11th Century Byzantine Clothing Construction

By Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina

(MKA Christine Misterka, [email protected])
© January 2013

In the Early Byzantine period (pre-8th c.) the fashions were still heavily influenced by
Roman fashions, and during the Late Byzantine period (13th-15th c.) the styles in the
Empire were influenced by the surrounding areas of the Empire due to increased trade
and political relations.

This handout will focus on the court fashion of the Byzantine Empire during the Middle
Byzantine period (8th-12th c.). This period of Byzantine fashion history is unique in
that the styles of the capital were distinctly Byzantine - a contrast to both the Early and
Late periods. I will be focusing on the court dress of Constantinople because its style
is most appropriate for this year’s Chieftains’ high persona theme of 11th c. Byzantine.
To finish out the survey of 11th c. Byzantine fashion I will also be discussing the
borderland fashions which were influenced by the surrounding Georgian, Armenian,
Arab, and Bulgarian cultures.

The purpose of this handout is to give a brief overview of what it was like to dress
Byzantine during the 11th century, what the clothing pieces looked like, examples of
fabric materials, designs, and colors, period images of clothing, and also cover the
patterning of these garments so you can make your own Byzantine clothing!

Unlike several other areas of historical clothing, there is still a lack of adequate information regarding Byzantine
clothing. Some of what I present here on Byzantine clothing is based on conjecture using my limited
knowledge of the surrounding areas’ clothing, such as Persian and Russian. Another important thing to note
about Byzantine clothing research is the myriad of terms used to refer to the same articles of clothing. This is
due to the use of Greek terms, or their Latinized alternatives. In order to reduce this confusion I have chosen to
primarily use Jennifer Ball’s terminology, though I list some of the other terms you might see while researching.

Things to Know About Dressing Period Byzantine

When looking at images of Byzantine clothing one of the first things you will notice is the modesty of its cut.
Garments often have crew necklines and long hems, without a focus on flattering or exposing the body shape.
You see an example of this in the above image of Saint Eudokia, with her straight garments and almost
androgynous figure.1 During the Middle Byzantine period there is no defined waist in the clothing - this
definition was achieved by belting the garments at the natural waist. The generous coverage of fabric also
conveyed wealth.

When dressing as a member of the court, it is important to remember that your extremities would never be
exposed. For men and women, this means that long sleeves were always worn, at least for the innermost
layer. This also meant that garments reached the floor as a sign of modesty, especially for women. For men

1
Image 1: "Icon with Saint Eudokia." Early 10th c. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture
of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 42.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 1

wearing a shorter tunic to mid-shin, he most certainly would have covered his legs with pants or hosen.

Another important feature to remember is finishing your garment. This often helps the clothes hang correctly.
For seams that do not show, a simple seam finishing is good. For seams that show, this is more appropriately
done with a lining, especially if you have wide sleeves that hang open. A lining also provides more body to the
garment to make it look stiffer, and thus more expensive, since heavy silk brocade is outside of most people’s
budgets. It also serves as a means of protection for the back side of all your embellishment and beading.

And finally, layers! Wearing multiple layers has some major benefits. First, it allows for better body temperature
regulation since you can add or remove garments easily. Second, your less expensive fabrics absorb sweat
and body oils, protecting your heavily embellished and more expensive top layers. Lastly, layers convey more
wealth since they added to the overall weight of your wardrobe.

Fabrics

During the Middle Byzantine period one’s salary was paid both “in kind” with materials such as bolts of fabric or
new garments, as well as with money. As a result, you displayed your salary and status through your clothing
and its weight. You wanted to wear as much of your wealth as possible, so multiple layers of heavily lavish
fabric were worn. If you could not afford the silk brocades of the elite you would wear patterned fabric or apply
embroidery and appliqued fabric to your garment to make it look more expensive.

Materials
When choosing fabric, silk was the first choice as it was the most obvious display of the Empire’s wealth, and
your standing as an individual. These would be heavily patterned brocades with geometric patterns, figurative
designs of animals or religious scenes, or floral and abstract designs influenced from the Arabic and Islamic
fabric industries. Silk could also be in solid colors and of a fine weave. Although natural silk usually has some
imperfections, there would not be the large slubs found in raw silk or dupioni.

Linen and fine wool were also used during this time since they were less expensive materials. Fine linen is
appropriate, as is fine suiting weight wool with a nice finish. The wool would not have been scratchy, rough, or
coarsely woven. They could then be embellished to look more sumptuous like their more expensive silk
cousins. Cotton was not as common during this period since Egypt was no longer part of the Empire and the
cotton trade had thus declined.

Embellishment was added with embroidery or appliqued fabric/embroidery. Trim on the neckline, cuffs, and
hems was used to finish the look. Pearls and gems were used to embellish the body of the fabric. More was
better during this time, thus it was not crucial that all of your precious gems matched throughout your garment.
If you could not afford precious gems and pearls, glass ‘gems’ were also used to give the impression of
expensive gems.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 2

 Colors
There were very few restrictions on the colors that
could be worn in the Byzantine Empire. Imperial
purple, its dye made from the sea crustacean murex,
and gold were often reserved solely for the Imperial
family. The Imperial purple was extremely precious
and valuable because “approximately 12,000 shells
were required to produce only 1.4 grams of pure dye,
which would color the trim of the average garment.”2

Popular colors of the day were red, blue, green, and

yellow, with all the other colors imaginable worn with
less frequency. Evidence of clothing in red, ochre,
yellow, orange, white, lavender, natural, tan, light and
dark brown, gold, pink, maroon, light and dark blue,
cobalt blue, slate blue, aqua, light and dark green,
yellow-green, coral, purple, raspberry, rose, and
black.

Although they wore an array of colors, make sure that

when choosing your fabric you select colors that are
not too bright. Vegetable dyes give clear color,
especially when dying silk, but they are not neon.
Select colors that are in line with those worn in
the Near East, Middle East, and Central Asia because this is where some of the clothing and fabric was
produced that the Byzantines wore. You see in the image to the left of the Sebastocrator Kalion and his
consort, Dessislava that they wear a variety of colors, all of them highly saturated and akin to what many would
associate as “Middle Eastern” in hew.3

Designs
A multitude of designs were available to the Byzantines. They
were quite fond roundel designs and this is the most frequently
seen design in the artwork and literature. Back-to-back animals,
birds, and humans in roundels or squares were popular motifs.The
image to the right is of the 12th century shroud of St. Potentien,
displaying phoenixes and griffins in a variegated weft yarn and a
single colored warp yarn.4 Consort Dessislava divetesion in Image
2 displays roundels as well, their scale adjusting so that they
would all appear of the same size when viewed at a distance. We
also notice roundels on her chlamys, emphasizing their popularity.

2
Jennifer L. Ball. Byzantine Dress: Representations of Secular Dress in Eighth- to Twelfth-Century Painting. (New York: Palgrave
MacMillan, 2005). pg 15.
3
Image 2: "The Sebastocrator Kaloian and his consort, Dessislava." 1259. The Resurrection."Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine
Era. (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd, 1963). pg 189.
4
Image 3: “Pseudo Kufic script in medallion on Byzantine shroud of Saint Potentien 12th century.”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pseudo_Kufic_script_in_medallion_on_Byzantine_shroud_of_Saint_Potentien_12th_century_rotated.jpg
.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 3

Another popular geometric pattern was lozenges, lattices, diamonds, stripes, or argyle. The image below of
Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates and Courtiers displays this wide use of geometric and repeating patterns,
along with a range of design sizes.5 When selecting geometrically patterned clothing look for small- to
medium-sized, repeat patterns with a historical flare that would fit the scale of a human body.

Although Byzantine fashion is often known for its use

of geometric designs, non-geometric patterns were
also popular due to their influence from the Near East
and Middle East. Some of these patterns included
vines, rosettes, and leaves. We see examples of
vines in Image 2 on the Sebastocrator Kaloian’s
divetesion.

Despite the multitude of patterns available to the

Byzantines, it is important to remember that paisley
was not an option. Paisley is a late period Turkish
style and only appropriate for clothing post-1500,
which coincides with the fall of the Byzantine Empire
in 1453.

Woven in fabrics are the most desirable as these give

a more period look; however, printed patterns are
also permissible since these technique was also
sometimes used in period.

Patterning with Modern Fabric

Entire garments could be woven on looms during this
time, including the neckhole, leaving only the side
seam left to sew. Because our modern technology
generally offers us with only 45” (silk, cotton) or 60”
fabric (linen, wool), we much adjust how we pattern our Byzantine garments to account for the presence of
seams somewhere in the sleeve - either at the armseye or by adding fabric in the forearm to make the sleeves
long enough.

Garments in the 11th c. Byzantine Wardrobe

Tunics
Kolobion - sleeveless tunic
Kondomanikion - short sleeved tunic
Chiton, himation, sticharion - all general words for tunics
Sticharion - might have been a striped tunic
Tunica and stola - also seen in some research to refer to a tunic, either short or long sleeved

5
Image 4: "Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates and Courtiers." From the Homilies of John Chrysostom. ca. 1071-1081. Evans, Helen
C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry
N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 208.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 4

In general we see long sleeved tunics whenever there is
visible evidence of them. The sleeves were close fitting and
went to the wrist. The neckline was crew or boat, and the
color was opaque if worn as the only layer and white
otherwise. It is assumed that the tunics were full length
though thought this is hard to know for sure.

We see a disappearance of the clavii and

segmentae/roundels used in Early Byzantine period tunics.
These were replaced by an addition of decorative bands at
the neck, around the arms, and hem. The 1078-1081 image
to the left of Emperor Nicephorous Botiniates between St.
John Chrysostom and Archangel Michael show different
hints of embellishment around the cuffs and hems.6

Divetesion
The divetesion is sometimes also called a dalmatica or
colobium.

It was a long sleeve garment with sleeves long enough to

cover the wrists, other examples show them coming to
mid-forearm. The sleeves were moderately-wide to wide. In the image below of the “Representation of the Icon
of the Virgin Hodegetria,” we see examples of the mid-forearm and moderately wide sleeves.7 Later within the
Middle Byzantine period we see the women’s sleeves become more bell shaped, emulating the Western
European fashions.

The divetesion was full-length and there are

generally no slits in the divetesion, though we see
some rare examples of there being a slit in the
men’s version, going up to the knee, like in Image
5 of Emperor Nicephorous Botiniates. The men’s
divetesion was sometimes shorter to mid-shin,
exposing the hem trim on the tunic. Women’s
divetesions never had slits and were always floor
length as a sign of modesty.

Silk brocades were most common for this

garment. The fabric could be heavily jeweled to
further increase its splendor. Decorative bands at
the neck, around the arms, and hem were use; a
scroll-work pattern popular being quite popular.
We see examples of this kind of trimwork in

6
Image 5: "The Emperor Nicephorus Botiniates (1078-81) between St John Chrysostom and the Archangel Michael." The Homilies of
St John Chrysostom. Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd, 1963). pg 123.
7
Image 6: "Representation of the Icon of the Virgin Hodegetria." Late 14th c. Kalavrezou, Ioli. Byzantine Women and Their World.
(Cambridge: Harvard University Art Museums, 2003). pg 114.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 5

 Image 5 on Emperor Nicephorous Botiniates’
outfit. Image 6 illustrates a later style of armbands, which have become wider and more embellished. Purple
and gold were reserved for the Imperial family. References are seen of courtiers wearing blue, red, and white
divetesions.

Caftan
The caftan was similar to the divetesion in that it was a
full-length garment with long sleeves that could be narrow to
moderately wide. Where it differed from the divetesion and
array of tunic styles was that it opened down the front, either
partially or completely. It was then fastened with closures, and
could have slits on the sides to aid in horseback riding.

Unlike the variations of tunics and divetesions, the caftan was

not of Byzantine or Roman origin. Rather, it was influenced by
the surrounding Armenian, Georgian, Bulgarian, and Arabic
cultures. It is important to remember that caftan is often a
broadly defined term to mean a tunic with a front opening. In
Arabic fashions it is called a qaba.

Above to the right we see a Byzantine example of a caftan in

this “Portrait of the High Admiral Apocaucos,” characterized by
the use of stiff brocaded
fabric with a roundel
design.8

To the left is an example of a

North African Arabic style
caftan, with its straight
construction to allow for
better air flow.9

To the right is an example of

the Middle Eastern/Syrian
style, being more flowy and
knee length.10

8
Image 7: "Portrait of the High Admiral Apocaucos." ca. 1342. Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and
Hudson, Ltd, 1963). pg 248.
9
Image 8: "Dioskorides Presented with Copies of His Book." De materia medica by Dioskorides. 1229. Evans, Helen C. and William D.
Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,
1997). pg 430.
10
Image 9: "Abu Zayd before a Judge in the City of Merv." Maqamat of al-Hariri. 1222-1223. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom,
ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg
429.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 6

Chlamys
The chlamys is a descendent of the earlier Roman styles, called the paludamentum. Similar to the Roman
styling, the chlamys could be either a half circle or rectangular cloak. Knee-length versions were worn by
soldiers and laborers, with full-length cloaks being worn for all other occasions, especially formal courtwear.

To wear the chlamys it was fastened with a brooch on the right shoulder, though sometimes it was worn
fastened in the center of the chest, like the courtiers in Image 4 with Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates.

Insignia and a tablion often adorned the chlamys, signifying the wearer’s station and status. Below to the left
Saints Prokopios, Demetrius and Nestor are each wearing a chlamys with different designed tablion.11 The
Empress Saint Theophono, in the image to the left, displays a very different looking chlamys that lacks a
tablion and is made out of a patterned fabric, rather than a solid-colored fabric.12

Headdress
Round, flat-topped hats without brims
Conical caps of Phrygian style
Turbans - seen in the borderland fashions
Large upright fan headdresses - worn only by women
Maphorion - veil worn by women

11
Image 10: "Saints Prokopios, Demetrius and Nestor." Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and Hudson,
Ltd, 1963). pg 131.
12
Image 11: "The empress Saint Theophono, first wife of Leo VI." Menologium of Basil II. Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine
State and Society. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). pg 465.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 7

The image below shows the “Dance of Miriam with the Israelite Women” and is an excellent example of the
fan-shaped hats worn by women.13 It also depicts the variety of embellishment found in the headdress and
clothing.

Pants
Leggings/hosen - close fitting, sometimes cross-gartered by the shepherds
Pants - looser style of Frankish origin, sometimes cross-gartered

Footwear
Slip on flat shoes
Ankle boots
Calf-high boots for laborers and soldiers

13
Image 12: "The Dance of Miriam and the Israelite Women." 1058-1059. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of
Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 206.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 8

Accessories
Codices, kerchiefs, whips, batons
Belts - jeweled, garments could be worn belted or unbelted

In Image 12 of the Dance of Miriam we see wide,

decorated belts worn at the natural waist, with one long
end that hangs down. In Image 7 of the High Admiral we
see a very narrow belt, which is also worn at the natural
waist but does not have a long end that hangs down.

Additional Garments Worn by the Imperial Family

Loros (sometimes also called pallium) - long, highly
embellished and bejewelled piece of fabric
Tzangia - highly embellished and bejewelled shoes
Crown/stemma/diadem - characterized by pendulia, which
were long strands that hung down in front of the ears and
were usually made of pearls.

The image to the right of “Christ Crowning Michael VII

Doukas (relabeled Nikephoros III Botaneiates) and Maria of
Alania” shows two styles of the loros as well as two styles
of crowns.14

Building Your Outfit

Constantinople Borderlands

Under Layer Tunic Tunic

Middle Layer Divetesion 2nd Tunic (add ease), or Caftan

Top Layer Chlamys Caftan

Headdress Caps, fan hat, maphorion Turban

Footwear Slip on flats, ankle boots Slip on flats, ankle boots, shin
boots

Accessories Codices, kerchiefs, whips, batons, Belt

belt

14
Image 13: "Christ Crowning Michael VII Doukas (relabeled Nikephoros III Botaneiates) and Maria of Alania.” Illustration from the
Homilies of John Chrysostom. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle
Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 182.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 9

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 10
 Tunica Pattern

Measurements Directions
Shoulder to Floor : 1.) Take all of the measurements - all of them are standard and
Head Circumference : straightforward. To measure the stride take a full step forward on a
Chest : measuring tape - this measurement equals half of your total hem.
Waist : 2.) Chalk out all of your pattern pieces. You will have 2 body
Hips : panels and two sleeves. Do not forget to add seam allowance.
Stride : 3.) Sew shoulder seams.
4.) Cut and finish neckhole using head circumference.
Sleeve Length : 5.) Attach armseye end of sleeves to the body panels. This will
Armseye : create a t-shaped flat garment.
Duck Hand : 6.) Sew side seams and seams of sleeves, starting at the cuff.
7.) Finish all hems and seams.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 11

 Divetesion Pattern

Measurements Directions
Shoulder to Floor : 1.) Take all of the measurements - all of them are standard and
Head Circumference : straightforward. To measure the stride take a full step forward on a
Chest : measuring tape - this measurement equals half of your total hem.
Waist : 2.) Chalk out all of your pattern pieces. You will have 2 body
Hips : panels and two sleeves. To determine your cuff measurement add
Stride : (Duck Hand) + 2(Armpit to Waist) OR (Duck Hand) + 2(Armpit to
Top of Hip), depending on how wide you want your sleeves to be.
Sleeve Length : Do not forget to add seam allowance.
Armseye : 3.) Sew shoulder seams.
Duck Hand : 4.) Cut and finish neckhole using head circumference.
Armpit to Waist : 5.) Attach armseye end of sleeves to the body panels. This will
Armpit to Top of Hip : create a t-shaped flat garment.
6.) Sew side seams and seams of sleeves, starting at the cuff.
7.) Finish all hems and seams.

** It is helpful to line the divetesion since the underside and sleeves will be exposed.**

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 12

 Caftan Pattern

Measurements Directions
Shoulder to Floor : 1.) Take all of the measurements - all of them are standard and
Head Circumference : straightforward. To measure the stride take a full step forward on a
Chest : measuring tape - this measurement equals half of your total hem.
Waist : 2.) Chalk out all of your pattern pieces. You will have 2 body
Hips : panels and two sleeves. To determine your cuff measurement use
Stride : your armseye measurement - this will make a straight sleeve. Do
not forget to add seam allowance. Also remember to add extra
Sleeve Length : seam allowance for the opening down the middle.
Armseye : 3.) Sew shoulder seams.
Duck Hand : 4.) Cut and finish neckhole using head circumference.
5.) Attach armseye end of sleeves to the body panels. This will
create a t-shaped flat garment.
6.) Sew side seams and seams of sleeves, starting at the cuff.
7.) Finish all hems and seams.

** It is helpful to line the caftan since the underside and sleeves will be exposed.**

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 13

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 14
 Chlamys Pattern

Measurements Directions
Shoulder to Floor : 1.) Take all of the measurements - all of them are standard and
Width of Fabric : straightforward.
2.) Chalk out a half circle, using your Shoulder to Floor
measurement or the Width of Fabric. If your fabric is narrower than
your shoulder to floor you can add a trim of fabric to make up for
the extra length. Do not forget to add seam allowance.
3.) Cut out chlamys.
4.) Cut and finish neckhole using head circumference.
7.) Finish all hems and seams.

** It is helpful to line the chlamys since the underside will be exposed.**

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 15

 Bibliography

Books
Ball, Jennifer L. Byzantine Dress: Representations of Secular Dress in Eighth- to Twelfth-Century Painting. (New York:
Palgrave MacMillan, 2005).

Boucher, Francois. 20,000 Years of Fashion: The History of Costume and Personal Adornment. (New York: Harry N.
Abrams, Inc., 1965).

Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D.
843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997).

Houston, Mary G. Ancient Greek, Roman and Byzantine Costume. (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1947).

Kalavrezou, Ioli. Byzantine Women and Their World. (Cambridge: Harvard University Art Museums, 2003).

Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd, 1963).

Treadgold, Warren. A History of the Byzantine State and Society. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997).

Articles
----. "Byzantine Dress." http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_dress.

Bruhn, Jutta-Annette. Coins and Costume in Late Antiquity. (Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and
Collection, 1993).

Elphinstone, Megan (MKA Sharon Rust-Ryburn). "Early Byzantine Clothing, Ornamentation and Accessories: Eastern
Roman Empire, 5th - 6th Century". (March 2006).
http://www.srclink.net/users/Meghan_Elphinstone/MeghanByzantineClothing.pdf.

Tauna, Black. “Basic Patterns.” http://blacktauna.tripod.com/patterns.GIF.

Tauna, Black. “A Clothing How-To for Garments of the Byzantine Empire”.

http://blacktauna.tripod.com/byzantineclothinginfo.html.

Vukson-Van Beek, Dawn. "Byzantine Costumes". http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/01181/Byzantine%20costume.pdf.

Websites
Byzantine Times and Mosaics. http://library.thinkquest.org/04oct/01181/byzantium.htm.

The Byzantine World. http://blacktauna.tripod.com/byzantine.html.

Christobel and Peter's Homepage. http://members.ozemail.com.au/~chrisandpeter/index.html.

Fashion Encyclopedia.
http://www.fashionencyclopedia.com/fashion_costume_culture/Early-Cultures-The-Byzantine-Empire/index.html.

Kingdom of Atlantia A&S Sources for Byzantine Clothing.

http://moas.atlantia.sca.org/wsnlinks/index.php?action=displaycat&catid=330.

Loose Threads: Yet Another Costuming Blog. http://cathyscostumeblog.blogspot.com/search/label/Byzantine.

Lady Ariadne Karbonopsina © January 2013 | pg. 16

Romanesque and Byzantine. http://www.cwu.edu/~robinsos/ppages/resources/Costume_History/romanesque.htm.

Sofya La Rus: 13th - 14th Century Medieval Russian Life. http://www.strangelove.net/~kieser/Russia/index.html.

Images
Image 1: "Icon with Saint Eudokia." Early 10th c. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art
and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 42.

Image 2: "The Sebastocrator Kaloian and his consort, Dessislava." 1259. The Resurrection."Rice, David Talbot. Art of the
Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd, 1963). pg 189.

Image 3: “Pseudo Kufic script in medallion on Byzantine shroud of Saint Potentien 12th century.”
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pseudo_Kufic_script_in_medallion_on_Byzantine_shroud_of_Saint_Potentien_12th_centu
ry_rotated.jpg.

Image 4: "Emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates and Courtiers." From the Homilies of John Chrysostom. ca. 1071-1081.
Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D.
843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 208.

Image 5: "The Emperor Nicephorus Botiniates (1078-81) between St John Chrysostom and the Archangel Michael." The
Homilies of St John Chrysostom. Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and Hudson, Ltd, 1963).
pg 123.

Image 6: "Representation of the Icon of the Virgin Hodegetria." Late 14th c. Kalavrezou, Ioli. Byzantine Women and Their
World. (Cambridge: Harvard University Art Museums, 2003). pg 114.

Image 7: "Portrait of the High Admiral Apocaucos." ca. 1342. Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London:
Thames and Hudson, Ltd, 1963). pg 248.

Image 8: "Dioskorides Presented with Copies of His Book." De materia medica by Dioskorides. 1229. Evans, Helen C.
and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New
York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 430.

Image 9: "Abu Zayd before a Judge in the City of Merv." Maqamat of al-Hariri. 1222-1223. Evans, Helen C. and William D.
Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N.
Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 429.

Image 10: "Saints Prokopios, Demetrius and Nestor." Rice, David Talbot. Art of the Byzantine Era. (London: Thames and
Hudson, Ltd, 1963). pg 131.

Image 11: "The empress Saint Theophono, first wife of Leo VI." Menologium of Basil II. Treadgold, Warren. A History of
the Byzantine State and Society. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997). pg 465.

Image 12: "The Dance of Miriam and the Israelite Women." 1058-1059. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The
Glory of Byzantium: Art and Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc.,
1997). pg 206.

Image 13: "Christ Crowning Michael VII Doukas (relabeled Nikephoros III Botaneiates) and Maria of Alania. Illustration
from the Homilies of John Chrysostom. Evans, Helen C. and William D. Wixom, ed. The Glory of Byzantium: Art and
Culture of the Middle Byzantine Era, A.D. 843 - 1261. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1997). pg 182.

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