hadrons include n