Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and Applications, 2nd Edition

Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala

McGraw-Hill, 2010

Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION AND
BASIC CONCEPTS
Lecture slides by
Hasan Hacışevki

Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
 Schlieren image
showing the thermal
plume produced
by Professor
Cimbala as he
welcomes you to the
fascinating world of
fluid mechanics.
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 Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision,
and significant digits, and recognize the importance
of dimensional homogeneity in engineering
calculations.

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1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both stationary
and moving bodies under the influence
of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics that
deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals with
bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science that
deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid
dynamics), and the interaction of fluids
with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is Fluid mechanics deals
also referred to as fluid dynamics by with liquids and gases in
considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity. motion or at rest.
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Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids
that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal
with naturally occurring flows.

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What Is a Fluid?
Fluid: A substance in the liquid
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Deformation of a rubber block
When a constant shear force is
applied, a solid eventually stops placed between two parallel plates
deforming at some fixed strain under the influence of a shear
angle, whereas a fluid never force. The shear stress shown is
stops deforming and that on the rubber—an equal but
approaches a constant rate of opposite shear stress acts on the
strain. upper plate.
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Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on a
surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in a
fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest is
at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or a
liquid container is tilted, a shear
develops as the liquid moves to
re-establish a horizontal free The normal stress and shear stress at
surface. the surface of a fluid element. For
fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
and pressure is the only normal stress. 7
In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available
space. 8
Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: The molecules in a solid are arranged in a pattern that is repeated
throughout.
Liquid: In liquids molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: In the gas phase, the molecules are far apart from each other, and
molecular ordering is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each
other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random
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in the gas phase.
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily called a gas when it
is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far from a state of
condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach:

Does not require a knowledge of the
behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to
analyze engineering problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach:
Based on the average behavior of
large groups of individual molecules.

On a microscopic scale, pressure

is determined by the interaction of
individual gas molecules.
However, we can measure the
pressure on a macroscopic scale
10
with a pressure gage.
Application Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively

in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
11
Electric Total Artificial Heart.
12
13
1–2 ■ THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

A fluid flowing over a stationary

surface comes to a complete stop at
The development of a velocity the surface because of the no-slip
profile due to the no-slip condition condition.
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose.

Boundary layer: The flow

region adjacent to the wall in
which the viscous effects
(and thus the velocity
gradients) are significant. 14
Flow separation during flow over a curved surface.
1–3 ■ A BRIEF HISTORY OF FLUID MECHANICS

Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each A mine hoist powered by

clay pipe section was 13 to 18 cm in a reversible water wheel.
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diameter.
Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating the
onset of turbulence in pipes, being operated by John Lienhard
at the University of Manchester in 1975.

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The Wright brothers take flight at Kitty Hawk.

The Oklahoma Wind Power Center

near Woodward consists of 68
turbines, 1.5 MW each.
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1–6 ■ IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by
dimensions.
• The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions
are called units.
• Some basic dimensions such as mass m,
length L, time t, and temperature T are
selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V,
energy E, and volume V are expressed in
terms of the primary dimensions and are
called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
• Metric SI system: A simple and logical
system based on a decimal relationship
between the various units.
• English system: It has no apparent
systematic numerical base, and various units
in this system are related to each other rather
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arbitrarily.
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N·m The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

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 W weight
m mass
g gravitational
acceleration

A body weighing
60 kgf on earth
will weigh only 10
kgf on the moon.

The relative magnitudes of the force

units newton (N), kilogram-force
(kgf), and pound-force (lbf).

The weight of a unit

30
mass at sea level.
A typical match yields about one Btu (or
one kJ) of energy if completely burned.

31
Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed by combinations of
primary units.
Force units, for example, can be expressed as

They can also be expressed more conveniently as unity conversion ratios

as:

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are unitless, and
thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted conveniently into any
calculation to properly convert units.

32
 Every unity conversion ratio (as well
as its inverse) is exactly equal to one.
Shown here are a few commonly used
unity conversion ratios.

Always check the units in your

calculations.
33
 A quirk in
the metric
system of
units. 34
35
36
37
51
Some useful conversions:
Length:

Volume:

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Derived Quantities

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PROBLEMS
Ex (1): What will be 1.0 lb equal in Newtons?
Ex (2): What will be 1.0 ft.lb/s power equal to in SI units (Watt).

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