10 Energy and Work

We have changed the

photos and captions
at the start of the
chapters and the parts
of the text to better
interest and engage
students. The
A greyhound can rapidly go from a standstill questions that are
to a very speedy run—meaning a very rapid
increase in kinetic energy, the energy of
raised at the start of
motion. How does the greyhound’s ability the chapters aren't
to convert energy from one form to rhetorical; they are
another compare to that of other
animals?
questions that will be
answered in the flow
of the chapter.

LOOKING AHEAD ▶▶

Forms of Energy Work and Energy Conservation of Energy

This dolphin has lots of kinetic energy The woman does work on the jack, applying As they slide, their potential energy
as it leaves the water. At its highest a force to the handle and pushing it down. This decreases and their kinetic energy increases,
point its energy is mostly potential is a transfer of energy into the system, increas- but their total energy is unchanged: It is
energy. ing the potential energy as the car is lifted. ­conserved.

You’ll learn about several of the most You’ll learn how to calculate the work done How fast will they be moving when they
important forms of energy—kinetic, potential, by a force, and how this work is related to the reach the bottom? You’ll use a new before-
and thermal. change in a system’s energy. and-after analysis to find out.

GOAL To introduce the concept of energy and to learn a new problem-solving strategy based on conservation of energy.

LOOKING BACK ◀◀

Motion with Constant Acceleration

In Chapter 2 you learned how to u STOP TO THINK
a
describe the motion of a particle v
u

that has a constant acceleration. A car pulls away from a stop sign with a constant acceleration. After
In this chapter, you’ll use the A particle’s final velocity is traveling 10 m, its speed is 5 m/s. What will its speed be after traveling
constant-acceleration equations related to its initial velocity, 40 m?
its acceleration, and its
to connect work and energy. displacement by A. 10 m/s B. 20 m/s
C. 30 m/s D. 40 m/s
1vx 2f2 = 1vx2i2 + 2a x ∆x
318 chapter 10  Energy and Work

10.1  The Basic Energy Model

Energy. It’s a word you hear all the time. We use chemical energy to heat our homes
and bodies, electric energy to run our lights and computers, and solar energy to grow
our crops and forests. We’re told to use energy wisely and not to waste it. Athletes
and weary students consume “energy bars” and “energy drinks.”
But just what is energy? The concept of energy has grown and changed over time,
and it is not easy to define in a general way just what energy is. Rather than starting
with a formal definition, we’ll let the concept of energy expand slowly over the course
of several chapters. In this chapter we introduce several fundamental forms of energy,
including kinetic energy, potential energy, and thermal energy. Our goal is to under-
stand the characteristics of energy, how energy is used, and, especially important, how
energy is transformed from one form into another. Understanding these transforma-
tions will allow us to understand and explore a wide variety of physical phenomena.
Anything that happens involves a transformation of energy from one form to another,
so the range of topics we’ll consider in this chapter is extensive.
In solving problems, we’ll use a key fact about energy: Energy is neither created
nor destroyed: If one form of energy in a system decreases, it must appear in an
equal amount in another form. Many scientists consider this law of conservation of
energy to be the most important of all the laws of nature.

Systems and Forms of Energy

FIGURE 10.1   A system and its energies. In Chapter 9 we introduced the idea of a system of interacting objects. A system can
be as simple as a falling acorn or as complex as a city. But whether simple or com-
A system can have many
different kinds of energy.
System boundary plex, every system in nature has associated with it a quantity we call its total energy E.
The total energy is the sum of the different kinds of energies present in the system.
System
In the table below, we give a brief overview of some of the more important forms of
K, Ug, Us, Eth, Echem, c energy; in the rest of the chapter, we’ll look at several of these forms of energy in
greater detail.
E = K + Ug + Us + Eth + Echem + c
A system may have many of these kinds of energy at one time. For instance, a
moving car has kinetic energy of motion, chemical energy stored in its gasoline,
The total energy E is the sum of thermal energy in its hot engine, and many other forms of energy. FIGURE 10.1 illus-
the energies present in the system.
trates the idea that the total energy of the system, E, is the sum of all the different
energies present in the system:
E = K + Ug + Us + Eth + Echem + g (10.1)
The energies shown in this sum are the forms of energy in which we’ll be most inter-
ested in this and the next chapter. The ellipses ( g ) stand for other forms of energy,
such as nuclear or electric, that also might be present. We’ll treat these and others in
later chapters.
Some important forms of energy
Kinetic energy K Gravitational potential energy Ug Elastic or spring potential energy Us

Kinetic energy is the energy of motion. All Gravitational potential energy is stored Elastic potential energy is energy stored
moving objects have kinetic energy. The energy associated with an object’s height when a spring or other elastic object, such as
heavier an object and the faster it moves, above the ground. As this coaster ascends, this archer’s bow, is stretched. This energy
the more kinetic energy it has. The wreck- energy is stored as gravitational potential can later be transformed into the kinetic
ing ball in this picture is effective in part energy. As it descends, this stored energy energy of the arrow.
because of its large kinetic energy. is converted into kinetic energy. Continued
 10.1  The Basic Energy Model 319

Thermal energy Eth Chemical energy Echem Nuclear energy Enuclear

Hot objects have more thermal energy Electric forces cause atoms to bind The forces that hold together the particles in
than cold ones because the molecules in a together to make molecules. Energy can the nucleus of the atom are much stronger
hot object jiggle around more than those in be stored in these bonds, energy that can than the electric forces that hold together
a cold object. Thermal energy is the sum later be released as the bonds are rear- molecules, so they store a great deal more
of the microscopic kinetic and potential ranged during chemical reactions. All energy. Certain nuclei break apart into
energies of all the molecules in an object. animals eat, taking in chemical energy to smaller fragments, releasing some of this
provide energy to move muscles and fuel nuclear energy. The energy is transformed
processes of the body. into the kinetic energy of the fragments and
then into thermal energy.

Energy Transformations
If the amounts of each form of energy never changed, the world would be a very dull
place. What makes the world interesting is that energy of one kind can be trans-
formed into energy of another kind. The following table illustrates a few common
energy transformations. In this table, we use an arrow S as a shorthand way of
representing an energy transformation.

Some energy transformations

A weightlifter lifts a barbell over her head
The barbell has much more gravitational potential energy when high above her head than
when on the floor. To lift the barbell, she transforms chemical energy in her body into
gravitational potential energy of the barbell.
Echem S Ug

A base runner slides into the base

When running, he has lots of kinetic energy. After sliding, he has none. His kinetic energy
is transformed mainly into thermal energy: The ground and his legs are slightly warmer.
K S Eth

A burning campfire
The wood contains considerable chemical energy. When the carbon in the wood combines
chemically with oxygen in the air, this chemical energy is transformed largely into thermal
energy of the hot gases and embers.
Echem S Eth

A springboard diver
Here’s a two-step energy transformation. At the instant shown, the board is flexed to its
maximum extent, so that elastic potential energy is stored in the board. Soon this energy
will begin to be transformed into kinetic energy; then, as the diver rises into the air and
slows, this kinetic energy will be transformed into gravitational potential energy.
Us S K S Ug
 320 chapter 10  Energy and Work

FIGURE 10.2  Energy transformations FIGURE 10.2 reinforces the idea that energy transformations are changes of
within the system. energy within the system from one form to another. (The U in this figure is a
generic potential energy; it could be gravitational potential energy Ug, spring poten-
K U tial energy Us, or some other form of potential energy.) There are two types of
arrows in the figure. The arrow between K and U is a two-way arrow; it’s easy to
Echem transform energy back and forth between these forms. When the springboard diver
goes up in the air, his kinetic energy is transformed into gravitational potential
energy; when he comes back down, this process is reversed. But the arrow between
Eth
K and Eth is a one-way arrow pointing toward Eth. When the runner slides into the
E = K + U + Eth + Echem + c base, his kinetic energy is transformed into thermal energy. This process doesn’t
System spontaneously reverse, although this would certainly make baseball a more exciting
Videos featured in eText
called out prominently with
game. In Chapter 11, we’ll see that it is possible to transform thermal energy into
logo/info other forms, but it’s not easy, and there are real limitations.

A video to support a section’s topic

Energy Transfers and Work
eText
2.0 is embedded in the eText. We’ve just seen that energy transformations occur between forms of energy within a
Video Demo The Basic Energy Model system. But every physical system also interacts with the world around it—that is,
with its environment. In the course of these interactions, the system can exchange
energy with the environment. An exchange of energy between system and envi-
FIGURE 10.3  Work and heat are energy ronment is called an energy transfer. There are two primary energy-transfer pro-
transfers into and out of the system. cesses: work, the mechanical transfer of energy to or from a system by pushing or
pulling on it, and heat, the nonmechanical transfer of energy from the environment
The environment is everything
that is not part of the system.
to the system (or vice versa) because of a temperature difference between the two.
FIGURE 10.3, which we call the basic energy model, shows how our energy model
Environment is modified to include energy transfers into and out of the system as well as energy
Energy is transferred transformations within the system. In this chapter we’ll consider energy transfers by
from the environment System means of work; the concept of heat will be developed in Chapters 11 and 12.
to the system. K U “Work” is a common word in the English language, with many meanings. When
you first think of work, you probably think of physical effort or the job you do to
Work, make a living. In physics, “work” is the process of transferring energy from the
heat Echem
environment to a system, or from a system to the environment, by the application of
Energy is transferred
mechanical forces—pushes and pulls—to the system. Once the energy has been
Eth transferred to the system, it can appear in many forms. Exactly what form it takes
from the system to
the environment. depends on the details of the system and how the forces are applied. The table below
gives three examples of energy transfers due to work. We use W as the symbol
for work.

Energy transfers: work

Putting a shot Striking a match Firing a slingshot

The system: The shot The system: The match and matchbox The system: The slingshot
The environment: The athlete The environment: The hand The environment: The boy
As the athlete pushes on the shot to get it As the hand quickly pulls the match across As the boy pulls back on the elastic
moving, he is doing work on the system; the box, the hand does work on the ­system, bands, he does work on the system,
that is, he is transferring energy from increasing its thermal energy. The match increasing its elastic potential energy.
himself to the shot. The energy transferred head becomes hot enough to ignite. The transfer: W S Us
to the system appears as kinetic energy. The transfer: W S Eth
The transfer: W S K
 10.1  The Basic Energy Model 321

Notice that in each example on the preceding page, the environment applies a
force while the system undergoes a displacement. Energy is transferred as work only
when the system moves while the force acts. A force applied to a stationary object,
such as when you push against a wall, transfers no energy to the object and thus does
no work.
NOTE   ▶ In the table on the preceding page, energy is being transferred from the
athlete to the shot by the force of his hand. We say he “does work” on the shot.
We speak similarly for the other examples. The hand does work on the match and
matchbox, and the boy does work on the slingshot. ◀

The Law of Conservation of Energy

Work done on a system represents energy that is transferred into or out of the sys-
tem. This transferred energy changes the system’s energy by exactly the amount of
work W that was done. Writing the change in the system’s energy as ∆E, we can
represent this idea mathematically as
∆E = W (10.2)
Now the total energy E of a system is, according to Equation 10.1, the sum of the
different energies present in the system. Thus the change in E is the sum of the
changes in the different energies present. Then Equation 10.2 gives what is called
the work-energy equation:

The work-energy equation The total energy of a system changes by the

amount of work done on it:
∆E = ∆K + ∆Ug + ∆Us + ∆Eth + ∆Echem + g = W (10.3)

NOTE   ▶ Equation 10.3, the work-energy equation, is the mathematical represen-

tation of the basic energy model of Figure 10.3. Together, they are the heart of
what the subject of energy is all about. ◀
Suppose we have an isolated system, one that is separated from its surrounding FIGURE 10.4  An isolated system.
environment in such a way that no energy is transferred into or out of the system.
Environment The system is
This means that no work is done on the system. The energy within the system may isolated from the
be transformed from one form into another, but it is a deep and remarkable fact of environment.
System
nature that, during these transformations, the total energy of an isolated system—the K U
sum of all the individual kinds of energy—remains constant, as shown in FIGURE 10.4.
We say that the total energy of an isolated system is conserved.
For an isolated system, we must set W = 0 in Equation 10.3, leading to the fol- Echem
lowing statement of the law of conservation of energy:
Eth
E = K + U + Eth + Echem + c
Law of conservation of energy The total energy of an isolated system = constant
remains constant:
Energy can still be
∆E = ∆K + ∆Ug + ∆Us + ∆Eth + ∆Echem + g = 0 (10.4) The system’s total transformed within
energy E is conserved. the system.

The law of conservation of energy is similar to the law of conservation of momen-

tum. A system’s momentum changes when an external force acts on it, but the total
momentum of an isolated system doesn’t change. Similarly, a system’s energy
changes when external forces do work on it, but the total energy of an isolated sys-
tem doesn’t change.
In solving momentum problems, we adopted a new before-and-after perspective:
The momentum after an interaction was the same as the momentum before the
322 chapter 10  Energy and Work

interaction. We will introduce a similar before-and-after perspective for energy that

will lead to an extremely powerful problem-solving strategy.

STOP TO THINK 10.1 A roller coaster slows as it goes up a hill. The energy transfor-
mation is
A. Ug S K Ug S E th
B.  K S Ug
C.  K S Eth
D. 

10.2 Work
We’ve seen that work is the transfer of energy to or from a system by the application
of forces exerted on the system by the environment. Thus work is done on a system
by forces outside the system; we call such forces external forces. Only external
forces can change the energy of a system. Internal forces—forces between objects
within the system—cause energy transformations within the system but don’t change
the system’s total energy. In order for energy to be transferred as work, the system
must undergo a displacement—it must move—during the time that the force is
applied.
FIGURE 10.5  The force of the wind does Consider a system consisting of a windsurfer at rest, as shown on the left in
work on the system, increasing its kinetic FIGURE 10.5. Let’s assume that there is no friction or drag force acting on the board.
energy K.
Initially the system has no kinetic energy. But if a force from outside the system,
u
d such as the force due to the wind, begins to act on the system, the surfer will begin to
The system’s kinetic
speed up, and his kinetic energy will increase. In terms of energy transfers, we
energy increases would say that the energy of the system has increased because of the work done on
and the surfer the system by the force of the wind.
u speeds up.
F What determines how much work is done by the force of the wind? First, we note
that the greater the distance over which the wind pushes the surfer, the faster the
u
v
surfer goes, and the more his kinetic energy increases. This implies a greater transfer
u
of energy. So, the larger the displacement, the greater the work done. Second, if
u
v=0 the wind pushes with a stronger force, the surfer speeds up more rapidly, and the
u
The force of the wind F change in his kinetic energy is greater than with a weaker force. The stronger the
does work on the system.
force, the greater the work done. u
This suggests that the amount of energy
u
transferred to a system by a force F—
that is, the amount of work done by F—depends on both the magnitude F of the
force and the displacement d of the system. uMany experiments of this kind have
established that the amount of work done by F is proportional
u
to both F and d. For
the simplest case described above, where the force F is constant and points in the
direction of the object’s displacement, the expression for the work done is found
to be

W = Fd (10.5)
u u
Work done by a constant force F in the direction of a displacement d

The unit of work, that of force multiplied by distance, is N # m. This unit is so

important that it has been given its own name, the joule (rhymes with cool). We
define:
1 joule = 1 J = 1 N # m
Because work is simply energy being transferred, the joule is the unit of all forms
of energy. Note that work, unlike momentum, is a scalar quantity—it has a magni-
tude but not a direction.
 All of the chapter
examples now use
real data for real
10.2 Work 323
physical situations.

EXAMPLE 10.1 Working like a dog

A new STRATEGIZE A dog in a weight-pulling competition tugs a sled 4.9 m across a PREPARE   We’ll continue, as we did with momentum problems
step in examples snowy track at a constant speed. The force needed to keep the in Chapter 9, with a before-and-after visual overview, shown in
shows students the sled moving is 350 N. How much work does the dog do? Where FIGURE 10.6. The tension force is in the direction of the sled’s

“big picture” view does this energy go? motion, so we can use Equation 10.5 to calculate the work that
the dog does on the sled.
before we delve into
the details. Classroom SOLVE   The work done is
testing of this addition W = Fd = 1350 N214.9 m2 = 1700 J
has shown it to be
The dog does work on the system, but the kinetic energy doesn’t
quite popular with increase (the sled doesn’t speed up) and the gravitational poten-
students, and quite tial energy doesn’t increase (the track is level). The energy the
effective in teaching dog puts into the system goes to increasing the system’s thermal
problem-solving skills. energy as friction warms up the runners and the snow.
STRATEGIZE  Let’s take the system to be the sled + snow. The
ASSESS   1700 J is a decent amount of energy, as we’ll see, but
friction force between the runners and the snow is thus an internal
force, so it won’t change the total energy of the system, just the pulling with a 350 N force (about 80 pounds) for a distance of
form of the energy. But the rope extends outside the system; this is 4.9  m (about 16 feet) sounds like a lot of work, so our result
an external interaction, so the tension force of the rope does work makes sense.
on the sled as it moves. Since the dog pulls on the end of the rope,
we can say, informally, that the dog does work on the system.

FIGURE 10.6   A dog pulling a loaded sled.

Known
u
T = 350 N
T d = 4.9 m
v = constant
u
v Find
u
Before d After W

Work by Forces at an Angle to the Displacement

A force does the greatest possible amount of work on an object when the force FIGURE 10.7  The force on the kite buggy
points in the same direction as the object’s displacement. Less work is done when is at an angle to the displacement.
the force acts at an angle to the displacement. To see this, consider the kite buggy of
u (a)
FIGURE 10.7a, pulled along a horizontal path by the angled force of the kite string F.
u
As shown in FIGURE 10.7b, we can divide F into a component F# perpendicular to the
motion, and a component FΠparallel to the motion. Only the parallel component acts
to accelerate the rider and increase her kinetic energy, so only the parallel compo-u u
F
nent does work on the rider. From Figure 10.7b, we see that if the angle between F
and the displacement is u, then the parallel component is FΠ= F cos u. So, when the
force acts at an angle u to the direction of the displacement, we have

W = FΠd = Fd cos u (10.6) (b) The rider undergoes

u
a
displacement d.
u u
Work done by a constant force F at an angle u to the displacement d u
d
u
F# F u
F
Notice that this more general definition of work agrees with Equation 10.5 if u = 0°.
u u
Tactics Box 10.1 shows how to calculate the work done by a force at any angle to
the direction of motion. The system illustrated is a block sliding on a frictionless, FΠ= F cos u
u
The component of F parallel to the
horizontal surface, so that only the kinetic energy is changing. However, the same displacement accelerates the rider.
relationships hold for any object undergoing a displacement. u
The component of F perpendicular to
The quantities F and d are always positive, so the sign of W is determined the displacement only pulls up on the
entirely by the angle u between the force and the displacement. Note that Equa- rider. It doesn’t accelerate her.
tion 10.6, W = Fd cos u, is valid for any angle u. In three special cases,
u = 0°, u = 90°, and u = 180°, however, there are simple versions of Equation 10.6
that you can use. These are noted in Tactics Box 10.1.
324 chapter 10  Energy and Work

TACTICS
BOX 10.1 Calculating the work done by a constant force

Direction of force Angles and

relative to displacement work done Sign of W Energy transfer
Before: After: u = 0° + The force is in the direction of motion. The
u
vi
u
vf cos u = 1 block has its greatest positive acceleration. K
increases the most:
u W = Fd
d u Maximum energy transfer into the system.
F
u = 0°

u 6 90° + The component of force parallel to the

u W = Fd cos u ­displacement is less than F. The block has a
u 6 90° F smaller positive acceleration. K increases less:
u
d Decreased energy transfer into the system.

u = 90° 0 There is no component of force in the direction

u
cos u = 0 of motion. The block moves at constant speed.
u = 90° F
No change in K:
u
d W=0
No energy transferred.

u 7 90° - The component of force parallel to the

u 7 90°
u
W = Fd cos u ­displacement is opposite the motion. The
F
block slows down, and K decreases:
Decreased energy transfer out of the
u
d
­system.

u = 180° - The force is directly opposite the motion. The

u = 180° block has its greatest deceleration. K decreases
cos u = -1
u the most:
F u W = -Fd
d Maximum energy transfer out of the system.

Exercises 5–6

EXAMPLE 10.2 Work done in pulling a suitcase

It’s 120 m from one gate to another in the airport. You use a strap FIGURE 10.8  A suitcase pulled by a strap.
inclined upward at a 45° angle to pull your suitcase through the air-
port. The tension in the strap is 20 N. How much work do you do?
STRATEGIZE   Let’s take the system to be the suitcase + floor. As
with the dog sled, friction forces (in the wheels or between the
wheels and the floor) are internal forces. Both the strap and you
are forces outside the system. The tension force of the strap does
work on the suitcase as it rolls. Since you are the one pulling the
strap, this is, ultimately, energy provided by you.

PREPARE   FIGURE 10.8 is a before-and-after visual overview ASSESS   This is the same amount of work that the dog did pull-
showing the suitcase and the strap. The force is at an angle to ing the sled. The force is much less, but the distance is much
the displacement, so we must use Equation 10.6 to calculate the greater, so this result makes sense.
work.
SOLVE   The tension force does work
W = Td cos u = 120 N21120 m2cos145°2 = 1700 J
 10.2 Work 325

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 10.3 Work done by a parachute

A drag racer is slowed by a FIGURE 10.9  The force acting on a drag racer.
parachute. What is the sign u
u
F F
of the work done?
u
d
REASON  The drag force u = 180°
on the drag racer is shown
in FIGURE 10.9, along with ASSESS   Applying Equation 10.3 to this situation, we have
the dragster’s displace-
∆K = W
ment as it slows. The force
points in the direction opposite the displacement, so the angle because the only system energy that changes is the racer’s kinetic
u in ­Equation 10.6 is 180°. Then cos u = cos (180°) = -1. energy K. Because the kinetic energy is decreasing, its change
Because F and d in Equation 10.6 are magnitudes, and hence ∆K is negative. This agrees with the sign of W. This example
positive, the work W = Fd cos u = -Fd done by the drag illustrates the general principle that negative work represents a
force is ­negative. transfer of energy out of the system.

If several forces act on an object that undergoes a displacement, each does work
on the object. The total (or net) work Wtotal is the sum of the work done by each
force. The total work represents the total energy transfer to the system from the envi-
ronment (if Wtotal 7 0) or from the system to the environment (if Wtotal 6 0).

Forces That Do No Work

The fact that a force acts on an object doesn’t mean that the force will do work on
the object. The table below shows three common cases where a force does no work.

Forces that do no work

u
F
u u
d=0 Before: After:

u
n
u
d
u
F
u
d

If the object undergoes no displacement A force perpendicular to the displacement If the part of the object on which the
while the force acts, no work is done. does no work. force acts undergoes no displacement,
This can sometimes seem counterintuitive. The woman exerts only a vertical force on no work is done.
The weightlifter struggles mightily to hold the briefcase she’s carrying. This force has Even though the wall pushes on the
u
the barbell over his head. But during the no component in the direction of the dis- skater with a normal force un and she
time the barbell remains stationary, he placement, so the briefcase moves at a con- undergoes a displacement d, the wall
does no work on it because its displace- stant velocity and its kinetic energy remains does no work on her, because the point
u
ment is zero. Why then is it so hard for him constant. Since the energy of the briefcase of her body on which n acts—her
to hold it there? Your muscles use energy to doesn’t change, it must be that no energy is hands—undergoes no displacement.
apply a force even if there is no displace- being transferred to it as work. This makes sense: How could energy
ment and thus no work. We’ll talk about (This is the case where u = 90° in Tactics be transferred as work from an inert,
the energy that you use to perform a task Box 10.1.) stationary object? The energy to get
in Chapter 11. the skater moving comes, as you know,
from her muscles. This is an internal
transformation; chemical energy in her
muscles is converted to kinetic energy of
her motion.
326 chapter 10  Energy and Work

STOP TO THINK 10.2 Which force does the most work?

A. The 10 N force
B. The 8 N force 10 N
C. The 6 N force 8N
6N
60°
D. They all do the same
u u u
amount of work. d d d

10.3  Kinetic Energy

Kinetic energy is an object’s energy of motion. We can use what we’ve learned about
work, and some simple kinematics, to find quantitative expressions for kinetic
energy.
We’ll start with the case of an object in motion along a line. Such an object has
translational kinetic energy. In Chapter 7, we introduced the idea of rotational
motion: Objects can be in motion even if they aren’t going anywhere. An object, like
the blade of a wind turbine, rotating about a fixed axis has rotational kinetic energy,
the kinetic energy of the rotational motion.

Translational Kinetic Energy

FIGURE 10.10  The work done by the tow Consider a car being
u
pulled by a tow rope, as in FIGURE 10.10.
u
The rope pulls with a
rope increases the car’s kinetic energy. constant force F while the car undergoes a displacement d, so the force does work
u

Before: After:
W = Fd on the car. If we ignore friction and drag, the work done by F is trans-
u
vi vf
u ferred entirely into the car’s energy of motion—its kinetic energy. In this case, the
u
change in the car’s kinetic energy is given by the work-energy equation,
F Equation 10.3, as
u
d W = ∆K = Kf - Ki (10.7)

Using kinematics, we can find another expression for the work done, in terms of
the car’s initial and final speeds. Recall from ◀◀ SECTION 2.5 the kinematic equation

v f2 = v i2 + 2a ∆x

Applied to the motion of our car, ∆x = d is the car’s displacement and, from New-
ton’s second law, the acceleration is a = F / m. Thus we can write

2Fd 2W
v f2 = v i2 + = v i2 +
m m

where we have replaced Fd with the work W. If we now solve for the work, we find

1 1 1
W= m1v f2 - v i22 = mv f2 - mv i2
2 2 2

If we compare this result with Equation 10.7, we see that

1 1
Kf = mv f2 and Ki = mv i2
2 2

In general, then, an object of mass m moving with speed v has kinetic energy
 10.3  Kinetic Energy 327

TABLE 10.1   Some approximate kinetic

1 K energies
K = mv 2 (10.8)
2 Object Kinetic energy
p.50
v
Kinetic energy of an object of mass m moving with speed v QUADRATIC Ant walking 1 * 10-8 J
Coin dropped 1 m 5 * 10-3 J
Person walking 70 J
From Equation 10.8, the units of kinetic energy are those of mass times speed Fastball, 100 mph 150 J
squared, or kg # 1m / s22. But Bullet 5000 J
Car, 60 mph 5 * 105 J
1 kg # 1m / s22 = 1 kg # 1m / s22 # m = 1 N # m = 1 J Supertanker, 20 mph 2 * 1010 J
5
1N
We see that the units of kinetic energy are the same as those of work, as they must
be. TABLE 10.1 gives some approximate kinetic energies.

EXAMPLE 10.4 Finding the work to set a boat in motion

At a history center, an old canal boat is pulled by two draft the work done is W = Td. The boat starts at rest, with kinetic
horses. It doesn’t take much force to keep the boat moving; the energy equal to zero, so the change in kinetic energy is just the
drag force is quite small. But it takes some work to get the final kinetic energy: ∆K = 12mvf2.
55,000 kg boat up to speed! The horses can pull with a steady
SOLVE  With the details noted, the work-energy equation
force and put a 1400 N tension in the rope that connects to the
reduces to
boat. The rope is straight and level. The boat starts from rest, and
the horses pull steadily as they begin their walk down the tow- 1
path. How much distance do the horses cover as they bring the mv f2 = Td
2
boat up to its final speed of 0.70 m/s?
We are looking for the distance the horses pull the boat:
STRATEGIZE  Let’s take the system to be the boat. We could
include the water, but since we can ignore the drag force (we’re
mv f2 155,000 kg210.70 m/s22
told that it’s small), it’s not important to do so. The rope is not d= = = 9.6 m
part of the system, so the tension force does work on the boat. 2T 211400 N2
It’s this work, which comes from energy provided by the horses,
that increases the kinetic energy, and thus the speed, of the boat. ASSESS   This distance is about 30 feet. This seems a reasonable
We’ll consider the initial state to be the boat at rest, the final state distance; the horses would be pulling for several strides as they
to be the boat in motion at its final speed. get the boat up to speed.
PREPARE   FIGURE 10.11 is a before-and-after visual overview of FIGURE 10.11  Getting the canal boat up to speed.
the situation. The work that is done by the rope will change the
energy of the system, so we can use Equation 10.3, the work- Before: After: u
vf
energy equation. Because the only thing that changes is the T
u

speed, the only form of energy that changes is the kinetic energy, u
u
so we can simplify the equation to vi = 0 u
d
∆K = W
Known Find: d
This makes sense—the work done changes the kinetic energy of m = 55,000 kg vi = 0 m/s
the boat. The tension force is in the direction of the motion, so T = 1400 N vf = 0.70 m/s

STOP TO THINK 10.3 Rank in order, from greatest to least, the kinetic energies of
the sliding pucks.
1 kg 2 m/s 1 kg 3 m/s -2 m/s 1 kg 2 kg 2 m/s

A. B. C. D.
328 chapter 10  Energy and Work

Rotational Kinetic Energy

FIGURE 10.12  Rotational kinetic energy of FIGURE 10.12 shows the rotating blades of a wind turbine. Although the blades have
a spinning wind turbine. no overall translational motion, each particle in the blades is moving and hence has
kinetic energy. Adding up the kinetic energy of all the particles that make up the
blades, we find that the blades have rotational kinetic energy, the kinetic energy due
to rotation.
v2 = vr2
In Figure 10.12, we focus on the motion of two particles in the wind turbine
m1
blades. The blade assembly rotates with angular velocity v. Recall from ◀◀ SECTION 7.1
r1 Rotation axis
v that a particle moving with angular velocity v in a circle of radius r has a speed
v1 = vr1
v = vr. Thus particle 1, which rotates in a circle of radius r1, moves with speed
r2 m2 v1 = r1v and so has kinetic energy 12m 1v 12 = 12m 1r 12v2. Similarly, particle 2, which
rotates in a circle with a larger radius r2, has kinetic energy 12m 2r 22v2. The object’s
Each particle in the object rotational kinetic energy is the sum of the kinetic energies of all the particles:
has kinetic energy as the

m 1r 12v2 + m 2r 22v2 + g = a a mr 2 bv2

object rotates. 1 1 1
Krot =
2 2 2

You will recognize the term in parentheses as our old friend, the moment of inertia I.
Thus the rotational kinetic energy is

1
Krot = Iv2 (10.9) K
2
p.50
Rotational kinetic energy of an object with v
eText QUADRATIC
2.0 moment of inertia I and angular velocity v
Video Demo  Canned Food Race

NOTE   ▶ Rotational kinetic energy is not a new form of energy. It is the ordinary
kinetic energy of motion, only now expressed in a form that is especially conve-
nient for rotational motion. Comparison with the familiar 12mv 2 shows again that
the moment of inertia I is the rotational equivalent of mass. ◀
A rolling object, such as a wheel, is undergoing both rotational and translational
motions. Consequently, its total kinetic energy is the sum of its rotational and trans-
lational kinetic energies:
1 2 1 2
K = Ktrans + Krot = mv + Iv (10.10)
2 2

This illustrates an important fact: The kinetic energy of a rolling object is always
greater than that of a nonrotating object moving at the same speed.

◀ Rotational recharge  A promising new technology would replace spacecraft batteries

that need periodic and costly replacement with a flywheel—a cylinder rotating at a very
high angular speed. Energy from solar panels is used to speed up the flywheel, which stores
energy as rotational kinetic energy that can then be converted back into electric energy as
needed.

EXAMPLE 10.5 Where should you trim the weight?

Any time a cyclist stops, it will take energy to get moving again. has a 10.0 kg frame and two 1.00 kg wheels; bike 2 has a
Using less energy to get going means more energy is available 9.00 kg frame and two 1.50 kg wheels. Both bikes thus have the
to go farther or go faster, so racing cyclists want their bikes to same 12.0 kg total mass. What is the kinetic energy of each bike
be as light as possible. It’s particularly important to have light- when they are moving at 12.0 m/s? Most of the weight of the
weight wheels, as this example will show. Consider two bikes tire and wheel is at the rim, so we can model each wheel as
that have the same total mass but different mass wheels. Bike 1 a hoop.
 10.4  Potential Energy 329

Then the total kinetic energy of a bike is

1 2
K = Kframe + 2Kwheel = mv + 2Mv 2
2

The factor of 2 in the second term occurs because each bike has
two wheels. Thus the kinetic energies of the two bikes are

1
K1 = 110.0 kg2112.0 m / s22 + 211.00 kg2112.0 m / s22
2
= 1010 J
1
K2 = 19.00 kg2112.0 m / s22 + 211.50 kg2112.0 m / s22
STRATEGIZE  As the bike moves, the wheels rotate. The bike 2
has translational kinetic energy, but the wheels have both transla- = 1080 J
tional and rotational kinetic energy. If the bike is moving at speed
The kinetic energy of bike 2 is about 7% higher than that of bike
v, we know from Chapter 7 that the wheels rotate at v = v/R,
1. Note that the radius of the wheels was not needed in this
where R is the radius of a wheel.
calculation.
PREPARE  Each bike’s frame has only translational kinetic
ASSESS   We were told that it’s particularly important for cyclists
energy Kframe = 12mv 2, where m is the mass of the frame. The
to have lightweight wheels, so this result makes sense. Both of
kinetic energy of each rolling wheel is given by Equation 10.10.
the bikes in the example have the same total mass, but the one
From Table 7.1, we find that I for a hoop is MR 2, where M is the
with lighter wheels takes less energy to get moving. Shaving a
mass of one wheel.
little extra weight off your bike’s wheels is more useful than tak-
SOLVE   From Equation 10.10 the kinetic energy of each rolling ing that same weight off the bike’s frame.
wheel is

1 1 1 1 v 2
Kwheel = Mv 2 + Iv2 = Mv 2 + 1MR 22a b = Mv 2
2 2 2 2 R
()* ()*
I v2

10.4  Potential Energy

When two or more objects in a system interact, it is sometimes possible to store
energy in the system in a way that the energy can be easily recovered. For instance,
the earth and a ball interact by the gravitational force between them. If the ball is
lifted up into the air, energy is stored in the ball + earth system, energy that can later
be recovered as kinetic energy when the ball is released and falls. Similarly, a spring
is a system made up of countless atoms that interact via their atomic “springs.” If we
push a box against a spring, energy is stored that can be recovered when the spring
later pushes the box across the table. This sort of stored energy is called potential
energy, since it has the potential to be converted into other forms of energy, such as
kinetic or thermal energy.

NOTE   ▶ Potential energy is really a property of a system, but we often speak

informally of the potential energy of an object. We might say, for instance, that
raising a ball increases its potential energy. This is fine as long as we remember
that this energy is really stored in the ball + earth system. ◀

The forces due to gravity and springs are special in that they allow for the storage
of energy. Other interaction forces do not. When a dog pulls a sled, the sled interacts
with the ground via the force of friction, and the work that the dog does on the sled
is converted into thermal energy. The energy is not stored up for later recovery—it
slowly diffuses into the environment and cannot be recovered.
330 chapter 10  Energy and Work

Gravitational Potential Energy

FIGURE 10.13  Lifting a book increases the To find an expression for gravitational potential energy Ug, let’s consider the sys-
system’s gravitational potential energy.
tem of the book and the earth shown in FIGURE 10.13a. The book is lifted at a constant
(a) The external force F
u
speed from its initial position at yi to a final height yf. The lifting force of the hand is
u
from the hand does external to the system and so does work W on the system, increasing its energy. The
F work on the system. book is lifted at a constant speed, so its kinetic energy doesn’t change. Because
there’s no friction, the book’s thermal energy doesn’t change either. Thus the work
yf , (Ug)f After done goes entirely into increasing the gravitational potential energy of the system.
According to Equation 10.3, the work-energy equation, this can be written as
∆Ug = W. Because ∆Ug = 1Ug2f - 1Ug2i, Equation 10.3 can be written
This work increases the
∆y system’s gravitational
1Ug2f = 1Ug2i + W (10.11)
potential energy.
The work done is W = Fd, where d = ∆y = yf - yi is the vertical distance that the
u
F book is lifted. From the free-body diagram of FIGURE 10.13b, we see that F = mg.
Thus W = mg ∆y, and so
yi , (Ug)i Before 1Ug2f = 1Ug2i + mg∆y (10.12)

The book and Because our final height was greater than our initial height, ∆y is positive and
the earth are 1Ug2f 7 1Ug2i. The higher the object is lifted, the greater the gravitational poten-
y=0 the system. System tial energy in the object ∙ earth system.
Ug = 0 boundary
We can express Equation 10.12 in terms of the change in potential energy,
Earth ∆Ug = 1Ug2f - 1Ug2i:
∆Ug = mg∆y (10.13)
(b) Because the book is being lifted at
a constant speed, itu is in udynamic If we lift a 1.5 kg book up by ∆y = 2.0 m, we increase the system’s gravitational
equilibrium with Fnet = 0. Thus potential energy by ∆Ug = 11.5 kg219.8 m / s2212.0 m2 = 29.4 J. This increase is
F = w = mg. u
independent of the book’s starting height: The gravitational potential energy increases
F
by 29.4 J whether we lift the book 2.0 m starting at sea level or starting at the top of
the Washington Monument. This illustrates an important general fact about every
form of potential energy: Only changes in potential energy are significant.
u
w
Because of this fact, we are free to choose a reference level where we define Ug
to be zero. Our expression for Ug is particularly simple if we choose this reference
level to be at y = 0. We then have

Ug = mgy (10.14)
Gravitational potential energy of an object of mass m at height y
(assuming Ug = 0 when the object is at y = 0)

EXAMPLE 10.6 Racing up a skyscraper

In the Empire State PREPARE   We are asked for the change in gravitational potential
Building Run-Up, energy as the racer goes up the stairs, so we need only consider
competitors race up the change in height, which is given. We can use Equation 10.13
the 1576 steps of the to compute the change in potential energy during the run.
Empire State Build-
SOLVE  As the racer goes up the stairs, her change in gravita-
ing, climbing a total
tional potential energy is
vertical distance of
320 m. How much ∆Ug = mg∆y = 170 kg219.8 m/s221320 m2 = 2.2 * 105 J
gravitational poten-
tial energy does a ASSESS  This is a lot of energy. According to Table 10.1, it’s
Racers head up the staircase in the
70  kg racer gain Empire State Building Run-Up. comparable to the energy of a speeding car. But the difference
during this race? in height is pretty great, so this seems reasonable. In Chapter 11,
STRATEGIZE  We’ll take the system to be the racer + earth so we’ll consider how much food energy you’d need to consume to
that we can consider gravitational potential energy. fuel this climb.
 10.4  Potential Energy 331

An important conclusion from Equation 10.14 is that gravitational potential

energy depends only on the height of the object above the reference level y = 0, not
on the object’s horizontal position. To understand why, consider carrying a briefcase
while walking on level ground at a constant speed. As shown in the table on
page  325, the vertical force of your hand on the briefcase is perpendicular to the
displacement. No work is done on the briefcase, so its gravitational potential energy
remains constant as long as its height above the ground doesn’t change.
This idea can be applied to more complicated cases, such as the 82 kg hiker in FIGURE 10.14  The hiker’s gravitational
potential energy depends only on his
FIGURE 10.14. His gravitational potential energy depends only on his height y above
height above the y = 0 m reference level.
the reference level. Along path A, it’s the same value Ug = mgy = 80 kJ at any point
where he is at height y = 100 m above the reference level. If he had instead taken The hiker’s potential
path B, his gravitational potential energy at y = 100 m would be the same 80 kJ. It energy at the top is 160 kJ
regardless of whether he
doesn’t matter how he gets to the 100 m elevation; his potential energy at that height took path A or path B.
is always the same. Gravitational potential energy depends only on the height of Ug = 160 kJ
an object and not on the path the object took to get to that position. This fact will His potential energy is the
allow us to use the law of conservation of energy to easily solve a variety of prob- same at any point where
lems that would be very difficult to solve using Newton’s laws alone. his elevation is 100 m.
200 m
STOP TO THINK 10.4 Rank in order, from largest 3 v=0
to smallest, the gravitational potential energies of 100 m

A h
­identical balls 1 through 4.

B
Pat
Ug = 80 kJ t
Pa

h
u 2 4 0m
v
The reference level y = 0 m
1 is where Ug = 0 J.

Elastic Potential Energy

Energy can also be stored in a compressed or extended spring as elastic (or spring)
potential energy Us. We can find out how much energy is stored in a spring by
using an external force to slowly compress the spring. This external force does work
on the spring, transferring energy to the spring. Since only the elastic potential
energy of the spring is changing, Equation 10.3 becomes
∆Us = W (10.15)
That is, we can find out how much elastic potential energy is stored in the spring by
calculating the amount of work needed to compress the spring.
FIGURE 10.15 shows a spring being compressed by a hand. In ◀◀ SECTION 8.3 we FIGURE 10.15  The force required to
found that the force the spring exerts on the hand is Fs = -k ∆x (Hooke’s law), ­compress a spring is not constant.
where ∆x is the displacement of the end of the spring from its equilibrium position x=0
and k is the spring constant. In Figure 10.15 we have set the origin of our coordinate
system at the equilibrium position. The displacement from equilibrium ∆x is there- Spring in equilibrium
fore equal to x, and the spring force is then -kx. By Newton’s third law, the force
that the hand exerts on the spring is thus F = +kx. x
u

As the hand pushes the end of the spring from its equilibrium position to a final F
position x, the applied force increases from 0 to kx. This is not a constant force, so
we can’t use Equation 10.5, W = Fd, to find the work done. However, it seems rea-
sonable to calculate the work by using the average force in Equation 10.5. Because As x increases,
the force varies from Fi = 0 to Ff = kx, the average force used to compress the spring so does F.
x
is Favg = 12 kx. Thus the work done by the hand is
1 1
W = Favg d = Favg x = a kxbx = kx 2
2 2
This work is stored as potential energy in the spring, so we can use Equation 10.15
to find that as the spring is compressed, the elastic potential energy increases by
1
∆Us = kx 2
2
 Larger BIO icon to make bio
content easier to find

332 chapter 10  Energy and Work

Just as in the case of gravitational potential energy, we have found an expression for
Calf muscle the change in Us, not Us itself. Again, we are free to set Us = 0 at any convenient
spring extension. An obvious choice is to set Us = 0 at the point where the spring is
Achilles tendon in equilibrium, neither compressed nor stretched—that is, at x = 0. With this choice
we have

1 2
Us = kx (10.16) Us
2
On each stride, the tendon p.50
stretches, storing energy. Elastic potential energy of a spring displaced a distance x from x
QUADRATIC
equilibrium (assuming Us = 0 when the end of the spring is at x = 0)
Spring in your step When you run,
your feet repeatedly stop and start; when
your foot strikes the ground, it comes to rest,
losing kinetic energy. About 35% of this NOTE   ▶ Because Us depends on the square of the displacement x, Us is the same
decrease in kinetic energy is stored as elastic whether x is positive (the spring is compressed as in Figure 10.15) or negative
potential energy in the stretchable ­Achilles
tendon of the lower leg. On each plant of the
(the spring is stretched). ◀
foot, the tendon is stretched, storing some
energy. The tendon springs back as you
push off the ground again, helping to propel EXAMPLE 10.7 Finding the energy stored in a stretched tendon
you forward and returning the stored elas-
tic potential energy back to kinetic energy. We noted that your Achilles tendon stretches when you run, and this stores some
Recovering this energy that would otherwise energy—energy that is returned to you when you push off the ground with your foot.
be lost and thus increases your efficiency. FIGURE 10.16 shows smoothed data for restoring force versus extension for the Achilles
tendon and attached muscle in a female sub-
FIGURE 10.16  Force data for the
ject. When she runs, at one point in her stride
stretch of the Achilles tendon.
the stretch reaches a maximum of 0.50 cm.
What energy is stored for this stretch? Restoring force (N)

STRATEGIZE  The force increases linearly 400

with extension, so we can model the tendon
as a spring. If we find the spring constant, we 200
can compute the stored energy using Equation
10.16. 0
0 0.06 0.12 0.18 0.24
PREPARE   The spring constant k is the slope of Extension (cm)
the graph in Figure 10.16. At the top right, the
line goes through a point that is easy to read off the axes. Using this point, we deter-
mine the slope to be
400 N
k = slope = = 1.67 * 105 N/m
0.0024 m
SOLVE   With this spring constant, the energy stored for a 0.50 cm (0.0050 m) stretch is
1 1
Us = kx 2 = 11.67 * 105 N/m210.0050 m22 = 2.1 J
2 2
ASSESS  Table 10.1 gives 70 J as the kinetic energy for a person walking; 2.1 J is
a few percent of that value. This is reasonable: When you run, the only part of your
body that stops and starts is your feet; it’s a fraction of this energy that is recovered,
and we expect this to be a small fraction of the kinetic energy of your body. How-
ever, even this small amount of energy is useful; over a long run of many steps, it will
add saving up!

STOP TO THINK 10.5 When a spring is stretched by 5 cm, its elastic potential energy
is 1 J. What will its elastic potential energy be if it is compressed by 10 cm?
A. -4 J -2 J
B.  C. 2 J D. 4 J
 10.5  Thermal Energy 333

10.5  Thermal Energy

We noted earlier that thermal energy is related to the microscopic motion of the FIGURE 10.18  A thermograph of a box
atoms of an object. As FIGURE 10.17 shows, the atoms in a hot object jiggle around that’s been dragged across the floor.
their average positions more than the atoms in a cold object. This has two conse-
quences. First, each atom is on average moving faster in the hot object. This means
that each atom has a higher kinetic energy. Second, each atom in the hot object tends
to stray farther from its equilibrium position, leading to a greater stretching or com-
pressing of the spring-like molecular bonds. This means that each atom has on aver- Trail along which
box was dragged
age a higher potential energy. The potential energy stored in any one bond and the
kinetic energy of any one atom are both exceedingly small, but there are incredibly
many bonds and atoms. The sum of all these microscopic potential and kinetic ener-
gies is what we call thermal energy Eth. Increasing an object’s thermal energy cor-
responds to increasing its temperature.

FIGURE 10.17   An atomic view of thermal energy.

Hot object: Fast-moving atoms have lots of Cold object: Slow-moving atoms have little
kinetic and elastic potential energy. kinetic and elastic potential energy.

FIGURE 10.19  How friction causes an

increase in thermal energy.

u
v

FIGURE 10.18 shows a thermograph of a heavy box and the floor across which it
Atoms at the interface push
has just been dragged. In this image, cool areas appear in shades of blue and green, and pull on each other as the
warm areas in shades of red. You can clearly see that the patch of floor that the box upper object slides past.
has been dragged across is much warmer than the box or the rest of the floor. Drag-
ging the box across the floor caused the thermal energy of the system to increase.
This increase in thermal energy is a general feature of any system in which there
is friction between sliding objects. An atomic-level explanation is illustrated in
FIGURE 10.19. The interaction between the surfaces that leads to the force of friction
also leads to increased thermal energy of the sliding surfaces.
We can find a quantitative expression for the change in thermal energy by consid-
ering the case of the box pulled by a rope at a constant speed. Let’s consider the sys- The spring-like molecular bonds
stretch and store elastic potential
tem to be the box + floor.u
As the box is pulled across the floor,
u
the rope exerts a energy.
constant forward force F on the box, while the friction force f k exerts a constant
force on the box that is directed backward. Because the box moves at a constant When the bonds break, the elastic
potential energy is converted into
speed, the magnitudes of these two forces are equal: F = fk. As the box moves kinetic and potential energy of the
through a displacement d = ∆x, the rope does work W = F∆x = fk ∆x on the box. atoms—that is, into thermal energy.
This work represents energy transferred into the system, so the system’s energy must
increase. The box’s kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy don’t change, so
the increased energy must be in the form of thermal energy Eth. Because all of the
work into the system shows up as increased thermal energy, we can say that
∆Eth = fk ∆x (10.17)
The increased thermal energy is distributed between the two surfaces, the box and
the floor, the two elements of the system. Although we arrived at Equation 10.17 by
considering energy transferred into the system via work done by an external force,
eText
the equation is equally valid for the transformation of energy into thermal energy 2.0
when, for instance, an object slides to a halt on a rough surface. Video Demo  Figure 10.19
334 chapter 10  Energy and Work

We can do a similar analysis for the drag force. For the case of an object moving
through air, water, or another fluid that exerts a drag force, we’ll consider the
object + fluid to be the system. As the object moves, the drag force D transforms
energy into thermal energy:
∆Eth = D∆x (10.18)
The change in thermal energy is mostly a change in the air or the water: Collisions
between the object and particles of the fluid cause the particles to move more
quickly, thus increasing thermal energy.
The work-energy equation, Equation 10.3, states that the change in the total
energy of a system equals the energy transferred to or from the system as work. If
we consider only those forms of energy that are typically transformed during the
motion of ordinary objects—kinetic energy K, gravitational and elastic potential
energies Ug and Us, and thermal energy Eth—then the work-energy equation can be
written as
∆K + ∆U + ∆Eth = W (10.19)

NOTE   ▶ We’ve written the change in potential energy as a single potential energy
change ∆U. Depending on the situation, we can interpret this as a change in
gravitational potential energy, a change in elastic potential energy, or a combina-
tion of the two. In later chapters, we’ll add additional forms of potential energy,
and this equation can be adapted accordingly. ◀

EXAMPLE 10.8 How much energy does it take to swim a kilometer?

How much energy is required for a 70 kg swimmer to complete a 1
D = CDrAv 2
1.0 km swim at a steady 1.4 m/s? We can assume typical data for 2
a swimmer moving through the water: frontal area 0.080 m2, 1
drag coefficient 0.45, density of water 1000 kg/m3. = 10.45211000 kg/m3210.080 m2211.4 m/s22 = 35 N
2
STRATEGIZE  Moving through the water at a constant speed SOLVE   With the drag force in hand, we can find the energy con-
means continuously replacing the energy that drag trans- verted to thermal energy:
forms into thermal energy. We can compute the change in ther-
mal energy during the swim to find energy that the swimmer ∆Eth = D∆x = 135 N211000 m2 = 3.5 * 104 J
must supply. We can find the change in thermal energy using This is the energy that the swimmer must supply, which is all
Equation 10.18. converted to thermal energy. The net effect of swimming laps is
to warm up the water in the pool!
PREPARE   We’ll need to compute the drag force before we can
find the necessary energy. A swimmer moving through the water ASSESS   Thisis a lot of energy, about one-sixth of the energy
has a very large Reynold’s number, so we can use Equation 5.b to needed to climb the Empire State Building, which seems
compute the drag force, as shown in the next column: reasonable.

We’ve done a few calculations of the energy required for certain tasks. But there’s
another factor to consider—efficiency. How much energy would your body actually
use in completing these tasks? The swimmer needs to supply 3.5 * 104 J to move
through the water. But how much metabolic energy will it cost the swimmer to pro-
vide this energy? Swimming is, for humans, a reasonably inefficient form of loco-
motion, so the energy used by the swimmer is quite a bit greater than the value we
found. We’ll return to this issue in Chapter 11.

STOP TO THINK 10.6 A block with an initial kinetic energy of 4.0 J comes to rest
after sliding 1.0 m. How far would the block slide if it had 8.0 J of initial kinetic
energy?
A. 1.4 m B. 2.0 m C. 3.0 m D. 4.0 m
 10.6  Conservation of Energy 335

10.6  Conservation of Energy eText

2.0
Just as for momentum conservation, we will develop a before-and-after perspective Video Demo  Breaking Boards
for energy conservation. We’ll limit our consideration for now to kinetic energy,
potential energy (both gravitational and elastic), thermal energy, and work. We then
note that ∆K = Kf - Ki and ∆U = Uf - Ui. Now we can rewrite Equation 10.19 as a
rule that we can use to solve problems:

Kf + Uf + ∆Eth = Ki + Ui + W (10.20)
Before-and-after work-energy equation

Equation 10.20 states that a system’s final energy, including any change in the sys- eText
tem’s thermal energy, equals its initial energy plus any energy added to the system as 2.0
work. This equation is the basis for a powerful problem-solving approach. Video Demo  Chin Basher?

NOTE   ▶ We don’t write ∆E th as 1E th2f - 1E th2i in Equation 10.20 because the

initial and final values of the thermal energy are typically unknown; only their
difference ∆Eth can be measured. ◀
In Section 10.1 we introduced the idea of an isolated system—one in which no
work is done on the system and no energy is transferred into or out of the system. In
that case, W = 0 in Equation 10.20, so the final energy, including any change in
thermal energy, equals the initial energy:
Kf + Uf + ∆Eth = Ki + Ui
The following table shows how to choose an isolated system for common situations.

KEY CONCEPT Choosing an isolated system

An object sliding down a An object compressing An object sliding along a
An object in free fall frictionless ramp a spring surface with friction

Key Concept figures

encourage students to u u
n v
actively engage with
key or complex figures u

by asking them to
u
w = Fearth on ball

reason with a related

u
Fball on earth Surface
Stop To Think
Earth Earth Earth
question.

We choose the ball and the The external force the ramp We choose the object The block and the surface
earth as the system, so that exerts on the object is and the spring to be the ­interact via kinetic friction
the forces between them are perpendicular to the motion, ­system. The forces forces, but these forces are
internal forces. There are no and so does no work. The object between them are internal ­internal to the system. There
external forces to do work, and the earth together form an forces, so no work is are no external forces to do
so the system is isolated. isolated system. done. work, so the system is isolated.

STOP TO THINK 10.7 A student is sliding down a rope, using friction to keep her moving at a
constant speed. How do you choose the system so that it is isolated?

Using the Law of Conservation of Energy

Now that we have mathematical expressions for different forms of energy and a gen-
eral before-and-after equation expressing the law of conservation of energy, we have
all the tools we need to formulate a problem-solving approach. We’ll sketch out the
details and then use it to solve a range of problems.
 336 chapter 10  Energy and Work

PROBLEM-SOLVING
APPROACH 10.1 Conservation of energy problems
The work-energy equation and the law of conservation of energy relate a
system’s final energy to its initial energy. We can solve for initial and final
heights, speeds, and displacements from these energies.
STRATEGIZE  The first step in a conservation of energy problem is to choose the
system. This means thinking about the forces and the energies involved. We’ll
consider the situation before and after a process or an interaction, so we must
also decide on the initial and final states.
Spring into action A locust can jump
as far as 1 meter, an impressive distance for PREPARE As we did for momentum problems, we’ll start with a before-and-
such a small animal. To make such a jump, after visual overview, as outlined in Tactics Box 9.1. Note the known quanti-
its legs must extend much more rapidly
ties, and identify what you’re trying to find.
than muscles can ordinarily contract. Thus,
instead of using its muscles to make the SOLVE  Apply Equation 10.20:
jump directly, the locust uses them to more
slowly stretch an internal “spring” near its Kf + Uf + ∆Eth = Ki + Ui + W
knee joint. This stores elastic potential energy
in the spring. When the muscles relax, the Start with this general equation, then specialize to the case at hand:
spring is suddenly released, and its energy is ■■ Use the appropriate form or forms of potential energy.
rapidly converted into kinetic energy of the
■■ If the system is isolated, no work is done. Set W = 0.
insect.
■■ If there is no friction, drag, or similar force, set ∆E th = 0.

Depending on the problem, you’ll need to calculate the initial and/or final val-
ues of these energies. You can then solve for the unknown energies, and from
Bio Example with real these any unknown speeds (from K), heights and distances (from Ug and Us),
data or displacements, friction, or drag forces.
ASSESS  Check the signs of your energies. Kinetic energy is always positive,
as is the change in thermal energy. Check that your result has the correct units,
is reasonable, and answers the question.
Exercise 23

EXAMPLE 10.9 How high can the locust jump?

As we noted, a desert locust is an excellent jumper. Suppose a FIGURE 10.20  Visual overview of the locust’s jump.
2.0  g locust leaps straight up, leaving the ground at 3.1 m/s, a
y
speed that a desert locust can easily reach.
a. If we ignore the drag force, how high will the locust jump? After:
b. If 20% of the initial kinetic energy is lost to drag, how high yf
will the locust jump? vf = 0 m/s

STRATEGIZE  We don’t know how much the locust extends its
legs as it pushes off the ground, or other details of this phase of
the motion. For us, the problem starts when the locust is leav- Find: yf
ing the ground at its maximum speed. We’ll then consider the
locust’s motion through the air, and take our final point to be
when the locust is at its highest point. Once the locust leaves the
ground, the locust + earth + air form an isolated system. Before:
yi = 0 m
PREPARE  The before-and-after visual overview is shown in vi = 3.1 m/s
FIGURE 10.20. We’ll describe the situation using Equation 10.20
with W = 0, because we’ve identified an isolated system. For the
initial and final points we chose our working equation becomes
Kf + 1Ug2f + ∆Eth = Ki + 1Ug2i
 10.6  Conservation of Energy 337

SOLVE   a.  For this part, we ignore drag, so ∆Eth = 0. We then into thermal energy, so ∆Eth = 10.202Ki. Our working equa-
substitute expressions for the various forms of energy to find tion then becomes

1 1 Kf + 1Ug2f + 10.202Ki = Ki + 1Ug2i

mv 2 + mgyf = mvi2 + mgyi
2 f 2 Kf + 1Ug2f = 10.802Ki + 1Ug2i

The mass appears in every term, so we can cancel out this factor. Simplifying as we did before, we find
We’ll take our starting position to be yi = 0 and note that the final 1
velocity vf = 0 to simplify further: gyf = 10.802 v i2
2
v i2 13.1 m / s22
1 2 yf = 10.802 = 10.802 = 0.39 m
gyf = vi 2g 219.8 m / s22
2
v i2 13.1 m / s22 ASSESS   We noted that the desert locust can jump a horizontal
yf = = = 0.49 m distance of 1 m, so a vertical leap of half a meter seems reason-
2g 219.8 m / s22
able. Notice that the locust’s mass didn’t enter into our calcula-
b. For this part of the problem, we assume that 20% of the initial tion; this isn’t a surprise, given that the motion is free fall. This
kinetic energy is lost to drag. The “lost” energy is transformed also gives us confidence in our solution.

EXAMPLE 10.10 To push or not to push?

The Summit Plummet is an extreme water slide—one of the one is giving you a push! There is no elastic potential energy,
steepest and fastest in the world. Riders drop 36 m from the start only gravitational, and we can ignore friction, so our working
until they hit a run-out at the bottom. If you give yourself a good equation becomes
push at the start, so that you begin your plunge moving at 2.0 m/s,
Kf + 1Ug2f = Ki + 1Ug2i
how fast are you moving when you get to the bottom? How fast
would you be moving if you skipped the push? The slide is steep
SOLVE   If we write our working equation in terms of the change
and slippery, so assume that you can ignore friction and drag
forces. in potential energy, we can express this in terms of the change in
height using Equation 10.13:
STRATEGIZE   We’ll take the system to be the rider + earth. The
initial state has the rider moving at 2.0 m/s at a height of 36 m Kf = Ki + 11Ug2i - 1Ug2f2 = Ki + ∆Ug = Ki + mg∆y
above the bottom of the slide; the final state is at the bottom. We rewrite the kinetic energy in terms of speed and then solve for
PREPARE   The visual overview in FIGURE 10.21 shows the initial the final speed:
and final states and the slide in between. The exact shape of the 1 1
slide doesn’t matter; we care only about the difference in height. mv f2 = mv i2 + mg∆y
2 2
We’ll describe the situation using Equation 10.20 with W = 0,
because this is an isolated system—once you start the ride, no vf = 3v i2 + 2g∆y = 312.0 m/s22 + 219.8 m/s22136 m2
= 27 m/s

FIGURE 10.21  Visual overview of the trip down the water slide. This is pretty speedy! Now, suppose you skip the initial push.
How much does this change the final result? The calculation is
y the same but with vi = 0:
Before:
vi = 2.0 m/s vf = 32g∆y = 3219.8 m/s22136 m2 = 27 m/s
We get exactly the same result to 2 significant figures: greater
precision is not warranted given the approximations we’ve made.
Push or not—the final result is about the same! Most of your
energy at the end of the ride comes from the change in potential
energy, not your initial push.
¢y = 36 m
ASSESS   We weren’t given the mass of the rider, but the mass
Find: vf canceled along the way, which gives us confidence in the pro-
cess. The final result, 27 m/s (about 60 mph), is pretty fast. But
After:
vf this is an extreme slide, and a website for this slide claims that
you can expect to reach 60 mph, so the result of the calculation is
0
reasonable, even if actually riding the slide isn’t.
338 chapter 10  Energy and Work

EXAMPLE 10.11 Speed of a spring-launched ball

A spring-loaded toy gun is used to launch a 10 g plastic ball. The e­quilibrium position of the free end of the spring, making
spring, which has a spring constant of 10 N / m, is compressed by x i = - 10 cm and x f = 0 cm. Work is done on the spring during
10 cm as the ball is pushed into the barrel. When the trigger is the compression, but during the time the spring is expanding,
pulled, the spring is released and shoots the ball back out hori- the ball + spring is an isolated system, so W = 0. We are ignor-
zontally. What is the ball’s speed as it leaves the barrel? Assume ing friction, so ∆Eth = 0. Because the launch is horizontal, we
that friction is negligible. can ignore changes in gravitational potential energy. With these
assumptions, the work-energy equation becomes
STRATEGIZE   Let’s take the system to be the ball + spring. The
initial state has the compressed spring touching the stationary Kf + 1Us2f = Ki + 1Us2i
ball; the final state is the expanded spring and the ball in motion.
SOLVE  We can use expressions for kinetic energy and elastic
PREPARE  The visual overview is shown in FIGURE 10.22. potential energy to rewrite this equation as
We have chosen the origin of the coordinate system to be the 1
2 mv f2 + 12 kx f2 = 12 mv i2 + 12 kx i2
FIGURE 10.22  Before-and-after visual overview of a ball being
We know that x f = 0 m and vi = 0 m / s, so this simplifies to
shot out of a spring-loaded toy gun.
1
2 mv f2 = 12 kx i2
Before: v i = 0 m/s
It is now straightforward to solve for the ball’s speed:

x kx i2 110 N / m21-0.10 m22

x i = -10 cm x=0 vf = = = 3.2 m / s
B m B 0.010 kg

After: vf ASSESS   The ball moves pretty slowly, which we expect for a
toy gun. Our result seems reasonable.
x f = 0 cm
Find: vf

This is not a problem that we could have easily solved with Newton’s laws. The
acceleration is not constant, and we have not learned how to handle the kinematics
of variable acceleration. But with conservation of energy, this was a straightforward
problem.

EXAMPLE 10.12 The thermal energy of a trip down a slide

Quinn is at rest at the top of a playground slide. The main part of FIGURE 10.23  Visual overview for motion down the slide.
the slide is 5.0 m long, and it is tipped at a 30° angle. Quinn starts
sliding, moving down the tipped section, and then the slide levels Before:
out so that he leaves the slide at 2.0 m/s, moving horizontally. If vi = 0
Quinn’s mass is 24 kg, how much thermal energy is deposited in
his trousers and in the slide?
Find: ∆Eth
STRATEGIZE   We’ll choose Quinn + earth + slide to be the sys-
tem. The initial point will be when Quinn is motionless at the top h After:
5.0 m vf = 2.0 m/s
of the slide; the final point will be when Quinn has descended the
slide and is moving off the end. As Quinn goes down the slide,
potential energy decreases and kinetic energy increases. But 30°
there is clearly friction, so that his speed is slower than it would
be otherwise. Some of the energy is transformed into thermal
energy of his trousers and the slide, internal to the system. It’s
this change in thermal energy that we’ll solve for. We can find the difference in the vertical position h from the
geometry of the slide:
PREPARE  The visual overview in FIGURE 10.23 shows the ini-
tial and final points of the motion. We’ve chosen an isolated sys- h = 15.0 m2sin30° = 2.5 m
tem, so W = 0. The only form of potential energy is gravitational We’ll take the initial height as yi = h, the final height as yf = 0,
potential energy, so the work-energy equation reduces to so 1Ug2f = 0. Quinn starts at rest, so Ki = 0.
Kf + 1Ug2f + ∆Eth = Ki + 1Ug2i
 10.7  Energy Diagrams 339

SOLVE   With all of these parts in hand we can simplify the work- The values in the problem are typical values for a slide—about
energy equation further and then solve for ∆Eth: an 8 foot drop, kids launched off the end at a slow jogging pace.
During the slide, the most important energy transformation that
∆Eth = 1Ug2i - Kf takes place is the increase in thermal energy. The slide is mostly
1 about warming things up rather than getting kids up to speed!
= mgy - mvf2
2
ASSESS   If you remember going down the slide as a child, you
= 588 J - 48 J = 540 J no doubt remember the appreciable warming during the motion,
We’ve found values for the change in potential energy and the so our result makes sense.
final kinetic energy so that you can see the relative magnitudes.

SYNTHESIS 10.1   Energy and its conservation

The energies present in an isolated system can transform from one kind into another, but the total energy is conserved.
The unit of all types of energy is the joule (J).

Kinetic energy is the Gravitational potential energy is stored Elastic potential energy is stored energy
energy of motion. energy associated with an object’s height associated with a stretched or compressed
above the ground. spring.
Mass (kg) Free-fall acceleration Spring constant (N/m)
1 2 1 2
K= 2 mv Ug = mgy Us = 2 kx
Velocity (m/s) Mass (kg) Height (m) above a Displacement of end of spring
reference level y = 0 from equilibrium (m)

Work is the transfer of energy into or out of a system The before-and-after work-energy equation captures the
by an external force: law of conservation of energy:
W = F d Kf + Uf + ∆Eth = Ki + Ui + W
Displacement
Work into (1) Force Final kinetic and potential Initial kinetic and potential
or out of (2) a parallel to energy plus change in energy plus energy
system motion thermal energy transferred by work

STOP TO THINK 10.8 At the water park, Katie slides down each of the frictionless
slides shown. At the top, she is given a push so that she has the same initial speed
each time. At the bottom of which slide is she moving the fastest?

A. B. C.

eText
A. Slide A B. Slide B 2.0
C. Slide C D. Her speed is the same at the bottom of all three slides. Video Demo  Rotational Motion:
Loop-the-Loop

• 10.7: Energy Diagrams

10.7  Energy Diagrams • 10.8: Molecular Bonds and
Energy is a central concept in physics, but it’s also crucial for understanding chemis- Chemical Energy
try, biology, and other sciences. In this section and the following one, we’ll develop There is now a greater
different means of describing energy that connect to these other subjects that you are emphasis on the connections
likely studying or have studied. It’s not that energy is different in chemistry, but the between Physics and the other
way it is treated, the language used to describe it, may be.
sciences (namely life sciences
but this is an example of
Chemistry).
340 chapter 10  Energy and Work

In this section, we’ll consider isolated systems for which there is no friction or
drag. In this case, there is no work and there is no change in thermal energy, so the
work-energy equation becomes
Kf + Uf = Ki + Ui
In other words, the sum of the kinetic and potential energy is constant. We’ll define
the total energy E as the sum of these two quantities. For the systems we consider in
this section,

E = K + U = constant

Kinetic energy depends on an object’s speed, but potential energy depends on its
position. A tossed ball’s gravitational potential energy depends on its height y, while
the elastic potential energy of a compressed spring depends on the displacement x.
Other potential energies also depend in some way on position. A graph showing a
system’s potential energy and total energy as a function of position is called an
energy diagram. We’ll spend some time learning about energy diagrams so that we
can use them to think about bonds and chemical reactions in the next section.
FIGURE 10.24  The energy diagram of a FIGURE 10.24 is the energy diagram of a ball in free fall. This is a bit different from
ball in free fall. most graphs we’ve seen. It doesn’t include time; the horizontal axis is the vertical
Energy position y, and the vertical axis represents energy. The lines on the graph show dif-
Total energy line Ug 5 mgy ferent energies as a function of the vertical position. The gravitational potential
E E 5 K 1 Ug PE energy increases with the vertical position; the mathematical relationship is
K2 Ug = mgy, and a graph of mgy versus y is a straight line through the origin with
K1 Potential-energy slope mg. The resulting blue potential-energy curve is labeled PE. The tan line
curve
(Ug)2 labeled E is the system’s total energy. This line is always horizontal because the sum
(Ug)1 of kinetic and potential energy is the same at every point.
y Suppose we consider a ball that is at a vertical position y1 and is moving upward.
y1 y2
K and Ug change as the When the ball is at height y1, the distance from the axis up to the potential-energy
particle moves from y1 to y2, curve is the potential energy 1Ug21 at that position. Because K1 = E - 1Ug21, the
but their sum is always E. kinetic energy is represented graphically as the distance between the potential-energy
curve and the total energy line. Now, the ball continues to rise. Some time later it is at
height y2. The energy diagram shows that the potential energy 1Ug22 has increased
while the ball’s kinetic energy K2 has decreased, as we know must be the case. Kinetic
energy has been transformed into potential energy, but their sum has not changed.
NOTE   ▶ In graphs like this, the potential-energy curve PE is determined by the
physical properties of the system—for example, the mass or the spring constant.
But the total energy line E is under your control. If you change the initial condi-
tions, such as throwing the ball upward with a different speed or compressing a
spring by a different amount, the total energy line will appear at a different posi-
tion. We can thus use an energy diagram to see how changing the initial condi-
tions affects the subsequent motion. ◀
FIGURE 10.25  The energy diagram of a FIGURE 10.25 is the energy diagram of a mass on a horizontal spring. In this case,
mass on a horizontal spring. 1
the blue potential-energy curve Us = kx 2 is a parabola centered at x = 0, the
The height of the E line
2
is determined by how far
­equilibrium position of the end of the spring. The blue PE curve is determined by the
Energy
you stretch or compress spring constant; we can’t change it. But we can set the tan E line to any height we
the spring. wish by stretching or compressing the spring to different lengths. The figure shows
PE one possible E line.
E Suppose you pull the mass out to position x R and release it from rest. FIGURE 10.26
The PE curve is
a parabola shows a five-frame “movie” of the subsequent motion. Initially, in frame a, the
determined by energy is entirely potential—the energy of a stretched spring—so the E line has been
the spring drawn to cross the PE line at x a = x R. This is the graphical statement that initially
constant.
E = Us and K = 0.
x The restoring force pulls the mass toward the origin. In frame b, where the mass
0
has reached x b, the potential energy has decreased while the kinetic energy—the
 10.7  Energy Diagrams 341

FIGURE 10.26   A five-frame movie of a mass oscillating on a spring.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

va 5 0 vb vc vd ve 5 0

x x x x x
xL 0 xR xL 0 xR xL 0 xR xL 0 xR xL 0 xR
Energy Energy Energy Energy Energy
PE PE PE PE PE
E E E E E

x x x x x
xL 0 xa 5 xR xL 0 xb xR xL xc 5 0 xR xL xd 0 xR xe 5 xL 0 xR

The mass is released The particle has This is the point of The particle loses The particle reaches
from rest. The energy gained kinetic energy maximum speed. kinetic energy as a turning point. The
is entirely potential. as the spring loses The energy is it compresses the energy is entirely
potential energy. entirely kinetic. spring. potential.

distance above the PE curve—has increased. Notice that the total energy—the
brown dot—hasn’t changed. The mass continues to speed up until it reaches maxi-
mum speed at x c = 0, where the PE curve is at a minimum and the distance above
the PE curve is maximum. At position x d, the mass has started to slow down as it
begins to transform kinetic energy back into elastic potential energy.
The mass continues moving to the left until, in frame e, it reaches position x L,
where the total energy line crosses the potential-energy curve. This point, where
K = 0 and the energy is entirely potential, is a turning point where the mass reverses
direction. A mass would need negative kinetic energy to be to the left of x L, and
that’s not physically possible. You should be able to see, from the energy diagram,
that the mass will oscillate back and forth between positions x L and x R, having maxi-
mum kinetic energy (and thus maximum speed) each time it passes through x = 0.
Now, let’s consider a different initial condition. Suppose you pull the mass out to
a greater initial distance. You’ve increased the potential energy in the system, and
thus the total energy. The tan E line is now at a greater height, and it will intersect
the PE graph at two points that are farther from the equilibrium point. With this new
initial condition, the mass will oscillate back and forth between two points at a
greater distance from equilibrium.

Interpreting Energy Diagrams

The lessons we learn from Figure 10.26 are true for any energy diagram:
■■ At any position, the distance from the axis to the PE curve is the object’s poten-
tial energy. The distance from the PE curve to the E line is its kinetic energy.
■■ The object cannot be at a position where the PE curve is above the E line.
■■ A position where the E line crosses the PE curve is a turning point where the
object reverses direction.
■■ If the E line crosses the PE curve at two positions, the object will oscillate
between those two positions. Its speed will be maximum at the position where the
PE curve is a minimum.

CONCEPTUAL EXAMPLE 10.13 Interpreting an energy diagram

FIGURE 10.27 is a more general energy diagram. We don’t know REASON  We’ve added details to the graph and sketched out
how this potential energy was created, but we can still use the details of the motion in FIGURE 10.28. The particle is at rest at
energy diagram to understand how a particle with this potential the starting point, so K = 0 and the total energy is equal to the
energy will move. Suppose a particle begins at rest at the position potential energy. We can draw the E line through this point. The
shown in the figure and is then released. Describe its subsequent PE curve tells us the particle’s potential energy at each ­position.
motion. Continued
342 chapter 10  Energy and Work

FIGURE 10.27   A more general energy diagram. FIGURE 10.28  The motion of the particle in the potential of
Figure 10.27.
Energy
The particle is released PE Energy At the starting point, the
from rest. total energy equals the PE
potential energy.
E 5 E1
Point of
maximum
speed Turning
x point
x1
x
x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
The distance between the PE curve and the E line is the particle’s Speeds Slows Speeds Slows
kinetic energy. The particle cannot move to the left because that up down up down
would require the PE curve to go above the E line, so it begins
moving to the right. The particle speeds up from x 1 to x 2 because
instantaneously at rest and then reverses direction. Because the E
U decreases and thus K must increase. It then slows down (but
line crosses the PE curve at both x 1 and x 5 the particle will oscil-
doesn’t stop) from x 2 to x 3 as it goes over the “­ potential-energy
late back and forth between these two points, speeding up and
hill.” It speeds up after x 3 until it reaches maximum speed at
slowing down as described.
x 4, where the PE curve is a minimum. The particle then steadily
slows from x 4 to x 5 as kinetic energy is transformed into an ASSESS   Our results make sense. The particle is moving fastest
increasing potential energy. Position x 5 is a turning point, a where the PE line is lowest, as it must, and it turns around where
position where the E line crosses the PE curve. The particle is the E and PE lines cross, meaning K = 0 and the particle is at rest.

Equilibrium Positions
Positions x 2, x 3, and x 4 in Figure 10.28, where the potential energy has a local mini-
mum or maximum, are special positions. Consider the particle at position x 3 with
energy E3 in FIGURE 10.29a. Its energy is entirely potential energy and its kinetic
energy is zero. It must be at rest—in equilibrium.
But suppose this particle is slightly disturbed—a tiny push to the right or left—
giving it a very small amount of kinetic energy. The particle will begin to move
away from x 3, moving away faster and faster because the potential energy
decreases—and thus kinetic energy increases—on both sides of x 3. The situation is
analogous to trying to balance a marble on the top of a hill; we can do so if the posi-
tioning is absolutely perfect, but any small displacement or disturbance will cause the
marble to roll down the hill. An equilibrium position for which any small disturbance
drives the particle away from equilibrium is called a point of unstable equilibrium.
Any local maximum in the PE curve is a point of unstable equilibrium.
In contrast, consider a particle at position x 2 with energy E2 in FIGURE 10.29b. Its
kinetic energy is zero and, as we just discussed, the particle must be at rest. Position
x 2 is also an equilibrium position, this time for a particle with energy E2. What hap-
pens if this particle is slightly disturbed, raising the E line by a very small amount?
Now the E line will intersect the PE curve just slightly to either side of x 2. These

FIGURE 10.29  Positions of (a) unstable and (b) stable equilibrium.

(a) Energy (b) Energy

PE PE
The particle is at The particle is at
position x3, with position x2, with
energy E3. E 5 E3 energy E2.

E 5 E2

x x
x2 x3 x4 x2 x3 x4

Unstable equilibrium position Stable equilibrium positions

 10.8  Molecular Bonds and Chemical Energy 343

intersections are turning points, so the particle will undergo a very small oscillation
centered on x 2, rather like a marble in the bottom of a bowl. An equilibrium for
which a small disturbance causes only a small oscillation around the equilibrium
position is called a point of stable equilibrium. You should recognize that any local
minimum in the PE curve is a point of stable equilibrium. Position x 4 is also a
point of stable equilibrium—in this case for a particle with E4 = 0.
In the next section, we’ll see how ideas about stable and unstable equilibrium
help us understand molecular bonds and chemical reactions.

STOP TO THINK 10.9 The figures below show blue PE curves and tan E lines for four identical particles. Which particle has the
highest maximum speed?
A. B. C. D.
Energy Energy Energy Energy

x x x x

10.8  Molecular Bonds and Chemical Energy

With few exceptions, the materials of everyday life are made of atoms bound
together into larger molecules. The molecular bond that holds two atoms together is
an electric interaction between the atoms’ negative electrons and positive nuclei. The
electric force, like the gravitational force, is a force that can store energy. Fortu-
nately, we don’t need to know any details about electric potential energy—a topic
we’ll take up in Chapter 21—to deduce the energy diagram of a molecular bond.
We’ve noted that molecular bonds are somewhat analogous to springs: The nor-
mal force when an object rests on a table arises from the compression of spring-like
bonds, and thermal energy is due, in part, to spring-like vibrations of atoms around
an equilibrium position. This suggests that the energy diagram of two atoms con-
nected by a molecular bond should look similar to the Figure 10.25 energy diagram
of a mass on a spring.
FIGURE 10.30 shows the experimentally determined energy diagram of the diatomic FIGURE 10.30  The energy diagram of the
molecule HCl (hydrogen chloride). Distance x is the atomic separation, the distance diatomic molecule HCl.
between the hydrogen and chlorine atoms. Note the very small distances: Energy (310219 J)
1 nm = 10-9 m. The left side of the PE curve looks very much like the PE curve of a
spring; the right side starts out similar to the PE curve of a spring and then levels off. 20
The force is repulsive
We can interpret and understand this potential-energy diagram by using what we for x , 0.13 nm.
learned in Section 10.7. 15
There is a clear minimum of the potential energy curve, a position of stable equi- E3
librium. We’ve set the potential energy equal to zero at this position. If the total The force is attractive
energy is zero as well, as is the case for the total energy line E1, the atoms will rest at 10
for x . 0.13 nm.
this separation. They will have no kinetic energy—no molecular vibration—and will PE
form a molecule with an atomic separation of 0.13 nm. This is the bond length 5 E2 Bond energy
of HCl.
If we try to push the atoms closer together, the potential energy rises very rapidly. E1
Physically, this is an electric repulsion between the negative electrons orbiting each 0 x (nm)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
atom, but it’s analogous to the increasingly strong repulsive force we get when we
The bond length is 0.13 nm.
compress a spring. Thus the PE curve to the left of the equilibrium position looks
very much like the PE curve of a spring.
There are also attractive forces between two atoms. These can be the attractive
force between two oppositely charged ions, as is the case for HCl; the attractive
forces of covalent bonds when electrons are shared; or even weak polarization
forces that are related to the static electricity force by which a comb that has been
344 chapter 10  Energy and Work

brushed through your hair attracts small pieces of paper. For any of these, the attrac-
tive force resists if we try to pull the atoms apart—analogous to stretching a spring—
and thus potential energy increases to the right. The equilibrium position, with
minimum potential energy, is the separation at which the repulsive force between
electrons and the attractive force are exactly balanced.
The repulsive force gets stronger as we push the atoms closer together, but the
attractive force gets weaker as we pull them farther apart. If we pull too hard, the
bond breaks and the atoms come apart. Consequently, the PE curve becomes less
steep as x increases, eventually leveling off when the atoms are so far apart that they
cease interacting with each other. This difference between the attractive and repul-
sive forces explains the asymmetric PE curve in Figure 10.30.
It turns out, for quantum physics reasons, that a molecule cannot have E = 0 and
thus cannot simply rest at the equilibrium position. By requiring the molecule to
have some energy, as for the total energy line E2 in Figure 10.30, we see that the
atoms will oscillate back and forth between two turning points where the total
energy line crosses the PE curve. This is a molecular vibration, and atoms held
together by a molecular bond are constantly vibrating. For an HCl molecule with
energy as E2 = 3.5 * 10-19 J, illustrated, the distance between the atoms oscillates
between roughly 0.10 nm and 0.18 nm.
As we’ve seen, an object’s thermal energy is the sum of the energies of all the
moving and vibrating atoms and molecules. Increasing a system’s thermal energy
increases the energy of each molecule. If we imagine the line E2 in Figure 10.30
being raised, we can see that increased thermal energy, and thus increased tempera-
ture, corresponds to molecules vibrating more vigorously, with larger amplitude and
more kinetic energy.
Suppose the molecule’s energy is increased to E3 = 12.5 * 10-19 J. This could
happen, for example, if the molecule absorbs some light. We can see from the energy
diagram that the molecules will keep moving apart. By raising the molecule’s energy
to E3, we’ve broken the molecular bond. The breaking of molecular bonds by the
absorption of light is called photodissociation. Light-mediated reactions, from sun
tanning to photosynthesis to vision, are very similar to photodissociation but involve
conformational changes in macromolecules—which require energy—rather than the
actual breaking of bonds.
The bond energy is the minimum energy required to break a bond when the mol-
ecule’s energy corresponds to a “room temperature” of 25°C. Bond energy is shown
on an energy diagram as the vertical distance from the total energy line to the
­potential-energy “plateau” on the right side of the diagram. HCl molecules at room
temperature have energy E ≃ 0.04 * 10-19 J, barely distinguishable from zero
energy. We can see in Figure 10.30 that the bond energy of HCl is approximately
7.5 * 10-19 J.
NOTE   ▶ Chemists and biologists usually quote molecular energies in kJ/mol
or kcal/mol. Physicists prefer to work directly with the energy per molecule
or energy per bond in J. To find energies in kJ/mol, simply multiply the bond
energy by Avogadro’s number. For example, the 7.5 * 10-19 J bond energy of
HCl becomes 450 kJ/mol. ◀

EXAMPLE 10.14 Does the photon have enough energy?

An energy diagram for molecular oxygen, O2, is shown in 10.7 * 10-19 J of energy. If a molecule of O2 at room temperature
FIGURE 10.31. A germicidal lamp for sterilizing equipment uses absorbs one photon of light from the lamp, does this provide
short-wavelength ultraviolet radiation at 185 nm. At this wave- enough energy to split the molecule? If so, what will be the
length, each photon, or quantum, of ultraviolet light has kinetic energy of the atoms after they have separated?
 10.8  Molecular Bonds and Chemical Energy 345

FIGURE 10.31  The energy diagram for molecular oxygen, O2. FIGURE 10.32  Comparing the photon energy to the potential
energy for O2.
Energy (310 219
J)
Energy (310219 J) The total energy The difference
20
of the molecule is between the maximum
16 20 approximately potential energy and
12 16 equal to the the total energy
photon energy.
8 PE 12
2.5 3 10219 J
4 8

0 x (nm) 4
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0 x (nm)
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

STRATEGIZE  We can use the molecular energy diagram in

­Figure 10.31 to determine what happens at different energies.
PREPARE  We’ll assume that the room-temperature energy is the two oxygen molecules will separate. The residual kinetic
similar to that for HCl, very close to zero. After the molecule energy will be equal to the difference between the total energy
absorbs the photon, the energy of the molecule will be nearly and the maximum of the potential energy, which we estimate to
equal to the photon energy. be 2.5 * 10-19 J.
SOLVE   FIGURE 10.32 is the O2 energy diagram with a total ASSESS   Germicidal lamps at this wavelength are known to pro-
energy line added that corresponds to the photon energy. The duce O3, ozone, a very reactive form of oxygen—so it’s clear
total energy is much greater than the maximum of the potential that the photons have enough energy to break apart the normally
energy on the right side of the graph. After absorbing the ­photon, stable O2 molecules. Therefore, our answer makes sense.

Chemical Reactions
Energy ideas are key to understanding what happens during a chemical reaction.
The basic idea of any chemical reaction—involving simple diatomic molecules or
large biological macromolecules—is that some molecular bonds are broken and new
molecular bonds are formed. For example, a simple reaction that we can symbolize
as AB + CD S AC + BD requires the bonds of molecules AB and CD to be broken
and then new bonds to form between atoms A and C and between atoms B and D.
And, as we’ve just seen, it takes energy to break molecular bonds.
FIGURE 10.33 is the energy diagram of a chemical reaction. It’s very much like the FIGURE 10.33  A reaction energy diagram.
energy diagrams we’ve been using, but with one important difference: The position
Energy
coordinate of the horizontal axis has been replaced with an abstract reaction
­coordinate. The reaction coordinate is not a physical quantity that could be mea- Energy needed Energy released
sured; instead, it shows in a general sense the progress of bond breaking and bond to break bonds when bonds form
formation as a reaction moves from reactants, on the left, to products, on the right.
All reaction energy diagrams have a large hump, or energy barrier, in the middle.
This represents the energy required to break the bonds of the reactant molecules. For Ea Er
the reaction to take place, the reactants must increase their potential energy by the PE
amount Ea, called the activation energy. Graphically, the activation energy is the Reactants
height of the energy barrier above the initial potential energy of the reactants. DEreaction
How does this happen? The reactant molecules have thermal energy, which Products
means that the individual molecules are moving around and vibrating. When mole-
cules collide, this energy can be transformed into the increased potential energy of Reaction coordinate
stretched bonds. If the thermal energy is too low, the increased potential energy is
less than the activation energy, meaning that the bonds don’t break and the reaction
doesn’t occur. Wood and oxygen don’t react at room temperature, even though the
reaction—combustion—is energetically favorable, because the reactants don’t have
enough thermal energy to allow bond breaking during collisions. In essence, the total
energy line is lower than the energy barrier, so there’s a turning point in the reaction
coordinate.
346 chapter 10  Energy and Work

To burn wood, you must substantially increase the thermal energy of at least a
portion of the fuel. You can do this with the high-temperature flame from a match.
Some of the reactant molecules can then, via collisions, transform their large kinetic
energy into potential energy that reaches or exceeds the activation energy—the mol-
ecules collide with enough kinetic energy to break molecular bonds. The reaction
begins, and the energy subsequently released can trigger further reactions. Once you
light a wood splint, the flame will work its way along the wood.
For combustion, the potential energy of the products is lower than that of the
reactants, as is the case in Figure 10.33. More energy is released in the formation of
new bonds than was required to initiate the reaction. The increase in thermal energy
causes the final temperature of the products to be higher than the initial temperature
of the reactants. Such reactions are called exothermic reactions. In contrast, an
endothermic reaction releases less energy than was required to initiate it. Such
reactions require a continuous input of energy to keep going.
NOTE   ▶ Chemists and biologists often describe reactions in terms of what is
called free energy. Free energy is a more appropriate description when some or
all of the energy released in a reaction is used to do work rather than increasing
the thermal energy. This is often the case in biology, where the energy released
by a reaction does work by moving molecules around or changing the configu-
ration of macromolecules instead of simply heating up the cell. We’ll leave the
definition and use of free energy to your chemistry and biology classes, simply
noting that the analysis of a reaction in terms of free energy is exactly the same as
the analysis presented here. ◀

Reaction Rates and Catalysts

The reaction energy diagram tells us nothing about the rate of reaction—how fast a
reaction proceeds. A more detailed theory, which you will study in chemistry, finds
that the rate of reaction increases exponentially as the activation energy decreases.
An exponential change means that even a small decrease in activation energy can
produce a large increase in the rate of reaction.
FIGURE 10.34   A reaction energy diagram The role of a catalyst is to provide an alternate reaction pathway with a lower
for a chemical reaction with and without activation energy, thus dramatically speeding up the rate of reaction. FIGURE 10.34
a catalyst.
shows an exothermic reaction, one that is energetically favorable but where the
Energy energy barrier is so high that this reaction will not happen at room temperature
because the reaction rate is essentially zero. In Figure 10.34, we see that a catalyst
offers an alternate pathway whose activation energy is easily exceeded by room-
Without catalyst A catalyst offers temperature molecules. A catalyst can dramatically increase reaction rates.
an alternate path- Most of biochemistry is mediated by catalysts in the form of enzymes. Processes
way with a lower
With catalyst activation energy such as respiration, photosynthesis, and protein synthesis involve energetically
and increases the favorable exothermic (also called exergonic) reactions, but the activation energy is
reaction rate. so high that the reactants, on their own, would react barely, if at all, at normal tem-
Reactants
peratures. Enzymes catalyze these reactions, allowing them to proceed at a rate suf-
DEreaction
ficient for cellular functions.
Products

Chemical Energy
Reaction coordinate
The law of conservation of energy includes the term △Echem, the change in chemical
energy. Physics usually focuses on systems in which chemical energy is not impor-
tant, but energy conservation also has to apply to chemistry and biology. Chemical
energy is simply a name for the total electric potential energy stored in all the molec-
ular bonds of a system. If there are no reactions, the chemical energy doesn’t change
and we can ignore it, because only energy changes enter into the law of energy
conservation.
If there are chemical reactions, then the breaking and creation of molecular bonds
change the system’s chemical energy. In Figure 10.33 the energy of the products is
 10.9  Energy in Collisions 347

lower than the energy of the reactants. To make the reaction go, potential energy
must be increased by the activation energy Ea—the energy of breaking bonds. Once
the reaction is over the energy barrier, the formation of new bonds releases energy
Er; that is, potential energy is transformed into thermal energy. The difference,
∆Ereaction = Er - Ea, is the net energy released in one reaction due to the change in
bonds.
Any realistic system has a vast number of chemical reactions taking place. The
change in chemical energy is simply the total energy released by all these reactions.
If N reactions take place, then

∆Echem = N∆Ereaction (10.21)

In biological systems, the production of chemical energy via the catalyzed reactions
of respiration powers the cellular machinery and maintains body temperature.This
change in energy will be an important part of the story in Chapter 11.

10.9  Energy in Collisions

In Chapter 9 we studied collisions between two objects. We found that if no external
forces are acting on the objects, the total momentum of the objects will be conserved.
Now we wish to study what happens to energy in collisions.
Let’s first re-examine a perfectly inelastic collision. We studied just such a colli-
sion in Example 9.8. Recall that in such a collision the two objects stick together and
then move with a common final velocity. What happens to the energy?

EXAMPLE 10.15 How much energy is transformed in a collision between railroad cars?
FIGURE 10.35 shows two train cars that move toward each other, Energy is conserved, but kinetic energy is not; it will be lower
collide, and couple together. In Example 9.8, we used conserva- after the collision than before.
tion of momentum to find the final velocity shown in Figure 10.35
SOLVE   The initial kinetic energy is
from the given initial velocities. How much thermal energy is
created in this collision? 1 1
Ki = m 11v1x2i2 + m 21v2x2i2
FIGURE 10.35   Before-and-after visual overview of a collision
2 2
between two train cars. 1 1
= 12.0 * 104 kg211.5 m / s22 + 14.0 * 104 kg21- 1.1 m / s22
2 2
Before:
(v1x)i = 1.5 m /s (v2 x)i = -1.1 m /s = 4.7 * 104 J
m1 = 2.0 * 104 kg m2 = 4.0 * 104 kg
Because the cars stick together and move as a single object with
1 2
mass m 1 + m 2, the final kinetic energy is
1
Kf = 1m 1 + m 221vx2f2
x 2

After: 1
m1 + m 2 = 16.0 * 104 kg21-0.25 m / s22 = 1900 J
(vx) f = - 0.25 m /s
2
1 2 From the conservation of energy equation above, we find that the
thermal energy increases by
∆Eth = Ki - Kf = 4.7 * 104 J - 1900 J = 4.5 * 104 J
STRATEGIZE   We’ll choose our system to be the two cars. The
initial state is the instant before the collision; the final state is the This amount of the initial kinetic energy is transformed into ther-
instant just after. mal energy during the impact of the collision.
PREPARE  This is an isolated system, so W = 0. Because the ASSESS  The cars are moving much more slowly after the
track is horizontal, there is no change in potential energy. Thus c­ ollision than before, so we expect that most of the kinetic energy
the work-energy equation reduces to is transformed into thermal energy, just as we observed.
Kf + ∆Eth = Ki
348 chapter 10  Energy and Work

Elastic Collisions
FIGURE 10.36   A tennis ball collides with a FIGURE 10.36 shows a collision of a tennis ball with a racket. The ball is compressed
racket. Notice that the ball is compressed
and the racket strings stretch as the two collide, then the ball expands and the strings
and the strings are stretched.
rebound as the two are pushed apart. In the language of energy, the kinetic energy of
the objects is transformed into the elastic potential energy of the ball and strings,
then back into kinetic energy as the two objects spring apart. If all of the kinetic
energy is stored as elastic potential energy, and all of the elastic potential energy is
transformed back into the post-collision kinetic energy of the objects, then mechani-
cal energy is conserved. A collision in which mechanical energy is conserved is
called a perfectly elastic collision.
Needless to say, most real collisions fall somewhere between perfectly elastic and
perfectly inelastic. A rubber ball bouncing on the floor might “lose” 20% of its
kinetic energy on each bounce and return to only 80% of the height of the preceding
bounce. But collisions between two very hard objects, such as two pool balls or two
steel balls, come close to being perfectly elastic. And collisions between micro-
scopic particles, such as atoms or electrons, can be perfectly elastic.
FIGURE 10.37 shows a head-on, perfectly elastic collision of a ball of mass m 1, hav-
ing initial velocity 1v1x2i, with a ball of mass m 2 that is initially at rest. The balls’
FIGURE 10.37   A perfectly elastic collision. velocities after the collision are 1v1x2f and 1v2x2f. These are velocities, not speeds,
u
v1i and have signs. Ball 1, in particular, might bounce backward and have a negative
Before: 1 2 Ki value for 1v1x2f.
The collision must obey two conservation laws: conservation of momentum
Energy is stored in
compressed (obeyed in any collision) and conservation of mechanical energy (because the colli-
During: 1 2 molecular bonds, sion is perfectly elastic). Although the energy is transformed into potential energy
then released as the during the collision, the mechanical energy before and after the collision is purely
bonds re-expand.
kinetic energy. Thus,
After: 1 2 Kf = Ki
u
v1f
u
v2f momentum conservation: m 11v1x2i = m 11v1x2f + m 21v2x2f
1 1 1
energy conservation: m 1v 2 2 = m 11v1x2f2 + m 21v2x2f2
2 1 1x i 2 2
Momentum conservation alone is not sufficient to analyze the collision because
eText
2.0 there are two unknowns: the two final velocities. That is why we did not consider
Video Demo  Happy/Sad Pendulums perfectly elastic collisions in Chapter 9. Energy conservation gives us another condi-
tion. The complete solution of these two equations involves straightforward but
rather lengthy algebra. We’ll just give the solution here:

m1 - m2 2m 1
1v1x2f = 1v 2 1v2x2f = 1v 2 (10.22)
m 1 + m 2 1x i m 1 + m 2 1x i
Perfectly elastic collision with object 2 initially at rest

Equations 10.22 allow us to compute the final velocity of each object. Let’s look at a
common and important example: a perfectly elastic collision between two objects of
equal mass.

EXAMPLE 10.16 Finding the aftermath of a collision between air hockey pucks
On an air hockey table, a moving puck, traveling to the right at the final velocities of the pucks. The pucks are identical, so we
2.3 m / s, makes a head-on collision with an identical puck at rest. have m 1 = m 2 = m.
What is the final velocity of each puck?
SOLVE   We use Equations 10.22 with m 1 = m 2 = m to get
PREPARE   The before-and-after visual overview is shown in FIG- m-m
1v1x2f = 1v 2 = 0 m / s
URE 10.38. We’ve shown the final velocities in the picture, but we m + m 1x i
don’t really know yet which way the pucks will move. Because 2m
1v2x2f = 1v 2 = 1v1x2i = 2.3 m / s
one puck was initially at rest, we can use Equations 10.22 to find m + m 1x i
 10.10 Power 349

FIGURE 10.38   A moving puck collides with a stationary puck. The incoming puck stops dead, and the initially stationary puck
goes off with the same velocity that the incoming one had.
Before: (v1x)i = 2.3 m/s (v2x)i = 0 m/s
u u ASSESS   You can see that momentum and energy are conserved:
u
vli v2i = 0
The incoming puck’s momentum and energy are completely
transferred to the outgoing puck. If you’ve ever played pool,
you’ve probably seen this sort of collision when you hit a ball
After: Find: (vlx)f and (v2x)f head-on with the cue ball. The cue ball stops and the other ball
u
v1f u
v2f picks up the cue ball’s velocity.

STOP TO THINK 10.10 A small ball with mass M is at rest. It is then struck by a ball
with twice the mass, moving at speed v0. The situation after the collision is shown in
the figure. Is this possible?
v0 v=0
Before: 2M M
A. Yes
B. No, because momentum is not conserved 2v0
C. No, because energy is not conserved After:
D. No, because neither momentum nor v=0
energy is conserved

10.10 Power
We’ve now studied how energy can be transformed from one kind into another and
how it can be transferred between the environment and the system as work. In many
situations we would like to know how quickly the energy is transformed or trans-
ferred. Is a transfer of energy very rapid, or does it take place over a long time? In
passing a truck, your car needs to transform a certain amount of the chemical energy
in its fuel into kinetic energy. It makes a big difference whether your engine can do
this in 20 s or 60 s!
The question How quickly? implies that we are talking about a rate. For example,
the velocity of an object—how fast it is going—is the rate of change of position. So,
when we raise the issue of how fast the energy is transformed, we are talking about
the rate of transformation of energy. Suppose in a time interval ∆t an amount of
energy ∆E is transformed from one form into another. The rate at which this energy
is transformed is called the power P and is defined as

∆E
P= (10.23)
∆t
Power when an amount of energy ∆E is transformed in a time interval ∆t

The unit of power is the watt, which is defined as 1 watt = 1 W = 1 J / s. Both these cars take about the same energy
Power also measures the rate at which energy is transferred into or out of a sys- to reach 60 mph, but the race car gets there
in a much shorter time, so its power is
tem as work W. If work W is done in time interval ∆t, the rate of energy transfer is much greater.

W
P= (10.24) The English unit of power is the horsepower.
∆t The conversion factor to watts is
Power when an amount of work W is done in a time interval ∆t 1 horsepower = 1 hp = 746 W
Many common appliances, such as motors,
If a person, animal, vehicle, or device is transforming or transferring energy at a rate
are rated in hp.
of 3 J/s, we say that it has an output power of 3 W.
350 chapter 10  Energy and Work

We can express Equation 10.24 in a different form. If in the time interval ∆t an

object undergoes a displacement ∆x, the work done by a force acting on the object is
W = F∆x. Then Equation 10.24 can be written as

W F∆x ∆x
P= = =F = Fv
∆t ∆t ∆t

The rate at which energy is transferred to an object as work—the power—is the

product of the force that does the work and the velocity of the object:

P = Fv (10.25)
Rate of energy transfer due to a force F acting on an object moving at velocity v

EXAMPLE 10.17 Finding the output power for a weightlifter

A 100 kg weightlifter performs a lift called a clean and jerk, rais- SOLVE   The power of the transformation is
ing a 190 kg bar from the ground to a height of 1.9 m in a time of
∆E 3540 J
1.8 s. What is his output power? P= = = 2000 W
∆t 1.8 s
STRATEGIZE  We’ll take the system to be the weightlifter +
bar + earth. We’ll assume that the bar is stationary before and ASSESS  This is a lot of power—about 2.7 horsepower! But
after the lift, so the relevant energy change is the increase in we’d expect such a large output power for a large weightlifter.
gravitational potential energy of the bar. This is an isolated
system, so the change is an internal transformation. We’ll use
Equation 10.23 to compute the power.
PREPARE   The change in potential energy depends on the change
in height:
∆Ug = mg∆y = 1190 kg219.8 m/s2211.9 m2 = 3540 J

The 100 kg weightlifter has a very large output power, which isn’t surprising.
How about someone smaller?

EXAMPLE 10.18 Finding the output power for a sprinter

A 50 kg sprinter accelerates from 0 to 11 m/s in 3.0 s. What is the SOLVE   The power of the transformation is
output power for this rapid start?
∆E 3000 J
P= = = 1000 W
STRATEGIZE   We can take the system to be the runner + earth. ∆t 3.0s
Let’s assume that the track is level, so there is no change in
potential energy, only a change in kinetic energy. We can safely ASSESS   This is a lot of power—about 1.3 horsepower—but less
ignore drag and other forces, so this is isolated system and the than for the weightlifter, which makes sense. In this case, as for
change is an internal transformation. the weightlifter, the power came from the athlete’s muscles.
PREPARE  The initial kinetic energy is zero, so the change in
kinetic energy is equal to the final kinetic energy:
1 1
∆K = Kf = mvf2 = 150 kg2111 m/s22 = 3000 J
2 2

A 100 kg weightlifter can produce more output power than a 50 kg sprinter,

which makes sense. It’s worthwhile to consider what we’ll call the specific power—
the output power divided by the mass of the person (or animal, device, or machine)
doing the transformation or the work:
power of a transformation or a transfer
specific power =
mass of agent causing the transformation or transfer
 10.10 Power 351

Let’s compute the specific power for the weightlifter and the sprinter:
1000 W
sprinter: specific power = = 20 W/kg
50 kg
2000 W
weightlifter: specific power = = 20 W/kg
100 kg

The numbers for the sprinter and the weightlifter are at the extreme end of what
humans are capable of; these are numbers typical of world-class athletes. It’s inter-
esting to note that the specific power for both cases is about the same. Humans in
peak condition who are skilled at athletic pursuits are capable of short bursts of
about 20 W/kg. Larger athletes can produce more output power, but the power per
kilogram is about the same. As we’ll see in the next chapter, humans can’t sustain
this level of power output; this number applies for only short bursts that use the large
muscles of the body. Sustained activities such as cycling or swimming correspond to
specific powers of perhaps 5 W/kg for elite athletes.
Smaller animals are generally capable of higher specific powers. A bushbaby, a
200 g primate that gets around by executing rapid leaps in the trees it calls home, is
able to push off with its legs with sufficient force to accelerate to 6.7 m/s in 0.16 s,
corresponding to a specific power of 140 W/kg. This is the upper end of what can
be  accomplished with muscle power alone. The leap of the 2.0 g desert locust
that we considered earlier has an even higher specific power, but this power comes
from springs in the legs; muscles alone could not get the locust to such a high
speed in such a short time. Many of the impressive jumpers of the insect world, from
fleas to springtails, use energy storage systems corresponding to springs to power
their leaps.
Of course, the notion of specific power can be applied to other systems as well.
We can do a similar calculation for a passenger car, either starting from rest or
climbing a hill, to find a specific power in the range of 90 W/kg. This is an interest-
ing measure of a vehicle.

STOP TO THINK 10.11 Four students run up the stairs in the times shown. Rank in
order, from largest to smallest, their power outputs PA through PD.
A. B. C. D.

20 m
80 kg 80 kg 64 kg 80 kg
10 m

∆t = 10 s ∆t = 8 s ∆t = 8 s ∆t = 25 s
352 chapter 10  Energy and Work

INTEGRATED EXAMPLE 10.19 Stopping a runaway truck

A truck’s brakes can overheat and fail while descending mountain We’ve dealt with this by labeling the free-body diagram axis the
highways, leading to an extremely dangerous runaway truck. Some y′-axis.
highways have runaway-truck ramps to safely bring out-of-control
SOLVE  a. The work-energy equation for the motion of the truck,
trucks to a stop. These uphill ramps are covered with a deep bed of
from the moment its brakes fail to when it finally stops, is
gravel. The uphill slope and the large coefficient of rolling friction
as the tires sink into the gravel bring the truck to a safe halt. Kf + 1Ug2f + ∆Eth = Ki + 1Ug2i

Because friction is present only along the ramp, thermal

energy will increase only as the truck moves up the ramp.
This thermal energy is then given by ∆Eth = fr ∆x 2, because
∆x 2 is the length of the ramp. The conservation of energy
equation then is
1 1
mv f2 + mgyf + fr ∆x 2 = mv i2 + mgyi
2 2

From Figure 10.39 we have yi = ∆x 1 sin u1, yf = ∆x 2 sin u2,

and vf = 0, so the equation becomes
1
mg ∆x 2 sin u2 + fr ∆x 2 = mv i2 + mg ∆x 1 sin u1
2
To find fr = mr n we need to find the normal force n. The free-
A 22,000 kg truck heading down a 3.5° slope at 20 m/s body diagram shows that

a Fy′ = n - mg cos u2 = ay′ = 0

1≈45 mph2 suddenly has its brakes fail. Fortunately, there’s a
runaway-truck ramp 600 m ahead. The ramp slopes upward at an
angle of 10°, and the coefficient of rolling friction between the from which fr = mr n = mr mg cos u2. With this result for fr,
truck’s tires and the loose gravel is mr = 0.40. Ignore air resis- our conservation of energy equation is
tance and rolling friction as the truck rolls down the highway.
1
a. Use conservation of energy to find how far along the ramp mg ∆x 2 sin u2 + mr mg cos u2 ∆x 2 = mv i2 + mg ∆x 1 sin u1
2
the truck travels before stopping.
b. By how much does the thermal energy of the truck and ramp which, after we divide both sides by mg, simplifies to
increase as the truck stops?
v i2
∆x 2 sin u2 + mr cos u2 ∆x 2 = + ∆x 1 sin u1
STRATEGIZE  We’ll follow the steps of Problem-Solving 2g
Approach 10.1. We start by defining the system as the truck +
Solving this for ∆x 2 gives
ramp + earth. Gravitational potential energy will be part of the
solution, and the change in thermal energy will be an internal v i2
transformation. + ∆x 1sin u1
2g
∆x 2 =
PREPARE   FIGURE 10.39 shows a before-and-after visual over- sin u2 + mrcos u2
view. Because we’re going to need to determine friction forces to
calculate the increase in thermal energy, we’ve also drawn a free- 120 m/s22
+ 1600 m21sin 3.5°2
body diagram for the truck as it moves up the ramp. One slight 219.8 m/s22
complication is that the y-axis of free-body diagrams is drawn = = 100 m
sin 10° + 0.401cos10°2
perpendicular to the slope, whereas the calculation of gravita-
tional potential energy needs a vertical y-axis to measure height. b. We know that ∆Eth = fr ∆x 2 = 1mr mg cos u22∆x 2, so that

FIGURE 10.39   Visual overview of the runaway truck. ∆Eth = 10.402122,000 kg219.8 m/s221cos10°21100 m2
y = 8.5 * 106 J
Before: After:
yi = ∆ x1 sin u1 yf = ∆x2 sin u2 y′ ASSESS  It seems reasonable that a truck that speeds up as it
vi = 20 m/s Find: ∆ x2 vf = 0 m/s
u rolls 600 m downhill takes only 100 m to stop on a steeper, high-
n
u friction ramp. At the top of the hill the truck’s kinetic energy is
∆x1 = 600 m ∆ x2 fr x Ki = 12mv i2 =  12122,000 kg2120 m/s22 = 4.4 * 106 J, which is of
the same order of magnitude as ∆Eth. Our answer is reasonable.
0
u

u1 = 3.5° u2 = 10° m r = 0.40 w

u2
 Summary 353

SUMMARY
GOAL To introduce the concept of energy and to learn a new problem-solving strategy based on conservation of energy.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES
Basic Energy Model Energy is Environment Solving Energy Transfer and Energy
Within a system, energy can be
transformed
within the
System Conservation Problems
K U
transformed between various forms. system. STRATEGIZE  Choose the system. Determine the initial and final
Energy can be transferred into or states.
out of a system in two basic ways: Echem
PREPARE  Draw a before-and-after visual overview.
• Work: The transfer of energy by Work,
mechanical forces heat Eth
SOLVE  Use the before-and-after version of the work-energy equation:
• Heat: The nonmechanical trans- Energy is transferred to
fer of energy from a hotter to a or from the system from Kf + Uf + ∆Eth = Ki + Ui + W
or to the environment.
colder object
Start with this general equation, then specialize to the case at hand:
Conservation of Energy • Use the appropriate form or forms of potential energy.
When work W is done on a system, the system’s total energy • If the system is isolated, set W = 0.
changes by the amount of work done. In mathematical form, this • If there is no friction or drag, set ∆Eth = 0.
is the work-energy equation:
∆E = ∆K + ∆Ug + ∆Us + ∆Eth + ∆Echem + g = W ASSESS  See if the numbers make sense—and if the numbers add
A system is isolated when no energy is transferred into or out up. Energy is conserved, and kinetic energy and the change in
of the system. This means the work is zero, giving the law of ­thermal energy are always positive.
­conservation of energy:
∆K + ∆Ug + ∆Us + ∆Eth + ∆Echem + g = 0

IMPORTANT CONCEPTS
Kinetic energy  is an energy of motion: Thermal energy  is the sum of the microscopic kinetic and potential
energies of all the molecules in an object. The hotter an object, the more
K = 1_2 mv2 + _12 Iv2 thermal energy it has. When kinetic (sliding) friction is present, the
increase in the thermal energy is ∆Eth = fk ∆x. When the drag force is
Translational Rotational present, the increase in the thermal energy is ∆Eth = D∆x.

Potential energy  is energy stored in a system of Work  is the process by which energy is transferred
u
d
interacting objects. to or from a system by the application of mechanical u
F
• Gravitational potential energy: Ug = mgy forces. F#
u u
1 If a particle moves through a displacement
u
d while FΠ= F cos u
• Elastic potential energy: Us = kx 2 acted upon by a constant force F, the force does work
2 Only the component of
W = FŒd = Fd cos u the force parallel to the
displacement does work.

APPLICATIONS
Energy diagrams  are a useful way to Perfectly elastic collisions Both Power  is the rate at which energy is
analyze physical systems. mechanical energy and momentum are transformed . . .
conserved.
This curve shows the potential energy of ∆E
P = ___
Amount of energy transformed
a two-atom molecule as a function of the Object 2 initially at rest
(v1x )i
∆t Time required to transform it
atomic separation.
Before: 1 2 Ki
Energy . . . or at which work is done.
After: Kf = Ki 1 2 W
P = ___
The minimum of Amount of work done
(v1x )f (v2x )f
potential energy occurs ∆t Time required to do work
at the equilibrium m1 - m2
separation of the atoms. 1v1x2f = 1v 2
m 1 + m 2 1x i
2m 1
1v2x2f = 1v 2
x m 1 + m 2 1x i
 We now provide Learning
Objectives keyed to relevant end
354 chapter 10  Energy and Work
of chapter problems to help
students check their
understanding and guide them in
choosing appropriate problems to
Learning Objectives  After studying this chapter, you should be able to:
optimize their study time.
■■ Calculate the work done on an object. Problems 10.1, 10.2, 10.3, ■■ Draw and interpret energy diagrams. Conceptual Question
10.4, 10.5, 10.6, 10.7 10.24; Problems 10.51, 10.52
■■ Calculate an object’s kinetic and potential energy. Conceptual ■■ Interpret and use molecular bond energies. Problems 10.53,
Questions 10.17, 10.18; Problems 10.14, 10.17, 10.20, 10.23, 10.25 10.54
■■ Understand and calculate the change in thermal energy. ­Conceptual ■■ Apply energy and momentum conservation to elastic collisions.
Question 10.12; Problems 10.29, 10.30, 10.31, 10.32, 10.34 Problems 10.55, 10.56, 10.58
■■ Use the problem-solving approach to solve conservation of ■■ Understand and calculate power. Problems 10.60, 10.61, 10.62,
energy problems. Conceptual Questions 10.20, 10.22; Problems 10.65, 10.68
10.36, 10.37, 10.39, 10.41, 10.48

STOP TO THINK ANSWERS Additional Stop To

Think questions
Chapter Preview Stop to Think: A. Because the car starts from Stop to Think 10.7: We define the system as the student, the rope, provide students with
rest, vi = 0 and the kinematic equation is 1vx2f2 = 2ax ∆x, so that and the earth. The friction force and the weight force are internal to more crucial practice
1vx2f = 12ax ∆x. Thus the speed is proportional to the square root of the system, so it is an isolated system. and concept checks as
the displacement. If, as in this question, the displacement increases
Stop to Think 10.8: D. In all three cases, Katie has the same ini- they go through the
by a factor of 4, the speed only doubles. So the speed will increase
tial kinetic energy and potential energy. Thus her energy must be the chapters. The solutions
from 5 m/s to 10 m/s.
same at the bottom of the slide in all three cases. Because she has to these questions
Stop to Think 10.1: C. The coaster slows. Its kinetic energy is only kinetic energy at the bottom, her speed there must be the same
have been moved to a
decreasing because kinetic energy is transformed into gravitational in all three cases as well.
potential energy as the coaster climbs the hill. more prominent
Stop to Think 10.9: B. The kinetic energy is the difference between location.
Stop to Think 10.2: C. W = Fd cos u. The 10 N force at 90° does the total energy and the potential energy. This is highest at the bot-
no work at all. cos 60° = 12, so the 8 N force does less work than the tom of the right well in B.
6 N force.
Stop to Think 10.10: C. The initial momentum is 12M2v0 + 0, and
Stop to Think 10.3: B + D + A ∙ C. K = 12mv 2. Using the given the final momentum is 0 + M12v02. These are equal, so momentum
masses and velocities, we find KA = 2.0 J, KB = 4.5 J, KC = 2.0 J, is conserved. The initial kinetic energy is 1212M2v02 = Mv02, and the
KD = 4.0 J. final kinetic energy is 12M12v022 = 2Mv02. The final kinetic energy
is greater than the initial kinetic energy, so this collision is not pos-
Stop to Think 10.4: 1Ug23 7 1Ug22 = 1Ug24 7 1Ug21 . Gravitational
sible. (If the final kinetic energy had been less than the initial kinetic
potential energy depends only on height, not speed.
energy, the collision could be possible because the difference in
Stop to Think 10.5: D. The potential energy of a spring depends on energy could be converted into thermal energy.)
the square of the displacement x, so the energy is positive whether
Stop to Think 10.11: PB + PA ∙ PC + PD . The power here is the
the spring is compressed or extended. If the spring is compressed by
rate at which each runner’s internal chemical energy is converted
twice the amount it had been stretched, the energy will increase by a
into gravitational potential energy. The change in gravitational
factor of 22 = 4. So the energy will be 4 * 1 J = 4 J .
potential energy is mg∆y, so the power is mg∆y/ ∆t. For runner A,
Stop to Think 10.6: B. We can use conservation of energy to write the ratio m∆y/ ∆t equals 180 kg2110 m2/110 s2 = 80 kg # m/s. For
∆K + ∆Eth = 0. Now if the initial kinetic energy doubles, so does C, the ratio is also 80 kg # m/s. For B, it’s 100 kg # m/s, while for D
∆K, so ∆Eth must double as well. But ∆Eth = fk ∆x, so if ∆Eth dou- the ratio is 64 kg # m/s.
bles, then ∆x doubles to 2.0 m.

eText
2.0 Video Tutor Solution  Chapter 10

QUESTIONS
Conceptual Questions mentioned in the transformation is assumed to remain constant; if
work is not mentioned, it is assumed to be zero.
1. The brake shoes of your car are made of a material that can 2. W S K 3. W S U
tolerate very high temperatures without being damaged. Why is 4. K S U 5. K S W
this so? 6. U S K 7. W S ∆Eth
8. U S ∆Eth 9. K S ∆Eth
For Questions 2 through 9, give a specific example of a system with 10. A ball of putty is dropped from a height of 2 m onto a hard
the energy transformation shown. In these questions, W is the work floor, where it sticks. What object or objects need to be
done on the system, and K, U, and Eth are the kinetic, potential, included within the system if the system is to be isolated during
and thermal energies of the system, respectively. Any energy not this process?
 Questions 355

11. A diver leaps from a high platform, speeds up as she falls, and 22. A bowler tosses a ball without spin. The ball slides down the
then slows to a stop in the water. How do you define the system alley. At some point, friction with the alley makes the ball start
so that the energy changes are all transformations internal to an to roll; eventually, it rolls without sliding. When the ball reaches
isolated system? this point, it is moving at a lower speed than the original toss.
12. When your hands are cold, you can rub them together to Use energy concepts to give two reasons for this change.
warm them. Explain the energy transformations that make this 23. Ferns that eject spores generally do so in pairs, with two spores
possible. flying off in opposite directions. The structure from which the
13. Puck B has twice the mass of puck A. Starting from rest, both spores are launched is quite lightweight. If it takes a certain
pucks are pulled the same distance across frictionless ice by amount of energy to eject each spore, explain how launching
strings with the same tension. the spores in pairs provides for the greatest initial launch speed
a. Compare the final kinetic energies of pucks A and B. for each spore.
Energy
b. Compare the final speeds of pucks A and B.
24. Figure Q10.24 shows a
14. To change a tire, you need to use a jack to raise one corner of potential-energy diagram for
your car. While doing so, you happen to notice that pushing the a particle. The particle is at
jack handle down 20 cm raises the car only 0.2 cm. Use energy rest at point A and is then
concepts to explain why the handle must be moved so far to given a slight nudge to the
x
raise the car by such a small amount. right. Describe the subsequent A B C D E
15. You drop two balls from a tower, one of mass m and the other of motion.
FIGURE Q10.24
mass 2m. Just before they hit the ground, which ball, if either,
has the larger kinetic energy? Explain. Multiple-Choice Questions
16. If you fall and skid to a stop on a carpeted floor, you can get
a rug burn. Much of this discomfort comes from abrasion, but 25. || A roller coaster starts from rest at its highest point and then
there can also be a real burn where the skin was too hot. How descends on its (frictionless) track. Its speed is 30 m/s when it
does this happen? reaches ground level. What was its speed when its height was
17. A roller coaster car rolls down a frictionless track, reaching half that of its starting point?
speed v at the bottom. A. 11 m/s B. 15 m/s C. 21 m/s D. 25 m/s
a. If you want the car to go twice as fast at the bottom, by what 26. | A woman uses a pulley and a rope to raise a 20 kg weight to
factor must you increase the height of the track? a height of 2 m. If it takes 4 s to do this, about how much power
b. Does your answer to part a depend on whether the track is is she supplying?
straight or not? Explain. A. 100 W B. 200 W C. 300 W D. 400 W
18. A spring gun shoots out a plastic ball at speed v. The spring is 27. | A hockey puck sliding along frictionless ice with speed v to
then compressed twice the distance it was on the first shot. the right collides with a horizontal spring and compresses it by
a. By what factor is the spring’s potential energy increased? 2.0 cm before coming to a momentary stop. What will be the
b. By what factor is the ball’s speed increased? Explain. spring’s maximum compression if the same puck hits it at a
19. A baseball pitcher can throw a baseball (mass 0.14 kg) much speed of 2v?
faster than a football quarterback can throw a football (mass A. 2.0 cm B. 2.8 cm C. 4.0 cm
0.42 kg). Use energy concepts to explain why you would expect D. 5.6 cm E. 8.0 cm
this to be true. 28. || A block slides down a smooth ramp, starting from rest at a
20. Sandy and Chris stand on the edge of a cliff and throw identi- height h. When it reaches the bottom it’s moving at speed v.
cal mass rocks at the same speed. Sandy throws her rock hori- It then continues to slide up a second smooth ramp. At what
zontally while Chris throws his upward at an angle of 45° to height is its speed equal to v/2?
the horizontal. Are the rocks mov- A. h/4 B. h/2 C. 3h/4 D. 2h
ing at the same speed when they hit 29. | A wrecking ball is suspended from a 5.0-m-long cable that
the ground, or is one moving faster makes a 30° angle with the vertical. The ball is released and
than the other? If one is moving swings down. What is the ball’s speed at the lowest point?
1 2
faster, which one? Explain. A. 7.7 m/s B. 4.4 m/s C. 3.6 m/s D. 3.1 m/s
FIGURE Q10.21
21. A solid cylinder and a hollow cylin- 30. || A dog can provide sufficient power to pull a sled with a 60 N
der have the same mass, same radius, and turn on frictionless, force at a steady 2.0 m/s. Suppose the dog is hitched to a differ-
horizontal axles. (The hollow cylinder has lightweight spokes ent sled that requires 120 N to move at a constant speed. How
connecting it to the axle.) A rope is wrapped around each cyl- fast can the dog pull this second sled?
inder and tied to a block. The blocks have the same mass and A. 0.50 m/s B. 1.0 m/s C. 1.5 m/s D. 2.0 m/s
are held the same height above the ground as shown in Figure 31. ||| Most of the energy you expend in cycling is dissipated by
Q10.21. Both blocks are released simultaneously. The ropes the drag force. If you double your speed, you increase the drag
do not slip. Which block hits the ground first? Or is it a tie? force by a factor of 4. This increases the power to cycle at this
Explain. greater speed by what factor?
A. 2 B. 4 C. 8 D. 16

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 eText
356  c h a p t e r 10  Energy and Work 2.0 Watch Video Solution   Problem 10.5

PROBLEMS
Section 10.2  Work 12. || The opposite of a wind turbine is an electric fan: The electric
1. || A 2.0 kg book is lying on a 0.75-m-high table. You pick it up energy that powers the fan is converted to the kinetic energy
and place it on a bookshelf 2.3 m above the floor. During this of moving air. A fan is putting 1.0 J of kinetic energy into the
process, air every second. Then the fan speed is increased by a factor
a. How much work does gravity do on the book? of 2. Air moves through the fan faster, so the fan moves twice
b. How much work does your hand do on the book? as much air at twice the speed. How much kinetic energy goes
2. || The two ropes seen in Figure P10.2 are used to lower a into the air every second?
255 kg piano exactly 5 m from a second-story window to the 13. | How fast would an 80 kg man need to run in order to have
ground. How much work is done by each of the three forces? the same kinetic energy as an 8.0 g bullet fired at 400 m/s?
u
14. ||| A fielder tosses a 0.15 kg baseball at 32 m/s at a 30° angle to
T1 326 N
1830 N u
1295 N
u
T1 the horizontal. What is the ball’s kinetic energy at the start of its
T2
60° 45°
500 N
u
fk 20° motion? What is the kinetic energy at the highest point of its arc?
15. ||| Sam’s job at the amusement park is to slow down and bring
u 30° to a stop the boats in the log ride. If a boat and its riders have
T2
a mass of 1200 kg and the boat drifts in at 1.2 m/s, how much
u
2500 N w
223 N
work does Sam do to stop it?
FIGURE P10.2 FIGURE P10.3
16. || A school has installed a modestly-sized wind turbine. The
three blades are 4.6 m long; each blade has a mass of 45 kg.
3. | The two ropes shown in the bird’s-eye view of Figure P10.3 You can assume that the blades are uniform along their lengths.
are used to drag a crate exactly 3 m across the floor. How much When the blades spin at 240 rpm, what is the kinetic energy of
work is done by each of the ropes on the crate? the blade assembly?
4. | You are pulling a child in a wagon. The rope handle is 17. ||| The turntable in a microwave oven has a moment of inertia
inclined upward at a 60° angle. The tension in the handle is of 0.040 kg # m2 and rotates continuously, making a complete
20 N. How much work do you do if you pull the wagon 100 m revolution every 4.0 s. What is its kinetic energy?
at a constant speed? 18. || A typical meteor that hits the
5. | A boy flies a kite with the string at a 30° angle to the hori- earth’s upper atmosphere has a mass
zontal. The tension in the string is 4.5 N. How much work does of only 2.5 g, about the same as a
the string do on the boy if the boy penny, but it is moving at an impres-
a. Stands still? sive 40 km/s. As the meteor slows,
b. Walks a horizontal distance of 11 m away from the kite? the resulting thermal energy makes a
c. Walks a horizontal distance of 11 m toward the kite? glowing streak across the sky, a shoot-
6. || A typical muscle fiber is 2.0 cm long and has a cross-section ing star. The small mass packs a sur-
area of 3.1 * 10-9 m2. When the muscle fiber is stimulated, it prising punch. At what speed would a
pulls with a force of 1.2 mN. What is the work done by the 900 kg compact car need to move to
muscle fiber as it contracts to a length of 1.6 cm? have the same kinetic energy?
7. || A crate slides down a ramp that makes a 20° angle with the 19. |||| An energy storage system based
ground. To keep the crate moving at a steady speed, Paige pushes on a flywheel (a rotating disk) can store a maximum of 4.0 MJ
back on it with a 68 N horizontal force. How much work does when the flywheel is rotating at 20,000 revolutions per minute.
Paige do on the crate as it slides 3.5 m down the ramp? What is the moment of inertia of the flywheel?

Section 10.3 Kinetic Energy Section 10.4 Potential Energy

8. || A wind turbine works by slowing the air that passes its 20. || The lowest point in Death Valley is 85.0 m below sea level.
blades and converting much of the extracted kinetic energy to The summit of nearby Mt. Whitney has an elevation of 4420 m.
electric energy. A large wind turbine has 45-m-radius blades. In What is the change in gravitational potential energy of an ener-
typical conditions, 92,000 kg of air moves past the blades every getic 65.0 kg hiker who makes it from the floor of Death Valley
second. If the air is moving at 12 m/s before it passes the blades to the top of Mt. Whitney?
and the wind turbine extracts 40% of this kinetic energy, how 21. | The world’s fastest humans can reach speeds of about
much energy is extracted every second? 11 m/s. In order to increase his gravitational potential energy
9. || At what speed does a 1000 kg compact car have the same by an amount equal to his kinetic energy at full speed, how high
kinetic energy as a 20,000 kg truck going 25 km/h? would such a sprinter need to climb?
10. | A 60 kg runner in a sprint moves at 11 m/s. A 60 kg cheetah 22. | A 72 kg bike racer climbs a 1200-m-long section of road that
in a sprint moves at 33 m/s. By what factor does the kinetic has a slope of 4.3°. By how much does his gravitational poten-
energy of the cheetah exceed that of the human runner? tial energy change during this climb?
11. | A car is traveling at 10 m/s. 23. || A 1000 kg wrecking ball hangs from a 15-m-long cable.
a. How fast would the car need to go to double its kinetic energy? The ball is pulled back until the cable makes an angle of 25°
b. By what factor does the car’s kinetic energy increase if its with the vertical. By how much has the gravitational potential
speed is doubled to 20 m/s? energy of the ball changed?
 eText
2.0 Watch
Video Solutions   Problems 10.33, 10.42 Problems 357

24. || How far must you stretch a spring with k = 1000 N/m to 34. || Some runners train with parachutes that trail behind them
store 200 J of energy? to provide a large drag force. These parachutes are designed
25. || How much energy can be stored in a spring with a spring to have a large drag coefficient. One model expands to a
constant of 500 N/m if its maximum possible stretch is 20 cm? square 1.8 m on a side, with a drag coefficient of 1.4. A run-
26. || The spring in a retractable ballpoint pen is 1.8 cm long, with ner completes a 200 m run at 5.0 m/s with this chute trailing
a 300 N/m spring constant. When the pen is retracted, the spring behind. How much thermal energy is added to the air by the
is compressed by 1.0 mm. When you click the button to extend drag force?
the pen, you compress the spring by an additional 6.0  mm.
How much energy is required to extend the pen? Section 10.6 Conservation of Energy
27. ||||| The elastic energy stored in your tendons can contribute up
35. || A boy reaches out of a window and tosses a ball straight up
to 35% of your energy needs when running. Sports scientists
with a speed of 10 m/s. The ball is 20 m above the ground as he
have studied the change in length of the knee extensor tendon
releases it. Use conservation of energy to find
in sprinters and nonathletes. They find (on average) that the
a. The ball’s maximum height above the ground.
sprinters’ tendons stretch 41 mm, while nonathletes’ stretch
b. The ball’s speed as it passes the window on its way down.
only 33 mm. The spring constant for the tendon is the same
c. The speed of impact on the ground.
for both groups, 33 N/mm. What is the difference in maximum
36. | The famous cliff divers of Acapulco leap from a perch 35 m
stored energy between the sprinters and the nonathletes?
above the ocean. How fast are they moving when they reach
28. || Scallops use muscles Restoring force (N) the water surface? What happens to their kinetic energy as they
to close their shells. 2.5 slow to a stop in the water?
Opening the shell is 2.0 37. ||| What minimum speed does a 100 g puck need to make it to
another story—muscles 1.5
the top of a frictionless ramp that is 3.0 m long and inclined
can only pull, they can’t 1.0
0.5
at 20°?
push. Instead of mus-
0 38. | You can, in an emergency, start a manual transmission car by
cles, the shell is opened
0 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 putting it in neutral, letting the car roll down a hill to pick up
by a spring, a pad of a
Compression (mm) speed, then putting it in gear and quickly letting out the clutch.
very elastic biological
If the car needs to be moving at 3.5 m/s for this to work, how
material called abduc- FIGURE P10.28
high a hill do you need? (You can ignore friction and drag.)
tin. When the shell
39. ||| A 1500 kg car is approaching the hill shown in Figure P10.39
closes, the pad compresses; a restoring force then pushes the
at 10 m/s when it suddenly runs out of gas.
shell back open. The energy to open the shell comes from
a. Can the car make it to the top of the hill by coasting?
the elastic energy that was stored when the shell was closed.
b. If your answer to part a is yes, what is the car’s speed after
Figure P10.28 shows smoothed data for the restoring force of
coasting down the other side?
an abductin pad versus the compression. When the shell closes,
the pad compresses by 0.15 mm. How much elastic potential
energy is stored? 12°
5.0°
5.0 m
5.0 m
Section 10.5 Thermal Energy
FIGURE P10.39
29. || Mark pushes his broken car 150 m down the block to his
friend’s house. He has to exert a 110 N horizontal force to push
the car at a constant speed. How much thermal energy is cre- 40. | A 480 g peregrine
ated in the tires and road during this short trip? falcon reaches a speed
30. || When you skid to a stop on your bike, you can significantly of 75 m/s in a ­ vertical
heat the small patch of tire that rubs against the road surface. dive called a stoop. If we
Suppose a person skids to a stop by hitting the brake on his assume that the falcon
back tire, which supports half the 80 kg combined mass of the speeds up under the influ-
bike and rider, leaving a skid mark that is 40 cm long. Assume ence of gravity only, what
a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.80. How much thermal is the minimum height of
energy is deposited in the tire and the road surface? the dive needed to achieve
31. ||| A 900 N crate slides 12 m down a ramp that makes an angle this speed?
of 35° with the horizontal. If the crate slides at a constant speed, 41. || A fireman of mass 80
how much thermal energy is created? kg slides down a pole.
32. || If you slide down a rope, it’s possible to create enough ther- When he reaches the bottom, 4.2 m below his starting point, his
mal energy to burn your hands or your legs where they grip speed is 2.2 m/s. By how much has thermal energy increased
the rope. Suppose a 40 kg child slides down a rope at a play- during his slide?
ground, descending 2.0 m at a constant speed. How much ther- 42. || A 20 kg child slides down a 3.0-m-high playground slide.
mal energy is created as she slides down the rope? She starts from rest, and her speed at the bottom is 2.0 m/s.
33. ||| A 25 kg child slides down a playground slide at a constant a. What energy transfers and transformations occur during the
speed. The slide has a height of 3.0 m and is 7.0 m long. Using slide?
the law of conservation of energy, find the magnitude of the b. What is the total change in the thermal energy of the slide
kinetic friction force acting on the child. and the seat of her pants?
358  c h a p t e r 10  Energy and Work

43. || A hockey puck is given an initial speed of 5.0 m/s. If the c. Given your answers to parts a and b, how fast must she be
coefficient of kinetic friction between the puck and the ice is running when she grabs the rope in order to swing all the
0.05, how far does the puck slide before coming to rest? Solve way across the ravine?
this problem using conservation of energy. 50. ||| The Special Olympics raises money through “plane pull”
44. ||| Monica pulls her daughter Jessie in a bike trailer. The trailer events in which teams of 25 people compete to see who can
and Jessie together have a mass of 25 kg. Monica starts up a pull a 74,000 kg airplane 3.7 m across the tarmac. The inertia
100-m-long slope that’s 4.0 m high. On the slope, Monica’s of the plane is an issue—but so is the 14,000 N rolling fric-
bike pulls on the trailer with a constant force of 8.0 N. They tion force that works against the teams. If a team pulls with a
start out at the bottom of the slope with a speed of 5.3 m/s. constant force and moves the plane 3.7 m in 6.1 s (an excellent
What is their speed at the top of the slope? time), what fraction of the team’s work goes to kinetic energy
45. || In the winter activity of tubing, riders slide down snow- and what fraction goes to thermal energy?
covered slopes while sitting on large inflated rubber tubes. To
get to the top of the slope, a rider and his tube, with a total
mass of 80 kg, are pulled at a constant speed by a tow rope Section 10.7 Energy Diagrams
that maintains a constant tension of 340 N. How much thermal 51. || Figure P10.51 is the potential-energy diagram for a 20 g
energy is created in the slope and the tube during the ascent of a ­particle that is released from rest at x = 1.0 m.
30-m-high, 120-m-long slope? a. Will the particle move to the right or to the left? How can
46. || Mosses don’t spread by dispersing seeds; they disperse you tell?
tiny spores. The spores are so small that they will stay aloft b. What is the particle’s maximum speed? At what position
and move with the wind, but getting them to be windborne does it have this speed?
requires the moss to shoot the spores upward. Some species c. Where are the turning points of the motion?
do this by using a spore-containing capsule that dries out and
Energy (J)
shrinks. The pressure of the air trapped inside the capsule
6 Energy (J)
increases. At a certain point, the capsule pops, and a stream 5
of spores is ejected upward at 3.6 m/s, reaching an ultimate 5
4
4
height of 20 cm. What fraction of the initial kinetic energy is 3 3
converted to the final potential energy? What happens to the 2 2
“lost” energy? 1 1
0 x (m) 0 x (mm)
47. || A cyclist is coasting at 12 m/s when she starts down a 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 2 4 6 8
450-m-long slope that is 30 m high. The cyclist and her bicycle FIGURE P10.51 FIGURE P10.52
have a combined mass of 70 kg. A steady 12 N drag force due
to air resistance acts on her as she coasts all the way to the bot- 52. || For the potential-energy diagram in Figure P10.52, what is
tom. What is her speed at the bottom of the slope? the maximum speed of a 2.0 g p­ article that oscillates between
48. || When you stand on a x = 2.0 mm and x = 8.0 mm?
Restoring force (N)
trampoline, the surface
depresses below equi- Section 10.8 Molecular Bonds and Chemical Energy
1600
librium, and the surface At normal temperatures and pressures, hydrogen gas is composed of
pushes up on you, as 800 H2 molecules. An energy diagram for a hydrogen molecule appears
the data for a real tram- in Figure P10.53. Use this information to answer Problems 10.53
poline in Figure P10.48 0 and 10.54.
show. The linear varia- 0 0.25 0.50
Distance below equilibrium (m) Energy (310219 J)
tion of the force as a
20
function of distance FIGURE P10.48
16
means that we can
12
model the restoring force as that of a spring. A 72 kg gymnast
8
jumps on the trampoline. At the lowest point of his motion, he
4
is 0.80 m below equilibrium. If we assume that all of the energy 0 x (nm)
stored in the trampoline goes into his motion, how high above FIGURE P10.53 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
this lowest point will he rise?
49. || The 5.0-m-long rope in 53. | How far apart are the individual atoms in a molecule of H2?
Figure P10.49 hangs verti- 54. || What energy photon is needed to dissociate a molecule of H2?
cally from a tree right at the
edge of a ravine. A woman 5.0 m
wants to use the rope to Section 10.9 Energy in Collisions
swing to the other side of the 55. || A 50 g marble moving at 2.0 m/s strikes a 20 g marble at
ravine. She runs as fast as rest. What is the speed of each marble immediately after the
3.0 m
she can, grabs the rope, and collision? Assume the collision is perfectly elastic and the mar-
swings out over the ravine. FIGURE P10.49
bles collide head-on.
a. As she swings, what 56. || Ball 1, with a mass of 100 g and traveling at 10 m/s, collides
energy conversion is taking place? head-on with ball 2, which has a mass of 300 g and is initially
b. When she’s directly over the far edge of the ravine, how at rest. What are the final velocities of each ball if the collision
much higher is she than when she started? is (a) perfectly elastic? (b) perfectly inelastic?
 eText
2.0
Watch Video Solution   Problem 10.65 Problems 359

57. | An air-track glider undergoes a perfectly inelastic collision 69. ||| An elevator weighing 2500 N
with an identical glider that is initially at rest. What fraction of ascends at a constant speed of
the first glider’s initial kinetic energy is transformed into ther- 8.0 m/s. How much power must
mal energy in this collision? the motor supply to do this?
58. | Two balls undergo a perfectly elastic head-on collision, with 70. || Humans can produce an out-
one ball initially at rest. If the incoming ball has a speed of put power as great as 20 W/kg
200 m/s, what are the final speed and direction of each ball if during extreme exercise. Sloths
a. The incoming ball is much more massive than the stationary are not so energetic. At its maxi-
ball? mum speed, a 4.0 kg sloth can
b. The stationary ball is much more massive than the incoming climb a height of 6.0 m in 2.0
ball? min. What’s the specific power
for this climb?

Section 10.10 Power

59. || a. How much work must you do to push a 10 kg block of General Problems
steel across a steel table at a steady speed of 1.0 m/s for 71. || A 550 kg elevator accelerates upward at 1.2 m/s2 for the first
3.0 s? The coefficient of kinetic friction for steel on steel 15 m of its motion. How much work is done during this part of
is 0.60. its motion by the cable that lifts the elevator?
b. What is your power output while doing so? 72. || The energy yield of a nuclear weapon is often defined in
60. || A shooting star is actually the track of a meteor, typically terms of the equivalent mass of a conventional explosive. 1 ton
a small chunk of debris from a comet that has entered the of a conventional explosive releases 4.2 GJ. A typical nuclear
earth’s atmosphere. As the drag force slows the meteor down, warhead releases 250,000 times more, so the yield is expressed
its kinetic energy is converted to thermal energy, leaving a as 250 kilotons. That is a staggering explosion, but the asteroid
glowing trail across the sky. A typical meteor has a surprisingly impact that wiped out the dinosaurs was significantly greater.
small mass, but what it lacks in size it makes up for in speed. Assume that the asteroid was a sphere 10 km in diameter, with
Assume that a meteor has a mass of 1.5 g and is moving at an a density of 2500 kg/m3 and moving at 30 km/s. What energy
impressive 50 km/s, both typical values. What power is gener- was released at impact, in joules and in kilotons?
ated if the meteor slows down over a typical 2.1 s? Can you see 73. || A 2.3 kg box, starting from rest, is pushed up a ramp by a
how this tiny object can make a glowing trail that can be seen 10  N force parallel to the ramp. The ramp is 2.0 m long and
hundreds of kilometers away? tilted at 17°. The speed of the box at the top of the ramp is
61. | a. How much work does an elevator motor do to lift a 0.80 m/s. Consider the system to be the box + ramp + earth.
1000 kg elevator a height of 100 m at a constant speed? a. How much work W does the force do on the system?
b.  How much power must the motor supply to do this in b. What is the change ∆K in the kinetic energy of the system?
50 s at constant speed? c. What is the change ∆Ug in the gravitational potential energy
62. || A 500 kg horse can provide a steady output power of 750 W of the system?
(that is, 1 horsepower) when pulling a load. How about a 38 kg d. What is the change ∆Eth in the thermal energy of the s­ ystem?
sled dog? Data show that a 38 kg dog can pull a sled that 74. ||| A 55 kg skateboarder
requires a pulling force of 60 N at a steady 2.2 m/s. What are wants to just make it to the
the specific power values for the dog and the horse? What is the upper edge of a “half-pipe” vi 3.0 m
minimum number of dogs needed to provide the same power as with a radius of 3.0 m, as
one horse? shown in Figure P10.74.
63. ||| A 1000 kg sports car accelerates from 0 to 30 m/s in 10 s. What speed does he need FIGURE P10.74
What is the average power of the engine? at the bottom if he will
64. || A world-class sprinter running a 100 m dash was clocked at coast all the way up? The skateboarder isn’t a simple particle:
5.4 m/s 1.0 s after starting running and at 9.8 m/s 1.5 s later. In Assume that his mass in a deep crouch is concentrated 0.75 m
which of these time intervals, 0 to 1.0 s or 1.0 s to 2.5 s, was his from the half-pipe. If he remains in that position all the way up,
output power greater? what initial speed does he need to reach the upper edge?
65. || An elite Tour de France cyclist can maintain an output power of 75. ||| Fleas have remarkable jumping ability. A 0.50 mg flea,
450 W during a sustained climb. At this output power, how long jumping straight up, would reach a height of 40 cm if there
would it take an 85 kg cyclist (including the mass of his bike) to were no air resistance. In reality, air resistance limits the height
climb the famed 1100-m-high Alpe d’Huez mountain stage? to 20 cm.
66. || A 70 kg human sprinter can accelerate from rest to 10 m/s a. What is the flea’s kinetic energy as it leaves the ground?
in 3.0 s. During the same time interval, a 30 kg greyhound can b. At its highest point, what fraction of the initial kinetic energy
accelerate from rest to 20 m/s. What is the specific power for has been converted to potential energy?
each of these athletes? 76. ||| You are driving your 1500 kg car at 20 m/s down a hill with
67. || A 710 kg car drives at a constant speed of 23 m/s. It is sub- a 5.0° slope when a deer suddenly jumps out onto the roadway.
ject to a drag force of 500 N. What power is required from the You slam on your brakes, skidding to a stop. How far do you
car’s engine to drive the car skid before stopping if the kinetic friction force between your
a. On level ground? tires and the road is 1.2 * 104 N? Solve this problem using con-
b. Up a hill with a slope of 2.0°? servation of energy.
68. || A 95 kg quarterback accelerates a 0.42 kg ball from rest to 77. || A 20 kg child is on a swing that hangs from 3.0-m-long
24 m/s in 0.083 s. What is the specific power for this toss? chains, as shown in Figure P10.77. What is her speed vi at the
 eText
360  c h a p t e r 10  Energy and Work 2.0 Watch Video Solution   Problem 10.79

bottom of the arc if she swings out to a 45° angle before revers- slides across a frictionless table and collides with a horizon-
ing direction? tal spring whose spring constant is k. The opposite end of the
spring is anchored to a wall. The spring’s maximum compres-
sion d is measured.
45° a. Find an expression for the bullet’s initial speed vB in terms
of m, M, k, and d.
3.0 m u
F Hint: This is a two-part problem. The bullet’s collision with
vi 1.0 m the block is an inelastic collision. What quantity is conserved
30° in an inelastic collision? Subsequently the block hits a spring
on a frictionless surface. What quantity is conserved in this col-
FIGURE P10.77 FIGURE P10.78 lision?
b. What was the speed of a 5.0 g bullet if the block’s mass is
78. || Suppose you lift a 20 kg box by a height of 1.0 m. 2.0 kg and if the spring, with k = 50 N/m, was compressed
a. How much work do you do in lifting the box? by 10 cm?
Instead of lifting the box straight up, suppose you push it c. What fraction of the bullet’s initial kinetic energy is “lost”?
up a 1.0-m-high ramp that makes a 30° degree angle with Where did it go?
the horizontal, as shown in Figure P10.78. Being clever, you 84. || Boxes A and B in Figure P10.84 have masses of 12.0 kg and
choose a ramp with no friction. 4.0 kg, respectively. The two boxes are released from rest. Use
b. How much force F is required to push the box straight up the conservation of energy to find the boxes’ speed when box B has
slope at a constant speed? fallen a distance of 0.50 m. Assume a frictionless upper surface.
c. How long is the ramp?
d. Use your force and distance results to calculate the work you
A
do in pushing the box up the ramp. How does this compare
to your answer to part a?
79. | The sledder shown in Figure P10.79 starts from the top of
a frictionless hill and slides down into the valley. What initial
speed vi does the sledder need to just make it over the next hill? B

vi
FIGURE P10.84

5.9 m
4.2 m 85. || Two coupled boxcars are rolling along at 2.5 m/s when they
collide with and couple to a third, stationary boxcar.
a. What is the final speed of the three coupled boxcars?
FIGURE P10.79
b. What fraction of the cars’ initial kinetic energy is trans-
80. ||||| In a physics lab experiment, a spring clamped to the table formed into thermal energy?
shoots a 20 g ball horizontally. When the spring is compressed 86. ||| A 50 g ball of clay traveling at 6.5 m/s hits and sticks to a
20 cm, the ball travels horizontally 5.0 m and lands on the floor 1.0 kg block sitting at rest on a frictionless surface.
1.5 m below the point at which it left the spring. What is the a. What is the speed of the block after the collision?
spring constant? b. Show that the mechanical energy is not conserved in this
81. ||||| The maximum energy a bone can absorb without breaking is collision. What percentage of the ball’s initial kinetic energy
surprisingly small. For a healthy human of mass 60 kg, experi- is “lost”? Where did this kinetic energy go?
mental data show that the leg bones of both legs can absorb 87. || A package of mass m is
m
about 200 J. released from rest at a ware-
a. From what maximum height could a person jump and land house loading dock and 3.0 m
rigidly upright on both feet without breaking his legs? slides down a 3.0-m-high 2m
Assume that all the energy is absorbed in the leg bones in a frictionless chute to a wait-
rigid landing. ing truck. Unfortunately, FIGURE P10.87
b. People jump from much greater heights than this; explain the truck driver went on a break without having removed the
how this is possible. previous package, of mass 2m, from the bottom of the chute as
Hint: Think about how people land when they jump from shown in Figure P10.87.
greater heights. a. Suppose the packages stick together. What is their common
82. || In an amusement park water slide, people slide down an speed after the collision?
essentially frictionless tube. The top of the slide is 3.0 m above b. Suppose the collision between the packages is perfectly elas-
the bottom where they exit the slide, moving horizontally, tic. To what height does the package of mass m rebound?
1.2  m above a swimming pool. What horizontal distance do 88. ||| Swordfish are capable of stunning output power for short
they travel from the exit point before hitting the water? Does bursts. A 650 kg swordfish has a cross-section area of 0.92 m2
the mass of the person make any difference? and a drag coefficient of 0.0091—exceptionally low due to a
83. ||| You have been asked to design a “ballistic spring system” to number of adaptations. Such a fish can sustain a speed of 30 m/s
measure the speed of bullets. A bullet of mass m is fired into for a few seconds. Assume seawater has a density of 1026 kg/m3.
a block of mass M. The block, with the embedded bullet, then What is the specific power for motion at this high speed?
 Problems 361

93. | By approximately what percent does the kinetic energy

decrease?
A. 35% B. 45% C. 55% D. 65%
94. | When a tennis ball bounces from a racket, the ball loses
approximately 30% of its kinetic energy to thermal energy. A
ball that hits a racket at a speed of 10 m/s will rebound with
approximately what speed?
A. 8.5 m/s B.  7.0 m/s C. 4.5 m/s D.  3.0 m/s

Work and Power in Cycling

89. || The mass of an elevator and its occupants is 1200 kg. The
When you ride a bicycle at constant speed, almost all of the energy
electric motor that lifts the elevator can provide a maximum
you expend goes into the work you do against the drag force of the
power of 15 kW. What is the maximum constant speed at which
air. In this problem, assume that all of the energy expended goes into
this motor can lift the elevator?
working against drag. As we saw in Section 5.6, the drag force on an
object is approximately proportional to the square of its speed with
respect to the air. For this problem, assume that F ∝ v 2 exactly and
MCAT-Style Passage Problems that the air is motionless with respect to the ground unless noted
Tennis Ball Testing otherwise. Suppose a cyclist and her bicycle have a combined mass
of 60 kg and she is cycling along at a speed of 5 m/s.
A tennis ball bouncing on a hard surface compresses and then
95. | If the drag force on the cyclist is 10 N, how much energy
rebounds. The details of the rebound are specified in tennis regu-
does she use in cycling 1 km?
lations. Tennis balls, to be acceptable for tournament play, must
A. 6 kJ B. 10 kJ C. 50 kJ D. 100 kJ
have a mass of 57.5 g. When dropped from a height of 2.5 m onto a
96. | Under these conditions, how much power does she expend as
concrete surface, a ball must rebound to a height of 1.4 m. During
she cycles?
impact, the ball compresses by approximately 6 mm.
A. 10 W B. 50 W C. 100 W D. 200 W
90. | How fast is the ball moving when it hits the concrete sur-
97. | If she doubles her speed to 10 m/s, how much energy does
face? (Ignore air resistance.)
she use in cycling 1 km?
A. 5 m/s B.  7 m/s C.  25 m/s D.  50 m/s
A. 20 kJ B. 40 kJ C. 200 kJ D. 400 kJ
91. | If the ball accelerates uniformly when it hits the floor,
98. | How much power does she expend when cycling at that
what is its approximate acceleration as it comes to rest before
speed?
rebounding?
A. 100 W B. 200 W C. 400 W D. 1000 W
A. 1000 m/s2 B.  2000 m/s2 C.  3000 m/s2 D. 4000 m/s2
99. | Upon reducing her speed back down to 5 m/s, she hits a
92. | The ball’s kinetic energy just after the bounce is less than
headwind of 5 m/s. How much power is she expending now?
just before the bounce. In what form does this lost energy end
A. 100 W B. 200 W C. 500 W D. 1000 W
up?
A. Elastic potential energy
B. Gravitational potential energy
C. Thermal energy
D. Rotational kinetic energy