Introduction 21 1.6.4 Four-Stroke Diesel Engines ‘The four-stroke diesel engine is one of the most efficient and versatile prime movers. It is manufactured in sizes from 50 mm to more than 1000 mm of cylinder diameter and with engine specds ranging from 100 to 4500 rpm while delivering outputs from 1 to 35000 kW, Small diesel engines are used in pump sets, construction machinery, air compressors, drilling rigs and many miscellaneous applications, ‘Tractors for agricultural application use about 30 kW diesel engines whereas jeeps, buses and trucks use 40 to 100 KW diesel engines. Generally, the diesel engines ‘with higher outputs than about 100 KW are supercharged. Earth moving maa- chines use supercharged diesel engines in the output range of 200 to 400 KW, Locomotive applications require outputs of 600 to 4000 kW. Marine applica tions, from Gishing vessels to ocean going ships use diesel engines from 100 to 35000 KW. Diesel engines are used both for mobile and stationary electric {generating plants of varying capacities. Compared to gasoline engines, diesel engines are more efficient and therefore manufacturers have come out with diesel engines even in personal transportation. However, the vibrations from the engine and the unpleasant odour in the exhaust age the main drawbacks, 1.7. THE FIRST LAW ANALYSIS OF ENGINE CYCLE Before a detailed thermodynamic analysis of the engine eyele is done, itis desirable to have a general picture of the energy Sow or energy balance of the system so that ono becomes familiar with the various performance paramc- ters. Figure 1.18 shows the energy flow through the reciprocating engine and Fig.1.14 shows its block diagram as an open system, (2) nergy losses sewer, (0-2) (exhass coolant, «f= radiation) Fig. 1.13 Energy flow through reciprocating engine According to the first law of thermodynamics, energy can neither be cre. ated nor destroyed, It can only be converted from one form to another, ‘Therefore, there must be an energy balance between input and output of the system. In a reciprocating internal combustion engine the fuol is fod into the combustion chamber where it burns in ait converting chemical energy of the fuel into heat. ‘The liberated heat energy cannot be totally utilized for22 IC Engines Fuel in System boundary Fig. 1.14 Reciprocating engine as an open system driving the piston as there are losses through the engine exhaust, to the coolant and due to radiation, ‘The heat energy which is converted to power at this stage is called the indicated power, ip and it is utilized to drive the piston, The energy represented by the gas forces on the piston passes through the connecting rod to the crankshaft. In this transmission there are energy losses due to bearing friction, pumping losses etc, In addition, a part of the energy available is utilized in driving the auxiliary devices like feed pump, valve mechanisms, ignition systems ete, The sum ofall these losses, expressed. in units of power is termed as frictional power, fp . The remaining energy is the useful mechanical energy and is termed as the Brake power, bp . Tn energy balance, generally, frictional power is not shown separately because ultimately’ this energy is accounted in exhaust, cooling water, radiation, ete 1.8 ENGINE PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS ‘The engine performance is indicated by the term efficiency, ». Five important engine efficiencies and other related engine performance parameters are (i) Indicated thermal eficieney (nn) (i) Brake thermal efficiency Green) (Gil) Mechanical efficiency (am) (iv) Volumetric eficieney Gn) (v) Relative efficiency or Biicieney ratio (ret) (vi) Mean effective pressure (Pm) (i) Mean piston speed Gp) (vii) Specific power output ro) (ix) Specific fuel consumption Gia (x) Inlet-valve Mach Index Yo (x) Fucl-air or air-fuel ratio (F/A or A/F) (zi) Calorie value of the fuel (ev) Figure 1.15 shows the diagrammatic representation of energy distribution in an IC engine. 1.8.1 Indicated Thermal Efi cy (neh) Indicated thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the indicated power, ip, to the input fuel energy in appropriate units ap [eI / ‘nergy mm fuel per 8 vn cont TRI (13)Introduction 2 = Eneray losis in ition, T pumping. Energy (6) in fae WW] PikW) Fig, 1.15 Energy distribution ip ‘nase of fuel/s = ealorifie value of fuel aa) 1.8.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency (nen) Brake thermal efficiency is the ratio of energy in the brake power, bp, to the input fuel energy in appropriate units wy = Nass of uel/s x calorific value of fuel (15) 1.8.3 Mechanical Efficiency (1)..) Mechanical efficiency is defined as the ratio of brake power (delivered power) to the indicated power (power provided to the piston) or can be defined as the ratio of the brake thermal efficiency to the indicated thermal efficiency. _ ep” w+ Tp oo Sp = ip—bp (7 1.8.4 Volumetric Efficiency (1).) ‘This is one of the very important parameters which decides the performance of four-stroke engines, Four-stroke engines have distinct suction stroke, vol- tumetric efficiency indicates the breathing ability of the engine. It is to be noted that the utilization of the air is that determines the power output of the engine. Intake system must be designed in such a way that the engine must be able to take in as much air as possible ‘Volumetric efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual volume flow rate of air into the intake system to the rate at which the volume is displaced by the syatem. tita/ Ba te i (8) ais where py is the inlet density24 IC Engines An alvernative equivalent definition for volumetiic efficiency is baa as It is to be noted that irrespective of the engine whether SI, CT or gas engine, volumetric rate of air flow és what to be taken into account and not the mixture flow Uf py is taken as the atmospheric air density, then ny is Uhe pumping performance of the entire inlet system. If it is taken as the air density in the inlet manifold, then », is the purmping performance of the inlet port and valve only. ‘The normal range of volumetzic efliciency at full throttle for SI engines is between 80 to 85% where as for CI engines it is between 85 to 90%. Gas engines have much lower volumetric efficiency since gaseous fuel displaces air and therefore the breathing capacity of the engine is reduced. 185 Rel Je Efficiency or Efficiency Ratio (1.1) Relative efficiency or efficiency ratio is the ratio of thermal efficiency of an actual cycle to that of the ideal cycle. ‘The efficiency ratio is a very useful citerion which indicates the degree of development of the engine Actual thermal efficiency ir-standard efficiency (119) eet = 1.8.6 Mean Effective Pressure (Pm) ‘Mean effective pressure is the average pressure inside the cylinders of an inter nal combustion engine based on the calculated or measwed power output, It increases as manifold pressure increases. For any patticular engine, operating at a given speod and power output, thre will be a specific indicated mean effective pressure, imep, and a corresponding brake mean effective pressure, Imep. They axe derived from the indicated and brake power respectively, For derivation see Chapter 16, Indicated power can be shown to be PimbAnK oe aay then, the indicated mean effective pressure can be written as 60000 sp . Pim = (122) Similarly, the brake moan effective prostate is given by 60000 x bp (113) Pm =Introduction 25 where ip indicated power (kW) Pim = indicated mean effective pressure (N/m?) L Tength of the stroke (m) A area of the piston (mn?) x speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) Number of power strokes N/2 for d-stroke and N for 2-stroke engines K rmurnber of cylinders Another way of specifying the indicated mean effective pressure Pim from the knowledge of engine indicator diagram (p-V diagram). In this case, in may be defined as Area of the indicator diagram Poe Tength of the indicator diagram where the length of the indicator diagram is given by the difference between the total volume and the clesrance volume. 1.8.7 Mean Piston Speed (5,) [An important parameter in engine applications is the mean piston speed, 3p. It is defined as 3, = 2LN where L is the stroke and NV is the rotational speed of the crankshaft im rpm. It may be noted that 3, is often a more appropriate parameter than crank rotational speed for correlating engine behaviour as a function of speed, Resistance to gas flow into the engine or stresses due to the inertia of the moving parts limit the maximum value of 5, to within 8 to 15 m/s, Automobile engines operate at the higher end and large marine diesel engines at the lower end of this range of piston speeds. 1.8.8 Specific Power Output (P,) Specific power output of an engine is defined as the power output per unit piston area and is a measure of the engine designer's success in using the available piston area rogardless of eylinder size. The specific power can be shown to be proportional to the product of the mean effective pressure and mean piston speed, Specific power output, P, — bp/A aay ‘constant x Pim X 5p, (1.15) ‘As can be seen the specific power output consists of two elements, viz., the force available to work and the speed with which it is working. Thus, for the same piston displacement and bmep, an engine running, at a higher speed will, sive a higher specific output. It is clear that the output of an engine can be Increased by increasing either the speed or the tmep. Increasing the speed involves increase in the mechanical stresses of vatious engine components, For ‘creasing the bmep better heat release from the fuel is required and this will involve more thermal load on engine cylinder.26 IC Engines 1.8.9 Specific Fuel Consumption (se) ‘The fuel consumption characteristics of an engine aro generally expressed in terms of specific fuel consuzaption in kilograms of fuel per Kilowatt-howr. It is an important parometer that reflects how good the engine performance is It is inversely proportional to the thermal efficiency of the engine. Fuel consumption per unit time ate Power (116 Brake specific fuel consumption and indicated speific fuel eonsuraption, abbreviated as bs fc and isfc, are the specific fuel consumptions on the basis of bp and ip eapectively. 1.8.10 Inlet-Valve Mach Index (Z) In a reciprocating ongine the flow of intake charge takes place through the intake valve opening which is varying during the induction operation. Also, the maximum gas velocity through this area is limited by the local sonic velocity. Thus gas velocity is finally chosen by the following equation, Ay w= gy aay) where u = gas volocty through the inlet valve at smallest flow area piston area nominal intake valve opening azea inet valve flow co-efficient and : ® Ap Vp by wm a a Ge (x) Ga > % (128) where b= cylinder diameter D, = inlet valve diameter Vy = mean piston speed er = inlet sonie weocity G, = inlet valve average flow co-ficient 7 = inlet valve Mach index Large number of experiments have been conducted on CFR. single eylinder engine with gaseous mixtures and short induction pipe lengths, at fixed valve timing and fixed compression ratio, but vatying inlot valve diameter and lit. ‘The results are quite revealing as regards the relationship of volumetric eff ciency versus Mach index are concerned. From Fig.1.16, it could be seen that the maximum volumetric efficiency is obtainable for an inlet Mach number of 0.55, Therefore, engine designers must take care of this factor to get the maximum volumetric efieency for their engines. (A/F) ‘The relative proportions of the fuel and air in the engine are very important from the standpoint of combustion and the efficiency of the engine. This is 1.8.11 Fuel-Air (F/A) oF Air-Fuel R:Introduction 27 Vonuneuie efficiency os ~ Inkt valve Mach index 2) Fig. 1.16 Inlet-valve mach index expressed either as a ratio of the mass of the fuel to that of the air or vice In the $I engine the fuelair ratio practically remains a constant over a wide range of operation. In Cl engines at a given speed the air flow does not vary with load; it is the fuel low that varies dizectly with load, ‘Therefore, ‘the term fucl-air ratio is generally used instead of air-fuel ratio A mixture that contains just enough air for complete combustion of all the fuel in the mixture is called a chemically corect or stoichiometric fuelair ratio, A mixture having more fuel than that in a chemically correct mixture is termed as tich mixture and a mixture that contains less fuel (or excoss ait) is called a lean mixture. For most of the hydrocarbon fuels, the stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is around 15:1. SI engines operate around this ratio during normal operation. The air-fuel ratio for Cl engines vary from 18:1 to 80:1 from full load to no load. ‘The ratio of actual fucl-air ratio to stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is called equivalence ratio and is denoted by 6. Actual fuelair ratio ° 5 (129) ‘Sioichiometrie fuchair ratio Accordingly, ¢ = 1 means stoichiometric (chemically <1 moans lean mixture and @ > 1 moans rich mixture. correct) mixture 1.8.12 Calorific Value (CV) Caloric value of a fuel is the thermal energy released per unit quantity of the fuel when the fuel is burned completely and the products of combustion are cooled back to the initial temperature of the combustible mixture. Other terms used for the calorific value are heating value and heat of combustion, When the products of combustion are cooled to 25 °C practically all the ‘water vapour resulting from the combustion process is condensed. The heating value so obtained is called the bigher calorific value or gross calorific value of28 IC Engines the fuel. The lower or net calorific value is the heat released when water vapour in the products of combustion i not condensed and remains in the vapour form, 1.9 DESIGN AND PERFORMANCE DATA Engine ratings usually indicate the highest power at which mamufacturers ex: pect their products to give reasonably good performance. The performance parameters usually takes into account satisfactory economy, reliability, and durability under service conditions. The speed at which the maximum torque is achieved, js also usually given. It may be noted that both these quantities depend on displacement volume. Therefore, for comparative analysis between engines of diferent displacements in a given engine category normalized per- formance parameters are preferred and they are most useful, ‘Typical design and performance data for ST and CI engines used in differ- ent applications are summarized in Table 1.4. As can be seen the four-stroke cycle dominates except in the smallest and largest engines, ‘The larger en- ines are usually turbocharged or supercharged. AAs the engine size increases, the maximum rated engine speed decreases, maintaining the maximum mean piston speed in the range of about 8 to 15 m/sis maintained. The maxizmumn ‘mep for turbocharged and supercharged engines is higher compared to nat ually aspirated engines. Because the maximum fuelair ratio for SI engines is higher than for CI engines, their naturally aspirated maximum bmep levels are higher. As the engine size increases, brake specific fuel consumption d= ‘creases and fuel conversion efficiency increases due to the reduced heat losses and friction, For the large CT engines, brake thermal efficiencies of about 40% ‘and indicated thermal eficiencies of about 50% can be obtained in modern engines. ‘The various operating conditions that should be taken into account are (i) maximum or normal rated operation, (G2) full throttle or full load operation, and (ii) long period operation. For (i) the most important performance parameters are mean piston speed, Drake mean effective pressure, power per unit piston area, specific weight, and specific volume, For (ii) the most important performance parameters is bmaep only and for (ii) they are brake specific fuel consumption, and brake specific fel emissions.29 Introduetio Oe EY OTL OOGB-ONSY GOTT —TO-400 OTB s1e9 soSuba¥eg Se ey ee ae wo xorddy _/yytteyy — emanceyy pore / ONS x sonia nonsnqmory jwaxoyay Msopoyy 207 ere oomeMOHOGE pr MEISOCT [WOREAT, FT START,30 IC Engines Worked out Examples 1.1 The cubic capacity of a four-stroke over-square spark-ignition engine is 245 cc. The over-square ratio is 1.1. The clearance volume is 27.2 cc. Caleulate the bore, stroke and compression ratio of the engine Solution , _ map te Cubic capacity, = n= 4 ass oe = 3B Bore,d = Tem an Stroke, = 636m ae Stroke, rat Vi+¥. Compression ratio, r= i * _ sear ms - a3— 1.2 The mechanical efficiency of a single-cylinder four-stroke engine is 80%. ‘The frictional power is estimated to be 25 kW. Calculate the indicated power (ip) and brake power (bp) developed hy the engine. Solution = 08 p pop 25 ip-O8xip = 25 Indicated power, ip = 125 kW a Brake power, bp ip fp= 125-25 =100 kW SE 1.3 A.42.5 kW engine has a mechanical efficiency of 85%. Find the indicated power and frictional power. If the fricional power is assumed to be constant with load, what will be the mechanical efficiency at 60% of the Toad? Solution >Introduction $1 Frictional power, fp ip bp = 90-425 = 7.5 kW SE Brake power at 60% load = = 42.5 x 06-255 RW bp 255 Mechanical efficiency m = = T= aap ag = 0713 = 773% = 14 Find out the speed at which a four-cylinder engine using natwal gas can develop a brake power of 80 KW working under following conditions ‘Airgas ratio 0:1 calorific value of the fuel = 34 M3/m°, Compression ratio 10-1, volumetric eficiency = 70%, indicated thormal officoney — 38% and the mechanical efficiency = 80% and the total volume of the ‘engine is 2 lites. Solution ‘Total volume/eylinder, Vier AP = 500 ce Swept volume/eylinder,V, = ‘Volume of air taken in/eyele Volume of gas taken in/eyele = Energy supplied/eylinder, 35 x 10-® x 84 x 108 119 KI a) bpm Indicated thermal effcleney, nah = Gh onda 50/08 Taxa zy WA A643 120 5356.8 Mo _ s5hh8 Energy supplied/eylinder/sE, = 6A kd Now, energy supplied per eylinder in kJ 2) 5356.8 Equating (1) and (2) Las N = 4500 rpm. ae 1.5 A four-stroke, four-cylinder diesel engine running at 2000 pm develops {60 KW. Brake thermal efficiency is 30% and calorific value of fuel (CV)32 IC Engines is 42 MJ/kg, Engine has a bore of 120 mm and stroke of 100 mm, Take pa = 1.15 kg/m', air-fuel ratio = 15:1 and ny = 0.8. Caleulate () fuel ‘consumption (kg/s); (i) air consumption (2n*/); (i) indicated thermal cffciency; (iv) volumetric efficiency; (v) brake mean effective pressure and (vi) mean piston speed Solution 6 Tx 42000 Fool consumption, ty = Pa 4.76 x 108 kg/s = ving A_ 476x107 Air consumption x15 = 62.09% 10-* m/s go Air foweiefotinde = BW p00 10° ml — m_ _w fh Tye TOs 0G = 037515 = 37.51% Volumetric efficieney = Actual volume flow rate of air x ‘Volume fow rate of air corresponding to displacement volume ne = EDO 00 200 x02? x 010 x pO 100 Brake moan ftv presi Pom — TAnK 7.96 10° N/m?=7.06 bar ME Mean pstonspeot = PAOTN2IO 5 6yyjg Bat 0Introduction 33. 1.6 A single-cylinder, four-stroke hydrogen fuelled sparkcignition engine de- livers a brake power of 20 KW at 6000 rpm. The air-gas ratio is 8:1 and the calorific value of fuel is 11000 k3/tm?. ‘The compression ratio is 8:1. If volumetric efficiency is 70%, indicated thermal efficiency is 33% and the mechanical efficiency is 90%, calculate the eubic capacity of the engine, Solution fim 20 Bnergy input =n OBR ORS = 15.76 ki/s Number of power strokes/s = Energy input/power stroke = Actual volume of I xCV = Actual volume of hydrogen taken in = 38.18 ce Actual volume of air take in = x 138.18, = 110544 ce Swept volume, ¥, = etl volume ofa akan in % 05.44 = ARAL 1579.2 c Cubic capacity of the engine == V, x K = 1879.21 = 1879.2 ce LT Consider two engines with the following details ngine I: Four-stroke, four-cylinder, SI engine, indicated power is 40 KW, mean piston speed 10 m/s Ragine Ti: Tworstroke, two-cylinder, ST en kW. Assume that mean effective pressure of both the engine to be same. Ratio of bore of the engine HII = 2:1. Show that the mean piston speed of engine II is same as that of engine [ 1, indicated power is 10 Solution _ PokAnk > = 60000734 IC Engines 2 for fourstroke engine and n = N for two-stroke engine Maximum speed, 5, 9 — 2LN Par x Ar x Bh xt For engine I: 40 = Pratt X Arr x HE x2 For engine II: 10 Pout Au x“? ® | &,~ TW 9 An” in : _ Anyway, sy = Ax BA (B) nas = (2) x25-10mp -¢ / 10 m/s 18 An onelitre cubic capacity, four-stroke, four-cylinder SI engine has a brake thermal efficiency of 30% and indicated power is 40 kW at full load, At half load, it has a mechanical efficiency of 65%. Assuming con stant mechanical losses, calculate: (i) brake power (ji) frictional power (Gi) mechanical efficiency at full load (3v) indicated thermal efficiency. If the volume decreases by eight-fold during the compression stroke, cealeulate the clearance volume Solution Let the brake power at full load be bp and the frictional power be fp. tpt ip = 40 KW ® Athalf load, bp = 0.5 x bp at fll load _ 05 bp m= OS tp Bp 05h = 065 x (05x bp + fo) = 0.825 x bp +065 x fp 0175 ; fp = SE xtp= 02th (2) Using (2)in QQ) = AD sis kw ee ie fp = 31.5 x 0.27=8.5 kW aIntroduction 35, nwattaiod = 28 ons-ream A na = BAA rosa a Sept whine/otinder = 10020 ree = ek = “os 8 5.71 ce on 19 A four-stroke petrol engine at full load delivers 50 KW, It requires 8.5 KW to rotate it without load at the same speed. Find its mechanical ‘ffiiency at full load, half load and quarter load? ‘Also find out the volume of the fuel consumed per second at full load if the brake thermal efficiency’ is 25%, given that calorific value of Une fuel = 12 MJ/ke and specific gravity of petrol is 0.75. Estimate the indicated thermal efficiency. Solution nical efficiency at ful Jo tp Mechanical efceney at full load = yp "P—- = Ba sossisesare ‘Mechanical efcioney at half lod = pr omea rae Meno ner wonton gg Wass tp 50, MG x OV ~ 025 x 42000 = 470x107 ke/s Vue tow ate ot fuel = STI 634 10-* mabe Indicated theranalefciency at full load nim BE 82S, gan = 29.25%36 IC Engines 1.10 The indicated thermal efficiency of four-stroke engine is 32% and its ‘mechanical elliciency is 78%. The fucl consumption rate is 20 kg/h ‘running at a fixed speed. The brake moan pressure developed is 6 bar and the mean piston speed is 12 m/s. Assuming it to bea single cylinder aquazo engine, calculate the exank radius and the speed of the engine. ‘Take CV = 42000 kI/kg, Solution Brake thermal efficiency, yuan — Rate of energy input from fuel Brake power, bp = Since itis a square engine, d Pim = Be = Note L is inm and N in per minute. Now, 5, IN = Dividing (1) by (2), gives, N For a four-stroke engine n/N =} Los Crank radius = Speed, Dah ty = 032 % 0.78 0.2196 20 wx 2 wi opp 12000 = 239.33 AM aah X 233.33 24.96% 0.2496 x 283.33 — 58.24 kW bp x 60000 Tank 158.24 x 60000 38:24 x 60000 _ 5 5 108 FE x nx T TAs w 360 @ 0.0206 VTOIOE RE = 0.203 m 203 mr 203 3 = 101.5 mm 360 360 To ome 1773.4 rpm