Module 9: Sugar – Refining and Sugar – Quality

Module 9

Sugar – Refining

And

Sugar Quality

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 Module 9: Sugar – Refining and Sugar – Quality

Module Introduction

Dear trainees! I welcome you to module eight of the course “Cane Sugar Manufacturing” In this
eighth module we will discuss Sugar Refining and Sugar Quality.

The module is divided into five units. The first unit deals with sugar refining. It describes the
important steps of affination process. It also describes the major things asked by the refiners
about raw sugar quality desired and discusses all the fundamental causes of poor refining
qualities. Finally it explain all the steps to be taken to obtain a raw sugar of good refining quality
and the most popular decolorization process being used in the production of refined sugar.

The second unit of the module focuses on the issues of the sugar quality. It describes main
requirements for any organization producing sugar and defines terms like quality, quality control
and specifically sugar quality. In addition to these it properly discusses about criteria’s required
by sugar buyers and how sugar samples are sampled, frequencies of sampling is done and sugar
samples are prepared.

The third unit is mainly devoted on the manufacturing of quality of sugar. It explains % moisture
and the three types of moistures associated with a sugar crystal. It describes the dilution indicator
and physical properties associated with sugar manufacturing. At the end it discusses about
production sensitivity area in sugar factory.

The fourth unit explains about quality control techniques and some quality tools. It also tries to
discuss about prerequisite programmes and procedures for quality system. Finally it deals about
Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP) and Personal hygiene and health
requirements.

The fifth unit, the last unit of the module deals about mainly on Bulk handling. It discusses about
factors for the choice of a particular type of silo terminal and changes noted due to storage.

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Unit One

Refining Qualities on Raw Sugar

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly the marked advantages of factories with the back-end refinery over
independent refining to the quality of the raw materials.
Describes properly the affination steps.
List out all the major things required/desired refiners about raw sugar quality.
Discusses all the fundamental causes of poor refining quality.
Outline all the steps to be taken to obtain a raw sugar of good refining quality.
Discusses briefly all the most popular decolorization processes being used in the
production of refined sugar.

1.1 Introduction

For a refiner, raw sugar is the prime material, and good refining quality of raw sugar is as
important for the refiner as good and fresh cane for the raw sugar house.

Factories with the back-end refineries have a marked advantage over independent refineries
concerning the quality of raw material, for the flowing reasons.

The boiling process can be adapted to produce the best quality of raw sugar most
suitable for the back-end refinery.

All the material to be refined can be obtained from “A” massecuites.

The affination process, which is an expensive one, can be eliminated as this step can be
carried out in the centrifugals.

Al returns from the refinery can be sent back to the raw house.

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On the other hand, the independent refiner operates on purchased raw sugar and dif there are
variations in the quality of raw sugar delivered to the refinery, its production will be affected.
Fig.1.1 below shows the affination step and it is clear that if the quality of the raw sugars varies,
the refiner will end up with more or less products in his recovery houses. If the recovery house is
overload, the refiner will have to reduce the production rate.

Figure 1.1: Affination Step

1.2 Raw Sugar Quality Desired By the Refiner

The system of purchasing raw sugar by the refiner varies in different countries but in all cases,
the refiner will ask for:

A Sugar that will “Wash” Well, i.e. give a maximum yield of washed sugar of high purity
with the use of a minimum quantity of wash water in the centrifugal, there by assuring a
relatively small amount of raw sugar wash of affination syrup.

A Sugar of Good Filterability that will filter rapidly in pressure filters and work well in
the clarification process.

A Sugar of Low Color and of such composition that it will decolorize readily.

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A part from the primary characteristics mentioned above, the refiner also prefers a raw sugar of
low ash: sucrose ratio, because such sugars in general yield a higher proportion of refined sugar.

Also low sulphate content in the ash is preferable to avoid scaling evaporation tubes and to
ensure freedom from turbidity in final syrups. It is obvious that other conditions being equal, the
higher the polarization, the easier a sugar is refined, but polarization alone is not a criterion of a
refining quality.

1.2.1 Causes of Poor Refining Quality

The fundamental causes of poor quality sugar originate in the cane and unusually poor quality
sugar is generally attributed to:

Cane Variety

Soil

Cultivation

Climate: Cane can be damaged by frost, cyclone and drought

Pests and disease such as white bugs, gumming diseases

Abnormal delay between cutting and crushing

Burnt cane, if the cane is snot and crushed within 48 hours

However, manufacturing methods play a great part in the refining quality of the resulting sugars,
the most important steps being.

Good mill sanitation

Good clarification which involves good flow, temperature and pH control of mixed
juice. Proper addition of flocculants.

Appropriate boiling scheme

Good sugar boiling good purging in the centrifugals

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1.2.2 Steps Top Be Taken To Obtain a Raw Sugar of Good Refining Quality

Good Mill Sanitation.

Good Raw Material – (Sugar Cane) which should be processed as soon as possible.

Enzymatic Process- Employing the ‘Enzymatic Process’ for removing starch from the
juice, this method is based on the fact that if mixed juice before liming is kept at a
temperature (73 0C) for a right period of time (12 – 15 minutes) the starch destroying
enzymes naturally presents in mixed juice will remove a large proportion of the starch
(50 – 70 %).

Good Clarification – Good flow, pH and temperature control of the mixed juice
together with proper addition of flocculants so as to obtain a good clarification of the
juice.

Good Boiling Scheme - Adopting a pan boiling scheme which will yield a high quality
commercial raw-at Belle Vue factory , the process which has been adopted is the
straight three boiling systems where “C” sugar is remelted and “B” sugar used as
fooling for “A” massecuties. All the raw sugar for the refinery is thus obtained for “A”
massecuites of high purity.

This boiling scheme, together with good control gives “A” sugar of good refining quality; High
Pol. low ash content, high filterability and low starch content .The “A” sugar crystals boiled
from “B” magma are uniform in grain size and well shaped and low in color. The sugar is some
uniform in quality that the affination step has been eliminated and the raw sugar for the refinery
is re-melted directly. (The color of the re-melt ranges between 800 and 1,0000 ICUMSA @ 420
µm)

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Figure 1.2: Boiling Scheme which gives “A” Sugar of Good Refining Quality

1.3 Syrup Clarification

The syrup clarification process in operation at Belle Vue yields a sugar with refining qualities,
but one should consider each specific case to know if the extra expenses will be repaid for.

1.3.1 Good Purging In the Centrifugals

The curing step is an important one, mainly if the sugar is to be re-melted without affiniation. In
that case, great care should be taken to remove all the molasses attached to the sugar crystals -
(color of ”A” molasses is around 22,000 ICUMSA units while the color of the sugar crystals
varies between 6,000 – 1,000 ICUMSA units)

1.3.2 White Sugar Production (From Cane Sugar)

White sugars can be differentiated into:

Plantation White Sugar Colour (200 – 3000 ICUMSA@ 420 µm)

Semi-Refined White Sugars Colour (100 – 2000 ICUMSA@ 420 µm)
Refined Sugar Colour < 45 ICUMSA@ 420 µm

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1.3.3 Plantation White Sugar

Plantation white sugar is obtained directly from cane juice after either sulphitation or
carbonatation. Juice is decolorized and white sugar produced from “A” or and “B” massecuites.

Juice sulphitation is used in some African factories and is very popular in South America and
India.

Juice carbonatation is not practiced any more.

1.4 Semi-Refined White Sugar

This can be obtained by the phosphor-defecation process on remelted raw. This process which is
very popular in Mauritius offers the advantage of producing a white sugar of uniform quality but
needs more capital expenditure and is more expensive to operate.

1.5 Refined Sugar

Refined sugar is produced from remelted raws of good quality. The most popular decolorisation
processes being:

Talofloc Process (Described in Back-End Refinery at Belle Vue S.E.)

Powdered Activated Carbons (Described in Back-End Refinery at Belle Vue S.E.)

Carbonatation

Bone Char

Granular Carbons

Ion Exchange Resins

1.5.1 Carbonatation Process

The carbonatation process is well established among English, Australian and south African cane
sugar refineries. The process consists basically of precipitating calcium carbonate in the melted
liquor, by adding lime and bubbling in carbon dioxide gas under controlled conditions of

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temperature and alkalinity. A voluminous crystalline calcium carbonate precipitate is formed

which traps much of the insoluble and semi-colloidal matter as well as a proportion of the ash
and coloured substances in the liquor. The precipitate is separated from the liquor by pressure
filtration, which yields clarified liquor ready for further decolorisation, if necessary.
Carbonatation is followed by sulphitation and filtration in South Africa, Trinidad and Jamaica to
produce refined sugar in raw sugar factories.

Advantages of the Process:

Cheap Reagent (Lime and Soda)

No Skilled Labour Required
High Operating Density of the Liquor (650 Brix) Reduces Steam Requirements in the Latter
Part of the Process
Colour Removal Varies between 25 and 50 %
Good Keeping Quality of the Sugars Produced

Disadvantages:

The plant is heavy and bulky (capital expenditure is high)

Cleaning of the flue gases before compression can be troublesome

Lime plant is dirty and expensive to maintain

Disposal of the sludge can be a problem

Cotton filter cloths rapidly choke with siliceous “ash”; it is desirable to use more expensive
materials like monofilament polypropylene cloths.

Description of the Process

A proportion mixture of lime and liquor is fed from the reaction tank to the 1st saturation tank in
which at the temperature is raised to between 80 – 85 0C by steam injection or steam heated
calandria. The liquor is then transferred to the 2nd saturation tank and from there tot the filter
supply tank for filtration in rotary leaf filters, Carbonation is generally followed by a slight
sulphitation and filtration (See Fig.1.3).

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Figure 1.3: Carbonatation of Melted Raws

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Figure 1.4: Carbonation: Arrangement of Saturators

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Carbon dioxide gas is introduced into the saturation tanks and is evenly distributed across the
Cross-section of the tanks through pipes containing a large number of small holes.

The gas is drawn from the boiler flue ducts through gas scrubbers that wash and cool the gas,
first with water and second, where fuels containing sulphur are burnt, with soda to remove any
dust particles and corrosive sulphur compounds. The gas is then compressed and pumped to the
saturation tanks. The admission of gas can be manually or automatically controlled.

Operating Conditions:

Brix of Liquor 650

Temperature of Liquor in Saturators 80 – 85 0C
Retention Time 1st Saturation Tank 45 minutes
Retention Time 2nd Saturation Tank 22 minutes
pH –1st Saturator: 9.5 – 9.8
pH – 2nd Saturator 8.2
pH – Sulphitation pH 7.0
Amount of Lime For every liquor, there is a particular lie does at which
the filterability is greatest. This optimum varies
between 0.4 –1.2 % CaO on solids.

1.5.2 Bone Char

Bone char and granular carbons are generally limited to large refineries producing between
50 – 3,000 tons or more of refined sugar per day.

Investment is very high and this process cannot be economical for refineries operating on a
seasonal basis.

Bone Char Operation with a Fixed Bed

In conventional bone char installation, the contact between sugar liquor and bone chart takes
place in char cisterns (also called filters). After the liquor cycle is completed, the char is

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sweetened off and washed, passed through the regenerators and used again. Bone cha can be
regenerated in a klin at 550 0C and reused hundreds of times. Colour removal is very high
ranging between 99 % for fresh material to 90 % at the end of the cycle. Bone char has a cycle
time of three days.

(Reference: Meade and Chen, 10th Edition, Page 459 – 474)

1.5.3 Granular Carbon

Granular carbon is manufactured from coal or vegetable matter and contains more than 60 %
carbon as compared to 10 % for bone char.

A granular carbon station requires less capital investment than does a bone char house Granular
carbon can be use on clarified (phosphated or carbonated) or char filtered liquefiers. Granular
carbon columns are usually run for about 30 days while still giving over 90 % decolorisation.
Their average life is some 25 cycles.

1.5.4 Ion Exchange Resins

Refinery liquors can be decolorized using resins. The process is gaining in popularity since the
development of macroporous, macroreticular ion exchange resins.

Resins are generally used for polishing liquors, which have been previously decolourised by one
of the conventional process.

In South Africa, resins have been adopted in the central refinery of Hulets to decolourise the
carbonated liquor (previously bone char was used) and at all Illovo’s Noodsburg refinery.

In Brazil, resins are used to treat phosphated liquors or for the decolorsation of remelt after the
Talofloc process.

Advantages of the Process:

High decolorisation rate

Easy to regenerate

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Low cost of installation compared to bone char. Low cost of regeneration for countries
having cheap source of sodium chloride
Low maintenance cost
Small space required
Short time of contact (15 min.). Risk of inversion reduced to a minimum

Disadvantage:

Resins are expensive to renew and remelt must be filtered to prevent resisn deterioration
Disposal of waste brine cloud be troublesome
High water consumption

1.5.5 Ion Exchange Process

Previously decolorized and clarified remelt 650 Brix is filtered through rotary leaf filters
previously coated with filter aid.

The filtered liquor is then heated to 70 0C and the pH adjusted to 8. It then flows in series
through two columns; each packed with the required volume of resin. At the end of each cycle of
48 hours (100 beds volume), water is passed through the columns to displace sucrose. The resin
is then backwashed with water to break up the bed and regenerated by means of 10 % sodium
chloride solution. The sodium chloride is then rinsed with eater, which is then low down, after
which a new cycle starts. The resin life is estimated to be of 300 cycles of 100 bed volumes.

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Figure 1.5: Flow Diagram of Ion Exchange Plant

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Back – End Refinery at Blle Vue S.E.

At Belle Vue sugar refinery, raw sugar remelt is decolorized by the “Talofloc process” and then,
if necessary, treated with vegetable carbon before filtration.

1.5.6 Talofoc Decolourisation and Clarification Process

This is a process for the simultaneous clarification and decolorisation of remelt refinery liquors
in which anionic high molecular weight colour and other impurities are precipitated by the
special Talofloc additive which is a cationic surface active agent. The precipitated colour and all
other insoluble impurities are flocculated by a phosphatation treatment and then separated by
flotation using a trace of Taloflote flotation aid.

The Process Has Four Stages:

Colorant precipitation by direct addition of Talofloc to melter liquor, over the range 1000
– 700 ppm on sugar solids (See Fig. 1.6 and 1.7)

Phosphatation scavenging of the precipitate by the addition of phosphoric acid and lime
to achieve the required pH, generally around pH 7.0 , over the range 300 – 600 ppm of
H3PO4 on solids.

Aeration of the reaction mixture

Reflocculation of the systems using the special flotation aid, TALOFLOTE, over the
range 5 – 10 ppm on solids and the separation of the flocculated material from the liquor
in the “Talo” clarifier.

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Figure 1.6: Decolorization with Talofloc

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Figure 1.7: Curve of Decolorization with Talofloc

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Description of the Process

The “A” sugar remelt at 660 Brix and 65 0C is transferred to a buffer tank (1 hour retention time)
the liquor is then heated to 85 0C in a heat exchanger and then transferred to a reaction tank
where the following chemicals are added:

700 pm Talofloc on solids

300 ppm P2O5 on solids

Milk of lime (to control pH at 7.0)

From the reaction tank, the treated liquor is transferred to an aeration tank where it is aerated by
the injection of compressed air in a specially designed high speed (2,900 rpm) aeration pump.
Flocculant (at the rte of 10 ppm on solids) is then added to the aerated liquor prior to the inlet of
the “Talo” clarifier in which clear liquor is separated from the scums (See Fig.1.8).

Figure 1.8: Arrangement of Talo Clarifier

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Clear liquor is then filtered and sent to processes or, if necessary, to the carbon treatment plant
for further decolorisation. Scum is returned to the mixed juice before liming.

Controls

Temperature of heater is controlled y a temperature controller which actuates a steam

control valve.

Flow rate is measured and controlled by an electronic flow meter which regulates a flow
control valve.

Acid, Talofloc and flocculant are metered by variable speed dosing pumps, the speed of
the pumps being proportional to the rate flow.

Addition of milk of time is controlled by a pH controller which actuates a splitter box or

a variable speed dosing pump.

All the contralised in a control console placed in an air-conditioned control room.

Advantages of the Process:

With 700 ppm Talofloc, a deccolorisation rate of 65 % can be achieved (See Fig. 1.6) –
(compared to 25 % in conventional phosphor–defecation process). This rate of
decoclorisation is often sufficient for the direct production of refined sugar.

The use of Talofloc allows a considerable increase in the capacity of an existing

decolorisation station or the installation of a smaller decolorisation station in new
refineries.

The liquor having been previously clarified, the load on the filtration station is
considerably reduced. (However, care should be taken to avoid carry-over during
clarification, which cloud be troublesome during filtration)

The small size of the clarifier (retention time 30 minutes) and the reduced requirements
for filtration and decolourisation result in less sugar and less waste to discharge.

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Figure 1.9: Talofloc Clarification

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Disadvantage of the Process:

The high cost of chemicals which cannot e regenerated. These chemicals are:

Talofloc at the rate of 700 ppm on solids

Taloflote at the rate of 10 ppm on soliods

Phosphoric Acid at the rate of 300 ppm P2O5 on solids

1.5.7 Powdered Activated Carbon Treatment Plant

Powdered activated carbon is often used for the polish treatment of preciously decolorized
remelt. At Belle Vne sugar refinery, this process is used when the treated remelt is of a high
color (above 3000 ICUMSA @ 420 µm) due to some abnormal conditions.

Advantages of the Process:

The process requires a relatively low capital investment and is well adapted for polish
decolorisation on a seasonal operation.

Powdered activated carbon can be used only when required

Only a small stock chemical is required

High rate of decolorisation ((See Fig. 1.10): – 51 % decolorisation with 0.2 % and 69 %
with 0.4 % carbon)

The process is flexible and the amount of carbon can be increased at will to treat darker
liquors.

Disadvantages of the Process:

Carbon flying in the air where the carbon slurry is prepared. Splashing from tanks makes
floors and sides of tanks dirty.

Filtration is difficult and the addition of carbon shortens the filter cycle.

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Care should be taken to have filtrates absolutely free from carbon, which will otherwise
appear in the sugar. The filtration step should be supervised carefully.

The process is not practical for refineries producing more than 500 tonnes of refined
sugar per day. For these larger refineries, granular absorbents or resins are more
advantageous and more economically on the whole.

Figure 1.10: Decolorization of Previously Decolorized Remelt with Vegetable Carbon

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Figure 1.11: Carbon Treatment and Filtration Plant (Continuous Process)

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1.5.8 Carbon Treatment at Belle Vue S.E

At Bell Vne, vegetable carbon is used if the colour of treated remelt exceeds 300 ICUMSA units
(at 420 µm), and the following procedure has been established (See. Fig.1.11 above).

Carbon and filter aid are mixed with pure water in the carbon preparation tank to make a slurry
(5 % carbon and 5 % filter aid).

The slurry is dosed continuously in the clarified liquor so as to obtain a concentration of 0.2 %
carbon and 0.2 % filter aid on solids in the liquor. The level is maintained in the reaction tank so
as to have a reaction time of 30 minutes. (The temperature of the liquor being 80 0C and the Brix
65 0C).

The treated liquor is then transferred to a filter supply tank and from there filtered through a
rotary leaf filter (See Fig.1.12) which has been previously coated with filter aid.

During filtration the flow rate is maintained constant while the pressure increase (filtration starts
at 5 psig and the filter cycle is completed at 60 psig). At the end of the cycle, the supply of liquor
is stopped and the filter is drained in the filter supply tank. The cake is then removed from the
filter cloth by water, which is sprayed on each filter leaf through rotating nozzles.

The cake is transferred in the sludge tank and from there sent to the raw house (in the mixed
juice prior to liming).

When the filter has been thoroughly washed, a new cycle starts by pre-coating the filter with
filter aid.

Pre-coating is complete when the filtrate is absolutely clear and free from filter aid.

The liquor treated with carbon is then filtered and the pre-coat valves close. (At this stage, care
should be taken to avoid breaking the pre-coat layer on the filter cloth). The sight glasses should
be observed at the outlet of the filter and if contamination with carbon is noticed on a few filter
leaves, they should immediately be isolated by closing the specific outlet valves.

The clear filtered liquor is collected at a tank and from there, transferred to the pan station.

At Belle Vue, the following decolorisation curve is generally obtained (See Fig. 1.10)

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Figure 1.12: Rotary Filter

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1.6 Cost Decolorisation by Vegetable Carbon

At Belle Vue, the cost of additional decolorisation by vegetable carbon after decolorisation by
the Talofloc process was about three times higher than the cost chemicals used in the Talofloc
process alone. For a production of 30,000 tonnes in one season, the relative cost of the various
items for vegetables carbon decolorisation was:

Depreciation: 4.5 %

Interest: 13.5 %

Maintenance: 1.5 %

Chemicals: 79.6 %

Labour: 0.9 %

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Figure 1.13: Piping Arrangement for Regeneration of Two-Stage Ion Exchange Decolorization System

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Figure 1.14: Two-Stage Ion Exchange System during Decolorization

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Figure 1.15: Sulphitation Plant

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Figure 1.16: Flow Diagram of Clarification

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Self Check Exercises

1. What are the steps to be taken to obtain a sugar of good refining quality?

2. Describe the phosphor-defecation process (Talofloc process) for the decolorisation of

remelted raws. Give the advantages and disadvantages of the process.

3. What are the causes of bad refining qualities of a raw sugar?

4. Describe the decolorisation process of remelted raws by the “Ion Exchange Resin”
process. Give the advantages and disadvantages of the process.

5. Describe with the help of a diagram the carbonation process (Using CO2 from the flue
gases of the chimney) for the decolorisation of remelted raws. Give the advantage and
disadvantages of the processes.

6. What are the advantage and disadvantages of the following processes for the production of
refined sugar from the remelted raws?

(i) Talofloc (phosphor-defecation) process

(ii) Carbonation

(iii) Ion Exchange Resins

7. Why is the refining quality of a raw sugar so important for a refiner?

8. Give the advantage and disadvantages of the sulphitation process for the production of
plantation white sugar from the cane juice.

9. Give the advantage and disadvantages of the ion exchange process (Resins) for the
production of refined sugar from remalted raws.

10. Describe the sulphitation process for the production of plantation white sugar. What are the
advantages and disadvantages of this process?

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Unit Two

Sugar Quality Control

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly the three main requirements for any organization producing sugar.
Define quality, quality control and sugar quality.
List out a criteria required by a sugar buyers.
Describe about sugar sampling, sample preparation and sampling frequency of sugar
sample.

2.1 Introduction

Today, quality control has become a natural requirement of industrial production, and
encompasses further requirements for food safety and quality management for any organization
in the food chain. In the sugar industry, we are aware that the final products, raw sugar and white
sugar must conform strictly to the requirements dictated by buyers and customers.

Three main requirements for any organization producing sugar are as follows:

To supply its customers with sugar that is Safe and Fit For Purpose.

To validate compliance with specification agreed with customers.

To ensure that sugar supplied meet the provisions of all relevant food laws and Codes of
Practice applicable through the supply chain.

Unless in agreement with all practice involved, it is desirable to have standard methods of
analysis available to both buyers and sellers. The International Commission for Uniform
Methods of Sugar Analyses, generally known as ICUMSA, is the international organization
concerned solely with methods of analysis for the sugar industry.

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The factories have a laboratory where all sugar are sampled according to a defined sampling plan
and thereafter analyzed. After storage in sugar silos, this sugar is sampled once more when
loaded in marine vessels at the tine of export to the European Union, United Sates and other
destinations. Moreover, sugar packed in polypropylene bags and container polyethylene liners
are also sampled and analyzed before storage for export to various destination.

2.2 A Definition of Quality Control

A pertinent definition of “Quality” would be “that combination of engineering and manufactured

characteristics in a product that determine the degree to which it will meet the expectation of the
customer”.

In short “Quality” means “fitness for use and purpose”.

The process of delegating responsibility and authority for management activity is generally
called “Control”.

In the sugar industry, the personal who mange, perform and verify work affecting quality will
have the organizational freedom and authority to:

(1) Initiate action to prevent the occurrence of product nonconformity.

(2) Identify and record any product quality problems.

(3) Initiate, recommend or provide solutions through designated channels.

(4) Verify the implementation of solutions.

(5) Control further processing, delivery or installation of nonconforming product until the
deficiency or unsatisfactory condition has been corrected.

What is Sugar Quality?

Sugar quality refers to the following major fields of interest:

(a) The physical quality characteristics.

(b) The chemical and microbial compositional quality characteristics.

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(c) The properties of the sugar in solution from.

(d) The level of customer.

The physical quality characteristics are the following:

(a) Crystals shape

(b) False farinas and conglomerates

(c) Size and distribution

(d) Reflectance, visual appearance

(e) Gloss

The chemical and microbial compositional quality characteristics are the following:

(a) Sucrose Content

(b) Moisture Content

(c) Invert Sugars Content

(d) Ash Content

(e) Heavy Metals: – Pb, As, Cu, Hg, Cd

(f) Other Metals: – Al, Fe

(g) Microbiological Flora –Yeasts, Moulds, Bacteria and Pathogens

(h) Minerals Slats: – Mg, K, Na, Ca, P

(i) Nutritional Values: – Carbohydrates, Proteins, Fats, Fibers

(j) Sulphurdioxide (SO2) Level

(k) Odour

(l) Taste

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The following are the properties of sugar solutions:

(a) Colour

(b) Turbidity

(c) Filtration Rate

The levels of contaminates under control are:

(a) Insoluble Matter

(b) Black Specks

(c) Glass

(d) Metallic Particles

(e) Non-Metallic Particles – Pan Scales

(f) Conglomerates – Discolored or Colored

2.3 Criteria Required By Buyers

The refiners require a good quality raw sugar with a polarization greater than 96 0Z, which will
filter well (a filterability index not less than 45, following the Nicholson and Horsley-Australian
method) and an optimum keeping quality, measured by a dilution indicator around 35.0
Moreover, ash content, colour and grain size are also accounted for premium or penalty
evaluation to sellers.

Basically, buyers of direct consumption sugar are strict on the following characteristics:

A Clean Sugar

A Dry Sugar

A Sugar of a Consistent Colour

A Uniform Grain Size

The sugar must comply with all the requirements of the European or international regulations
regarding traceability, hygiene and food safety.

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2.4 Control Systems Established By the Sugar Syndicate

The sugar Syndicate establishes certain hard and fat rules to be observed by all the sugar
factories over the island so that we have the respect of our buyers.

The sugars received daily at the warehouses and at the Port Terminal are sampled according to a
sampling plan along the production line. The systems also ensures that the quality of the sugars
meet with the required criteria imposed by the Syndicate for good keeping and refining qualities
at storage and during exportation. The sugars must be compliant with food laws in the country if
importation and must correspond to the buyers’ requirements.

Moreover, statistical techniques help in placing the producer in a strong competitive position
through the ability to provide statistical proof of quality and uniformity.

The Price of Raw Sugar

The basic price of raw sugar is made on the basis of 96 0Z polarization. All factories are thus
geared to produce a raw sugar having a polarisation value not less than 98 0Z.

The Mauritius Sugar Syndicate stresses on this requirement for at least two reasons:

The keeping quality of the sugar is better at 98 0Z than at 96 0Z.

A premium of 1.4 % of the basic price is paid to every extra degree of polarisation above
96 0Z. This is the method of payment according to the rules of the sugar Association of
London.

Refiners agree to pay on a 96 0Z polarization basis plus a premium even if they are to receive a
sugar not less than 98 0Z, because they can show that the refining costs are less for a new sugar
having higher polarisation. Moreover, they have less affination water to handle and a pure crystal
to melt.

Sugars for direct consumption are based on the agreed European Union sic price and additional
quality ands market premium that can be negotiated with buyers.

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2.5 Sampling of Sugar

2.5.1 Sugar in Bulk

In order to control the quality of sugar received at the terminal, a fixed weight of sugars is
sampled systematical and consistently from each box of sugar weighted at the receiving
station of the Terminal (See Fig, 2.1, 2.2 and 2.3).

At the time of shipment of the stored sugar in the sugar soils, a sample sugar is
systematically and consistently taken for each 20 tonnes dump delivered on board of the
ship.

Figure 2.1: Sampling at Receiving Station

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Figure 2.2: Sugar Boxes (Traceability)

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Figure 2.3: Symbols per Sugar Factory (Traceability)

2.5.2 Sampling Frequency

At the Receiving Station: 54 grammes per tonne of sugar

At the Loading Station: 20 grammes per tonne of sugar

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2.5.3 Sample Preparation

At the receiving station: at the end of the sampling time, the content of each sample storage
container is tumbled mechanically in a larger container to achieve a homogenous mix of
sugar of this particular factory.

For each factory, about 450 g is taken and placed into air tight sampling bottles and then sent
to the MSS for analysis.

At the loading station: For every 1,000 tonnes of out-loaded sugar, the sugar is tumbled
mechanically in a larger container to achieve as quickly a possible a homogenous mix.

About 450 g is taken and placed into two air tight sampling bottles and then sent to the MSS
for analysis.

2.6 Sugar for Direct Consumption

Sampling of sugar in bags follows a sampling plan. This operation is carried out at the
factory.

The sugar bags are not sampled at the warehouse so as to prevent any risk of external
contamination after bagging and sewing at the factory.

Sampling Frequency

At the bagging station of the factory: 5 – 10 grammes per 50 Kg bag

Sample Preparation

Samples taken from the bags are homogeneously mixed at the factory’s own laboratory; then a
1- Kg sample is sent in a hermetically sealed plastic container to the MSS for analysis.

Sampling plan for raw and white sugar (See Figs. 2.4 and 2.5)

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Raw Sugar

Water Mixed Heated Limed Clarified Filtered Clarified Processed Sweet Moist Dry C
Juice Juice Juice Juice Juice Syrup Massecuite Water Sugar Sugar Sugar S
Purity X X
Dry Matter (LOD) X’)
Dry Matter (Ref.) X X X X X X
Polarization X X X X X X X X 6/d
Total Moisture X’) 6/d
Surface Moisture 6/d
Reducing Sugar 1/d
Conductivity Ash X X X X X 6/d
Color Type 12/d 12/d
Color in Solution X X X X X 6/d 6/d
Turbidity X X X 6/d
Insoluble X X 1/d
Cleanliness Test 6/d
SO2 1/d
MA
CV
pH X X X
Mesophils 1/W”) 1/W”) 1/W”) 1/d
Thermophils
Coliforms 1/W”) 1/W
E-Coli 1/W”) 1/W
Yeast 1/d
Moulds 1/d

‘) Either or
“) According to European Regulation
X Frequency in the Responsibility of the Production Manager
“ To Determine Lot as Number of Bags Filled, Per Sewing Machine, Per Shift, or Per Day
Samples are to be taken as spot samples (random sample)

Figure 2.4: Sampling and Analysis Plan for Raw Sugar (Minimum Requirements)

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White Sugar

Raw Water Melt Mixed Clarified Filtered Refined Process Sweet Moist Dry
Sugar Ind. Liquor Syrup Liquor Liquor Liquor Liquor Massecuite Water Sugar Sugar Sugar
Purity 1/d X X
Dry Matter (LOD) 1/d’) X’)
Dry Matter (Ref.) X X X X X X
Polarization 1/d X X X X X X X 1/W
Total Moisture 1/d’) X’) 6/d
Surface Moisture 6/d
Reducing Sugar 1/d 1/d
Conductivity Ash 1/d X X X X X 6/d
Color Type 12/d
Color in Solution 1/d X X X X X 6/d
Turbidity X X X 6/d
Insolubles X X 1/d
Cleanliness Test 6/d
SO2 1/d 1/d
Floc 1/d
MA
CV
pH X X X X
Mesophils 1/W 1/W”) 1/W”) 1/W”) 1/d
Thermophils 1/W
Coliforms 1/W 1/W 1/W
E-Coli 1/W 1/W 1/W
Yeast 1/W 1/d
Moulds 1/W 1/d

‘) Either or
“) According to European Regulation
X Frequency in the Responsibility of the Production Manager
“ To Determine Lot as Number of Bags Filled, Per Sewing Machine, Per Shift, or Per Day
Samples are to be taken as spot samples (random sample)

Figure 2.5: Sampling and Analysis Plan for White Sugar (Minimum Requirements)

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Self Check Exercises

1. What do you understand by the term “Quality”?

2. “Quality of Sugar” refers to four major fields of interest Name them.

3. List physical, chemical and microbial quality characteristics of sugar which are of interest
of buyers.

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Unit Three

Manufacture of a ‘Quality’ Sugar

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly % moisture and the three types of moisture associated with a sugar
crystal.
Describes properly the dilution indicator.
Discuss briefly the about the grain size and regularity of sugar at different stages of sugar
manufacturing.
List out some factors contribute for a high ash contents of % raw sugar on the refining
process.
Describe about some important physical properties of sugar like odor, taste, color,
turbidity, filterability etc.
Identify the production sensitivity area in the sugar factory where sugar manufacturing is
going on.

3.1 Raw Sugar

3.1.1 Polarisation

The polarization of a sugar depends both on its moisture and on its impurities content. These
factors must be controlled throughout processing:

(A) Clarification [For Turbidity],

(B) Evaporation [For 0Brix],

(C) Boiling [For Purity and Crystallization],

(D) Centrifugals [For % Moisture; Washings, Molasses Film],

(E) Dryers [For % Moisture + Temperature 0C],

(F) Storage [For Environmental Conditions (Ambient Air)]

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3.1.2 % Moisture

Three types of moisture are associated with the sugar crystals:

“Inherent” Moisture: This is water occluded within the crystals structure. This moisture
does not migrate to the surface, and is not affected by the drying process.

“Bond” Moisture: This moisture remains on the surface of the crystals, but trapped in the
form of a saturated film of syrup.

“Free” Moisture: This moisture is available for evaporation on top of the crystals.

For optimum moisture of a given type of sugar, centrifugal operations are important to ensure a
good separation of the molasses from the sugar crystals.

At the centrifugals, a sugar is “purged”, i.e. the molasses are removed from the crystals molasses
mixture (massecuits). Moreover, the sugar is often washed with water at varying temperatures
(80 – 85 0C), but superheated steam at 110 0C may be used. As a result of such operations, more
or less water or “impurities” are left round the sugar crystals.

Generally, sugar discharged from the centrifugals has 1 % to 2 % moisture when followed by the
drying process, but it is possible to lower the % moisture at the centrifugal between 0.50 – 0.30
%.

At drying stage, pre-set operating conditions for air temperature and its relative air humidity are
set up for a given production flow through the dryer.

A corresponding sampling plan will establish spot sampling practices before and after the dryer
to evaluate sugar moisture to the silos.

During the “conditioning phase” air at a given temperature and humidity is blown into the silo in
order to allow sugar to be equilibrium with ambient air so that the crystalline sugar does take or
give off moisture.

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Therefore, there is merit in drying sugar in a co-current air flow, but cooling in a counter-current
air flow. Note that a lower temperature is required at dryer outlet. In a counter current air flow,
the temperature gradient between the cooling air and the ‘cooled’ sugar is low. This prevents
rapid cooling of the sugar crystals.

An over-dried sugar will enhance crystal breakage at change-over points on conveyor belts and
during free-falling in the silos.

When hot sugars ( > 32.0 0C) are strode, the sugar will stay hot for more than 24 hours. During
this period, moisture migration will take place due to the temperature gradient created when
pilling up of sugars at various temperatures. The risk of a rise in moisture in the first instances
are high; this will be followed by a drying off stage of the super saturated syrupy layer, owing to
interstitial hot air circulation leading to hardening of the sugar mass.

3.1.3 Dilution Indicator

Sugar must be adequately dried but within certain % moisture limits. This is determined through
the dilution indicator of the sugar.

% Moisture
Dilution Indicator ( D.I ) = × 100
100 − ( Pol O Z + % Moisture )

Note the relationship between the % moisture and the non-sugars content (See Fig. 6).

When D I. is less than 33.3 :The sugar is in the safety zone

When D.I. is between 33.3 and 50.0 :The sugar is in the doubtful zone

When D.I. is greater than 50.0 :The sugar is in the deterioration zone

White Sugar: Moisture % < 0.06 % (Total Moisture)

(Schematically: 0.02 % Water of Crystallization: 0.02 % Bond Moisture; 0.02 % Surface

Moisture)

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Figure 3.1: Dilution Indicator for Raw Sugar

3.2 Grain Size and Regularity

As grain size affects affination and consequently the early refining stage, such criteria are
included in the quality evaluation of the raws. For direct consumption sugars grain size is related
to the consistent visual appearance of the sugar and to its bulk density characteristics for packing
and its remelting efficiency for industrial use.

3.2.1 At Boiling Stage in Vaccum Pans

A uniform, well-formed crystal of fair size will purge more freely in the centrifugals, making it
easier to reach the correct moisture – Pol ratio essential for good keeping quality. In fact large
grains (∼ 0.80 mm) have fewer surfaces and, therefore, absorb less moisture during adverse
storage conditions. Rolled grains, conglomerates or clusters can hold dilute molasses in their
interstices and lead to incubation of microbial growth.

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The crystal size of a raw sugar is usually between 0.60 and 1.0 mm. Crystals of uniform size
from a low turbidity ( ∼ 200 m.a.u @900 nm) massecuites, free from bagaccillo and any other
extraneous matter, are highly desirable. A coefficient of variation between 25 and 30 % and a
grain between 0.85 and 0.90 mm for raws and between 0.40 and 0.60 mm for white sugar are
recommended.

3.2.2 At Centrifugals

Too high and prolonged spinning will break or abrade crystals, thus increasing small grains and
breakages in the final product.

3.2.3 At the Dryer

Too high spinning at the centrifugals increases breakage, fines and dust when sugar falls from
lifters in the rotary type dryer. These lifters are the radial pates specially designed to cascade the
sugar evenly through the process air.

3.2.4 At Handling for Storage

An over –dried sugar will enhance crystals breakage at change-over points on conveyor belts and
during free –falling in the silos.

3.3 Ash, Reducing Sugars and SO2

In quality evaluation of raws, numerous ratios are often used for judging particular refining
performance. These included invert/ash, organic and many other ratios.

The main source of mineral elements (ash forming constituents) is the clarified juice. At the
clarification stage, elements are selectively removed. At pH 8.0, Fe3+ and Al3+ are precipitated,
while 20 % of CaSO4 is removed at pH 7.0.

K+, Cl-, Na+, SO42- are partially removed at clarification; they are traceable at evaporators,
vacuum pans and crystallizers.

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Since the refining operation is essentially a laundry process to remove the maximum amount of
non-sugars, the efficiency is affected quantitatively and qualitatively by the different non-sugar
content, hence the importance of the analysis of ash and reducing sugars.

Some of the effects of high ash content % raw sugars on the refining process:

Loss of decolourisation in char house

High yield and high purities in final molasses
Short-ion – exchange cycles
More water to wash chart
Scaling problems in evaporators and pans
High ash content in refined sugar
Low pan yields due to excessive washing in centrifugals
Increased steam consumption
Impaired refined sugar quality for chocolate, candy and sweet production

A high SO2 Content in raw sugar is highly dependent on the use of sodium hydrosulphite
(Na2S2O4) commonly called Blankite in pan boiling to improve colour and to reduce viscosity of
mother liquor.

Note that a maximum level of 10 ppm in the finished product is the legal requirement.

3.4 Odour and Taste

Sugar is noted to have the ability to absorb odours from the atmosphere surrounding it.

During the finishing operations of sugar manufacture, it is important to prevent the storage of
strong–odour products in the vicinity of sugar crystals. Petroleum products, biocides and
detergents should not be present in the bagging /storage area of sugar.

3.5 Colour and Turbidity

The two main sources of colour in sugar are colour pigments in the sugar plant and colour
formed during processing itself.

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The increase in colour depends on the nature of the colour bodies in the sugar so0lution. For
example, it is generally known that the plant pigment colorants in the raw cane sugar (flavones)
are pH-sensitive. The contribution to raw sugar colour increases rapidly between pH 7 and pH 9.

On the other hand, factory –produced colorants are pH-insensitive. The melanoidins and caramel
type products as a result of the heat and temperature levels during processing.

Sugar colour is, therefore, highly dependent on pH control at the clarification stage and on the
temperature profile during subsequent evaporation, boiling and crystallization, cooling, drying
and storage.

Colloidal matter present in the sugar solution causes light scattering, thus increasing the “colour”
that is measured. These colloidal particles are the cause for turbidity of sugar solution. Colloid
removal is highly dependent on the efficiency of the clarification process for an optimum setting
rate of colloidal particles (size 10-4 – 10-6mm) and that of the boiling stages in preventing fewer
cutting and recycling of impurities during each finishing stage.

3.6 Filterability (See Fig. 7)

Filterability is a very important refining quality parameter to the refiner. The melted sugar must
filter well at the refiner.

Figure 3.2: Bulk Raw Sugar – Penalty Chart. Filterability and Starch Content

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3.6.1 Influences of Bad Filterability in Refinery

Poor filterability reduces the Brix of the remelt or the rate of remelt, or both at the same time.
This is a costly operation in terms of steam consumption. It is, therefore, accounted as a
production loss.

A reduced Brix decrease the viscosity of the remelt and leads to a better filtration, but an increase
in energy is needed at the evaporation and boiling stages.

3.6.2 Reasons for Bad Filterability

Suspended solids of particle size less than 5 microns and generally less than 1 micron.

Substance which have filtration –impeding properties such as:

Starch
Dextran
Soluble phosphates
Wax
Gums
Sillica and other polysaccharides

Measures adopted during processing of a raw sugar to improve filterability.

An enzymatic process to reduce starch level

A better liming process (e.g saccharate liming), a better pH control, especially for juice

preservation during week-ends and long hours of stoppage.

An optimum dosage of flocculants established by the factory control laboratory

Production of less “B” massecuites or remelt of “B” and “C” massecuites

Production of grains with M.A. not greater than 0.90 mm

Sieving of sugar after centrifugals

Quality control of intermediate products for turbidity, filterability and starch content.

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3.7 Extraneous Matter in Raws

Identification of “Production Sensitive Areas” which can be described as “an area where the
sugar is now beyond processing stage and any contamination at this point will not be removed by
normal manufactured procedures.’

Such areas referred to above are the following:

All run-offs, screw conveyors and receiving thoughts carrying massecuites from vacuum
pans to crystallizers and centrifugals.

All conveyor systems (screen, bucket or belt) carrying sugar to the dryer and to sugar
bins.

The Dryer

The Conditioning Bin.

The Storage Bin.

The Bagging Station or the Loading Station.

Sugar Transport System (Lorries, Boxes, etc.)

The Following Safety Measures Are Recommended:

To fix covers on sugar product where practical and necessary.

On the run-offs
On top of crystallizers
On top of conveyor systems
On top of sugar bins
Care should betaken to allow for air circulation under coves where necessary
To fix plated walkways with stand up curb edges on top of any product receiver.

To fix screens or services at the following points:

Under the centrifugals (a vibrating screen)

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At the end of any conveyor belt discharging sugar into another conveyor leading
to the dryer or sugar bin

At the dryer outlet

To place a magnetic separator at one or more of the following points

After the centrifugals outlet

Along the vibrating screen
At any change over point of conveyor belts
After the dryer
Before the inlet of the sugar bin
A the outlet of the sugar bin

To enforce strict rules and regulations for personnel behavior:

Signs for “No Smoking Areas”

“Eating is Strictly Forbidden”
“No Jeweler is Allowed”
“No Glass Bottles in This Area”

To Prohibit:

The use of red lead based paints on surface and covers in contact with sugar
‘Write engineering ‘ in the vicinity of ‘exposed product’
Cotton waste left over after maintenance

To ban the use of any form of glass material:

Protect all electric lights with plastic covers

No glass bottles
Ban the use of glass thermometers

To establish an Inspection, Measurement and Record programme for the following:

Cleaning frequency of magnetic separation

Weighing and identification of ferrous (metallic ) material

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Build –ups and lump formation on screens , buckets and bottom covers
Pan scales
Black specks (carbon particles , fly –ash , dust)
Rubber pieces from fraying belts
Sugar lumps and conglomerates
Bagaccilo
Wooden splinters
Plastic fibers from brushes

Micro –organisms

To establish a sanitation progreamms for the establishment of proper hygienic standard for:

The Personnel:

Uniforms and head covers in the bagging area

Hand washing and toilet facilities

The product during the finishing operations:

Prevention of any risk of prockets of microbial growth

Monitoring of sugar moisture and temperature
Preventing the storage of hot and humid sugar in bins
Time for condition of sugar before bagging

Provision of pest control:

Provide a rodent control systems

Insectocutors for flying insects
Any system for keeping birds away from the bagging area

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Self Check Exercises

1. What do you understand by a “Productivity Sensitive Area”?

2. Identify the area considered as a “Product Sensitive” in a sugar factory.

3. List briefly the safety measures you would recommend in the vicinity of the
“Sensitive Area” of your factory so as to eliminate or reduce the risk of contamination
which will not be removed by normal manufacturing processes.

4. What do you understand by “Dilution Indicator”? To what does the Safety, Doubtful
and Deterioration zone refer to.

5. Explain briefly the stages of your process in sugar manufacture which would determine
the final % moisture of the sugar produced.

6. Describe briefly the formula used to evaluate the risk of deterioration of the sugar high
moisture content?

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Unit Four

Quality Control

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly about quality control techniques like quality validation and quality
control plan.
List out and briefly discuss some quality tools.
Discuss briefly the prerequisite programmes which assist controlling.
Describes and define a procedure for quality system.
Define and explain properly Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP)
List out the twelve steps of the HACCP.
Explain briefly about personnel hygiene and health requirement.

4.1 Refined Sugar EEC. No 2

Analyses
The following analyses should be done on refined sugar:
1. Polarization } Same as for raws and the dilution indicator
2. Moisture } Calculated
3. Visual Appearance - BRUNSWICK Colour Method]
4. Colour in Solution - ICUMSA method no 4
5. Ash - CONDUCTIVITY method
6. Reducing Sugars - KINGHT and ALLEN method

There is an allocation of points given the last three analyses, i.e. 3, 4 and 5 and the total number
of points must not exceed 22 as described below in your handout “white sugar quality definition
and specification”.

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Note:

Total number of points allocated for Brunswick colour, ICUMSA colour and conductivity ash
should not exceed 22.

Example:

Pol 99.834 %
H2O 0.045 %
Ash 0.020 %
Reducing Sugars 0.030 %
ICUMSA colour 42 ICUMSA units
BRUNSWICK Colour 4 on Scale Reading

Number of Points Allocated

a) Brunswick colour 4 x 2poionts = 8.00 Points

b) ICUMSA colour 4 ÷ 7.5 points = 5.60 Points
c) Conductivity ash 0.02 ÷ 0.0018 = 11.11 Points
Total Number of Points = 24.71 Points
Conclusion

The individual results meet the required standard for category No.2, but since the overall results
is greater than 22 points, the white sugar taken here as an example falls onto category No.3.

4.2 Quality Control Techniques

4.2.1 Process Validation

Definition

Any planned actions which can be carried on to be confident that a new process/equipment is
completely under control and able to deliver products or services within the specifications.

Validation has to be based on the Risk analysis

Actions have to be planned during the different projects phases

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Actions have to be followed and documented

Workforce-operators and supervisors have to be identified and trained

Risk Analysis - Main Risks

Food Safety
Microbiological
Physical (Foreign Particles)
Chemical
Product Specification conformity
Cost of the process/equipment itself

Risk analysis-Product specification conformity

Process or Equipments specification

Ensure an adequate Process identifier (PID) –a specific code, a numerical value
attributed and which specifies which process is on going or starting. It also allows
identification of most commands related to a process which is simultaneously
running on a multiple function processor.
Process Deviation

Sensors Deviation
Control Loops Deviation
Laboratory Analysis Deviation
Equipment Deviation
Utilities Parameters Flow Rate, Pressure, Temperature)
Raw Material Deviation
Processing Aids
Procedures
Human Resources (Recruitment, Training, Procedure, Management)
Environment

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Example: Equipment - Dryer

4.2.2 Quality Control Plan

A. Distribution

The quality control plan is meant for the technical management and administrative team
of the organization:

i) Production Manager

ii) Site Manager

iii) Process Engineer

iv) Quality Manager

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B. Objective

To lay out all activities and specific measures taken to perform and record the controls of
product under consideration.

C. Scope

All quality controls performed and completed by the operator, the laboratory or any
automation equipment in view of compliance with specifications.

D. Definitions in the Plan

Product On which control will be performed

Aim Defines the interest, the reason and the need for the control

Control

- Who The person/operator responsible for performing or any service provider

from the refinery/factory central lab or any sub contractor for the control.

− How Documented procedure/instruction sheet describing the means to

perform the control task or the instruction manual.

− Frequency Number of data capture, controls to be done under normal process.

Classification: As a result of the interest, the reason and the need for the control

− Class 1 Specification parameter (regulatory or customer’s) where any

deviation from specified value indicates a non- conformity.

− Class 2 Specific control parameter which deviation triggers rules

established by management team.

− Class 3 Guiding parameter not related to quality

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Method

− What Characteristic, criteria or specification which is to be measured.

− How Mean used to perform the control (analysis, visual, weighing or

automation).

− Who Person (operator, analyst or equipment) performing the control.

Records Document number min which related control results are grouped.

Target Values Class 1, value targeted as specification

Class 2 and 3, value as indicator for guidance

Limits are inclusive of targets values

Document Valid only with the ‘Organization ‘ Letterhead

QUALITY CONTROL PLAN – FACTORY/REFINERY
Document No…………
Department : Quality Date ……… Page x/xx QULATIY PROCEDURE

Control Method
Product Aim Target
Who How Frequency Class What How Who Record Value
Sugar Follow up Quality No…
Specification Control
Parameters Dept
Melt
Clarified
Juice
Lime
Molasses
Dryer

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4.3 Some Quality Tools

A. Cause to Effect Diagram B. Control Chart C. Processes Flow Chart

D. Graphic Display of Data E. Check List F. Correlation Study

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A. Cause to Effect Diagram

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B. Control Chart

Number of Data = n

Value of Data; X1, X2, X3 to Xn

Mean value of Data: X

(X − X )2
Variance ( S 2 ) : = ∑ n1 − 1

( X1 − X )2
S tan dard Devation ( S .D) : =
n − 1

 ( S .D ) 
99 % Confidence Limits : X ± 2.576 Or 3.00  
 n 
 

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4.5 Prerequisite Programmes – PRP (s)

The organization shall establish, implement and maintain PRP (s) to assist in controlling

a) The like hood of introducing food safety hazards to the product though the work
environmental.

b) Biological , chemical and physical contamination of the products 9s), including cross
contamination between products, and

c) Food safety hazard levels in the product and product processing environment.

When selecting and/or establishing PRP(s) , the organization shall consider and utilize
appropriate information [e.g. statutory requirements, customer requirements, recognized
guidelines, Codex, Alimentarius Commission (codex) Principles and codes of practices, national,
international or sector standards].

Organizing for such programmes PRP(s) in sugar factories implies the consideration of the
following:

1. Construction and lay –out of buildings and associated utilities

2. Lay-out of premises, including workspace and employee facilities
3. Supplies of air, water , energy and other utilities
4. Supporting services, including waste and sewage disposal
5. The suitability of equipment and its accessibility for cleaning, maintenance and
preventative maintenance
6. Management of purchased materials (e.g. raw materials, ingredients , chemical and
packaging), supplies (e.g. water, air, steam and ice), disposals (e.g. waste and
sewerage ) and handling of products ( e.g. storage and transportation)
7. Measures for the prevention of cross contamination
8. Cleaning and sanitizing
9. Pest control
10. Personal hygiene
11. Other aspects as appropriate

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Verification of the PRP(s) shall be planned and PRP(s) shall be modified as necessary. Records
of verifications and modifications shall be maintained. Documents should specify how activities
included in the PRP(s) are managed.

4.6 Defining a Procedures for a Quality System

Procedures control process or activities

A well defined procedure controls a logically distinct process or activity, including the
associated inputs and outputs.

Such a Procedure Defines

1. The work that should be done

2. Explains how it should be done
3. Who should do it
4. and under what circumstances

In Addition, it Explains

1. What authority and what responsibility has been allocated

2. Which supplies and materials should be used
3. And which documents and records must be used to carry out the work.

While procedures may be documented, ISO usually expects them to be documents

4.7 Hazard Analysis of Critical Control Points (HACCP)

In view of new legislation in EU and in the US regarding food safety and to prevent any food
contamination, the application of HACCP to any sector of the food chain has been recommended

The Hazard Analysis of Critical Points (HACCP) is a system, which identifies specific hazards
(i.e. biological, chemical or physical properties) that adversely affect the safety of the food and
specifies measures for their control.

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The system is based on the principle that food safety issues can be eliminated or minimized by
Prevention during production rather than detection in the finished product.

The concept of HACCP is to assure food safety through development, implementation and
effective management of a functional process hazard control programme. In conjunction with the
Good manufacturing practices (GMP) HACCP should extend the control options by identifying.
What may go wrong, How, Where and When?

HACCP is the precursor of an effective quality system in that it (a) identifies what needs to be
included in the quality system and as importantly (b) it will identify what controls are not
needed.

4.7.1 Twelve (12) Steps of the HACCP

1. Set up the HACCP team

2. Describes the product under manufacture

3. Determine the scope of the HACCP study

4. Work out a flow diagram of the process

5. Confirm flow diagram on site

6. List potential risk associated with each of the process flow diagram, perform a risk
analysis and define measures to be enforced in order to control these risks

7. Determine the CCP (Critical Control Points)

8. Establish the critical target for each CCP

9. Establish a monitoring system for each CCP

10. Take corrective measures

11. Apply validation procedures

12. Establish records and register them in a record file

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Setting up a HACCP Study

Such study comprises the following stages:

1. Make up your Team

Process Manager
Chemist
Factory Assistant
Factory Supervisor

2. Define the Scope

Type of hazard to be identified

Chemical
Physical
Microbiological

3. Define the Area To Be Studied

From mills to sugar bins?
From mills to vacuum filter?
From clarifier to vacuum pan?
From vacuum pan centrifugal?
From centrifugal to dryer?
From dryer to conditioning bin? Product Sensitive Areas?
From conditioning bin to bagging?
From sugar bin to lorry?

4. Make a Flow Diagram for the Product/Process including

Floor plants and equipment layout

Sequences of all process steps
Time /temperature profile of raw, intermediate or final product
Potential time delay

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Flow conditions of the sugar product

Any product recycle loop
Equipment design feature (void space present)
Cleaning and disinfecting procedures
Environmental hygiene
Pathway /route of personnel
Route for potential cross-contamination
Personnel hygiene practices
Storage conditions
Any Other Data Needed

5. Go for an On-Site Vertication of flow diagram and confirm

Accurate representation of the operation

The following nights shifts /weekend running of operation
Amendments for any deviation from original diagram

6. Identify and list All Hazards associated with every processing steps.

O
Biological (e.g. microbial due to pH, % H2O, Temperature C, % R.H,
Oxy/Red, potential, insects, rodents, birds, etc)
Chemical (e.g. heavy metals (Pb, As, Cu, Hg) from factory origin, biocides,
processing chemicals –flocculants, pan aids, surfactants, viscosity reducers,
grease, gear oil, etc.)
Physical (e.g. metallic filings. glass, wood, cigarettes, belts, wires, nuts bolts,
etc).

7. List the Monitoring Procedures/Control Measures/Devices for each hazard identified.

Screens
Magnets
Covers
Insectocutors

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Baits
Curtains (Rubber or Plastic)
Doors
By-passes
Thermometers
pH controllers
Detailed cleaning procedures and records of the frequency of cleaning
pH control records
Temperature measurements and records
Inspection check-list for contamination
Pest control records
Personnel hygiene policy and records
Identification of contamination level an records

8. Apply HACCP Decision Tree to each process step in order to identify CCPs (Critical
Control Points).
Q.1. Are the control measures in place for the hazard?
Q.2. Does the step eliminates or reduces the hazard to an acceptable level?
Q.3 Could contamination occur at unacceptable levels (s) or increase to un
acceptable level (s) after this particular process step?
Q.4. Will a subsequent step eliminates or reduces the hazard to acceptable
level?

9. Establish Target (s) and Tolerance at each CCP, e.g.:

Assessing temperature limit at bagging
Weighing of metallic (ferrous) fillings present
Weighing of non-metallic (non-ferrous) fillings present
Rapid moisture analysis of the sugar
Osmophilic levels in intermediate products

10. Establish a Monitoring System for each CCP for e.g.:

Metallic

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1. Inspect hourly and keep records of tailings present on magnets

2. Randomly inspect and keep records of presence of metallic particles on
screen
3. Randomly observe and keep record of the flow rate and thickness of sugar
blanket through the magnets.
4. Test the bagged product on a code basis (five bags take at random examine
and record for metallic particles)

Non Metallic

1. Monitor heat transfer coefficient of evaporators, vacuum pans and dryers

2. Randomly inspect and keep record of presence of non metallic particles on
screen
3. Randomly observer and keep record of the flow rate and thickness of sugar
blanket on screen.
4. Test the bagged product on a code basis (five bags taken at random examine
and keep record none).

Presence of Glass

1. Inspect and eliminate any movable sources of glass in the product sensitive
areas; discard.
2. Inspect and record presence of protection of high level strip lights with
diffuser
3. Inspect and record that no window panes are broken near/in the bagging
area.

Rodents

1. Inspects daily and keep record of rodent faces.

2. Examine and keep record of baits and traps
3. Inspect and record presence of gnawing
4. Call independent contractor when necessary

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Flying Insects

1. Inspect daily and record observations on insectocutors.

Cockroaches and Lizards

1. Examine and keep record of bails

2. Inspect for the presence of debris around bagging areas.

Birds

1. Inspect for presence of droppings on conveyor and bin covers and record if
any
2. Inspection for presences of feathers on conveyor and bin covers and record
if any.

Microbial

1. ensure and keep records of cleaning frequency of equipment and sanitation

2. Ensure and keep records of employee hygiene and laundry services for
clothing
3. Measure and record temperature of intermediate product at regular intervals
4. Measure and record temperature at bagging
5. Test microbial profile (including osmophis) regularly and record

11. Establish a Corrective Action plan for any observed deviation from targets and
tolerances.

Provide for a return belt conveyor from sugar bins to remelet

Provide for by-pass at exit of crystallizers, on vibrating screens.

12. Establish Record Keeping and Documentation

13. Verification

14. Review of the HACCP plan

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4.7.2 Personnel Hygiene and Health Requirements

1. Hygiene Training

Factory management should arrange fore adequate and continuing training of all
workers specifically those in the ‘product sensitive areas’ of the factory. They
should be trained in hygienic handling of the sugars as well as in personal hygiene
in order to understand all the precautions necessary to prevent contamination of
the sugar.

2. Medical Examination

The employees who are in contact with the sugar during their work should have a
medical examination prior to employment. This examination should also be
carried out regularly so as to ensure personnel to be free from any epidemic
disease. a record of such information should be made readily available to all
authorities concerned.

3. Communicable Diseases

Factory management should ensure that no worker known or suspected to be

suffering from or to be a carrier of a diseases likely to be transmitted through the
‘exposed sugar’ or infected with wounds, skin infections, sores or with diarrhoea,
is allowed to handle sugar within the ‘product sensitive areas’. Any person so
affected should immediately report to the management that he is ill as he may
directly or indirectly contaminate sugar with pathogenic micro-organisms.

4. Injuries

Any worker who has a cut or wound should not continue sugar or sugar contact
surface until the injury is completely protected by a conspicuous waterproof
covering firmly secured, adequate first-aid facilities should be provided for this
purpose.

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5. Changing Facilities and Toilets

Adequate and conveniently located changing facilities and toilets should be

provided. These areas should be hygienic, well lit, ventilated and should not open
on to ‘exposed sugar’ areas.

6. Washing of Hands

Each worker wile on the processing line in those areas known, as product
sensitive Areas should wash their hands frequently and thoroughly with a suitable
unscented soap and warm water. Disposal towels should be available for drying
hands.

Hands should always be washed:

(a) Before starting work,
(b) Immediately after using the toilet,
(c) After handling contaminated material.

Hands should be washed and disinfected immediately after handling any

material capable of transmitting diseases.

Hand washing facilities should be provided at each access point to those

“Product Sensitive Areas”

Notices requiring hand washing should be displayed

Factory management should supervise to ensure compliances with this

requirements

7. Personal Cleanliness

Every worker engaged in the sugar handling areas namely the identified ‘product
Sensitive Areas” should maintain a high degree of personal cleanliness. Clean
protective clothing will be provided .In order to ensure cleanliness of cloths, a
contract laundry service will be appropriate.

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8. Visitors

Factory management should take all the necessary precautions for visitors in
‘Product Sensitive Areas’ to prevent sugar contamination. The use of protective
clothes should be enforced and no jewelry should be worn.

9. Supervision

Responsibility for ensuring compliance by all personnel with all the above
requirements should be specifically allocated to the supervisory personnel.

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Self Check Exercises

1. What are the objectives and the scope of a quality control plan?

2. As a result of the interest, the reason and the need for control, how would you define and
classify the control parameters in the quality Control Plan?

3. How would you set up the definition of “Control” in your Quality Control Plan?

4. When establishing a pre-requisite programme for the HACCP study, the organization
needs to refer to the appropriate source information available. What is the kind of
standard source information required? List six examples of such information sources.

5. What are the various areas of interest that the management of a sugar factory should
consider when organizing the pre-requisite programmes. List them.

6. How would you define a “Procedure” for a quality system?

7. What are the objectives and the scope of a quality control plan?

8. The “Cause to Effect Diagram” is a quality tool. List other examples of quality tool.

9. Suggest how you would use a known “Quality Tool” to examine (1) a contamination
problem (2) the setting up of control limits of a given parameter.

10. What does HACCP stands for? Describe briefly the HACCP concept?

11. Why is HACCP important to any sector of the food chain?

12. Prior to a HACCP study along your manufacturing process, you are required to organize
for good manufacturing practice (GMPs) which are also called Pre-requisite Programmes
(PRPs). Two of such programmes are:

(a) To consider the lay out of the promises including the work places and employee
facilities.

(b) To organize and manage the purchase of the chemicals and packaging.

List six other programmes or practices you have to organize prior to your HACCP study.

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Unit Five

Bulk Handling

Unit Objectives

At the end of this unit training, the trainees will be able to:

Explain properly about bulk handling, function of bulk sugar terminal and bulk sugar
handling methods.
List out a factors for the choice of a particular type of silo for terminal.
Describe about a structure of a bulk.
List out and explain the three characteristics which the sugar should have in order to be
handled in bulk.
Describe all the changes that are noted due to bad storage

5.1 Introduction

The bulk sugar terminal in Mauritius was built in 1980. Its main economic advantage over
loading as practiced previously has proved to be:

A reduction in handling costs of export sugars

A decrease in sugar losses. Previously, with the semi – bulk system, some
10,000 tonnes of sugar (i.e. 1.0 - 1.5 % of total export) were lost during
handling. With bulk handling, the losses have been reduced to some 800 tonnes,
i.e 0.2 % of bulk sugar export.

Relief of ship congestion in the larbour.

Rapid reclaiming of sugar for export at short notice

Uniformity and improvement in quality

More efficient use of storage areas.

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A shipment of 12,000 tonnes takes only 2 × eight – hour days to be loaded, compared with 12
days previously.

5.1.1 Function of a Bulk Sugar Terminal

The most important element of a bulk handling system is the setting up and operation terminal
facilities for receiving, storage and shipping the sugar. Thus, the main function of the terminal is
to provide buffer storage to cope with the inflow from the factories, while meeting the required
shipping programme.

The terminal must be equipped with adequate facilities, including accurate weighing and must
have large uninterrupted storage, be secure against cyclonic conditions, protected against tide
and storm surges, and easily filled and emptied. It must be adjacent to proper wharf and berthing
facilities to suit the size of shipping to be used, and it must be equipped with rapid unloading
facilities, including accurate weighing. The whole sequence of handling must be achieved in an
expeditious and clean manner.

5.1.2 Bulk Sugar Headlining Methods

All over the world, the operation of a bulk sugar terminal follows more or less the same pattern.

Sugar arrives at the bulk sugar terminal in trailers with prime movers, or rigid type
Lorries or other means of transport.

The sugar is weighted, and the vehicles are unloaded. From the intake hopper, the sugar
falls onto conveyor belts which carry it to the top of the silos, where it falls from the roof
level to the floor of the silo.

Sugar is extracted from the silo through a tunnel under the floor. Usually, there are square
openings in the silo floor, each fitted with a steel hopper and louvered control gates. To
extract sugar, a control gate is opened, allowing the sugar to flow on to a conveyor belt
underneath the silo floor.

In modern sugar silos, approximately two thirds of the sugar in the silo can be extracted
by gravity in this manner, but the remainder has to be moved mechanically from the sides

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of the silo to the tunnel hoppers. The reclaimed sugar is transported to the wharf edge by
belt conveyors.

Finally, the sugar is conveyed up the ship loader boom and drops down a telescopic chute
to a rotating thrower which sprays the sugar into the ship’s hold.

5.1.3 Type of Terminal at Port Louis

The choice of a particular type of silo for Mauritius was conditioned by a number of factors, the
main ones being:

Total Storage Capacity

Ground Available

Condition of Sub-Soil

Required Rate of Discharge

Insulation

Structure

It is usual to provide for a storage capacity equivalent to 40 % of the total annual sugar
production. The storage capacity of the Mauritian silos has been fixed by the sugar industry at
350,000 tonnes, bearing min id that the aim of Mauritius was to produce 800,000 tonnes of sugar
annually.

Due to the high relative humidity of the air in Mauritius, a high rate of discharge is needed, as
well as adequate insulation of the silo.

A silo structure must be designed to resist gusts of up to 240 Km/h in the event of a cyclone
hitting the island during the summer months.

Various types of silos are built nowadays with special characteristics for storing and handling
raw sugar under different climatic and site conditions.

A board division can be drawn between “vertical silos” in which the floor area is small in
relation to the total volume, and “horizontal silos” in which the reverse is the case. The main

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difference in the choice of design of structure lies in the extent to which the lateral “horizontal
silos” of the A-shaped type have been found to be more suitable for our local conditions’.

5.1.4 Structures of the Bulk Sugar Terminal

The essential structures of the terminal in Port Lois are:

Receiving stations for sugar

Conveyors feeding sugar into the bulk storage shed

The bulk storage shed (i.e. the silo)

Out loading conveyors feeding the sugar from the bulk storage shed to the weighing
tower, shipping gallery and the (mobile) ship loader

The weight tower

The wharf structure

The (mobile) ship loader which distributes the sugar in the ship’s holds

Essential Notes on Structures of the Storage Shed

Two A-shaped silos, each having a storage capacity of 175,000 tonnes. Each silo is 364.6
metres long by 45.7 metres wide and 25 metres high.

The silo floors are above the level of maximum storm surges. The sides are reinforced by
concrete retaining walls up to a height of 25 meters.

The slope of the roof steel trusses approximates the angle of repose of the sugar heap,
thereby enclosing the minimum volume necessary to accommodate the stored sugar.

Access for cleaning inspection and maintenance of the roof is provided in the form of
walkways with handrails. Safety platforms and fences against accidental falls from the
sleepy sloping roofs are also provided.

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Another feature of the storage sheds are the fire fighting access walkways. They are
external to the sheds and run along both sides of each silo.

Large openings with steel roller shutters or sliding doors are provided at each end of the
silo to provide access for front-end-loaders and also for controlled ventilation A 2 ½
meters square opening is provided in each end wall at apex gangway level to provide
further controlled ventilation.

Floor openings are provided for the flow of sugar to the out loading system. The surface
of the floors and walls are treated to withstand attack by acids in sugar solutions and,
throughout their length, the floors slope outwards 0.5 meters from the centre line to the
side walls. The floors are provided with scuppers at the side walls to drain water used for
washing.

5.2 Storage Requirements and Control

5.2.1 Bulk Handling Characteristics

There are three characteristics which the sugar should have in order to be handled in bulk. They
are:

1. The Free-Flowing Properties of the Sugar

2. Its Bulk Density

3. Its Angle of Repose

5.2.1.1 Free Flowing Properties

The behavior of bulk sugar is strongly influenced by the film of molasses which enrobes each
crystal of raw sugar.

This film is saturated with sucrose and contains nearly all the moisture and practically all the
non-sucrose, namely the reducing sugars, the mineral and organic salts and various micro-
organisms. Some moisture is included within the crystal and migrates slowly outwards. The

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behavior of the sugar in relation to the surrounding air and with the adjacent crystals is
determined by this film of molasses. Deterioration reactions also occur in this film of molasses.

If on one side, over dried sugars have a low percentage of molasses, a high polarization and are
free-flowing, dust problems can happen due to the dryness of the sugar. A high percentage of
molasses, a high percentage of moisture and a low polarization will render the sugar sticky and
hence no free-flowing characteristics. So, it is important to have all sugars adequately dried
though not over dried before entering storage.

Other factors affecting the free-flowing properties of the sugar are:

The particle size distribution of the sugar

The atmospheric humidity

The packing of the sugar due to traveling shocks

The surface texture of the sugar container

The material used as thermal insulation

The difference of temperature outside and inside the container

The time the sugar stays in the container

5.2.1.2 Bulk Density

Bulk density varies with the degree of packing of the sugar. It may be accepted that the
combined effects of time and compression will reduce the sugar to practically its minimum bulk
volume, i.e. maximum bulk density.

Experiments have proved that maximum bulk density varies only slightly with crystal size and
percentage moisture of the sugar. Hence, irrespective of the conditions of the sugar as it enters
bulk silo, the sugar can be packed to its minimum volume. 881 Kg per m3 is the usual bulk
density accepted as a satisfactory figure.

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5.2.1.3 Angle of Repose

The angle of repose of sugar is the angle which the sugar pile (formed by allowing sugar to fall
freely by gravity) makes with the horizontal. The angle of repose of sugar changes with moisture
content. In moist conditions, the highest angle recorded was bout 400 in Queensland. Under
conditions of storage for a certain time, angle of 300 have been recorded in other countries. In
Reunion Island, values ranging from 330 to 360 are noted. The assumed angle of repose is snow
taken as being 350.

5.3 Deterioration of Sugar

In assessing the chance of raw sugar deterioration under any given set of circumstances, it should
be remembered that even with a relatively ”healthy sugar”, infection is all too easy from contact
with other sources of infection, particularly if several different raw sugars are mixed in a sugar
silo. Nevertheless, even in a badly infected raw sugar, the organisms are relatively inactive
unless the syrup layer surrounding the crystal of sugar is in a suitable condition to permit their
activity.

The following changes are noted due to bad storage:

Physical Changes:

Absorption of moisture by the sugar

Caking of the sugar

Chemical and Bacteriological Changes:

Increase in the number of micro-organisms with simultaneously an increases in

acidity of the medium
Increase in reducing sugars
Alteration in color of the raw sugars

To understand the mechanism of these phenomena and to establish conditions required to

prevent them, it is important to study to equilibrium between the sugar and the humid air.

Sugar always contains a certain amount of water in the form of a syrup layer (film of molasses)
which surrounds the crystals. This film contains the major non-sugars.

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When such sugar is placed in an atmosphere more or less humid, two equilibriums are produced
simultaneously among the three existing phases, i.e. sugar, and film of molasses and air.

a) Equilibrium between the crystals and the film of molasses which enrobes it. This film
remains saturated while dissolving the crystal or it becomes more soluble while forming a
layer of sugar crust on the crystal. This layer of sugar crust is derived from this molasses
film.

b) Equilibrium between the water content of the film of molasses which enrobes the crystal and
the water content of the air around the crystal. This is by far the most important equilibrium,
because it finally controls the first equilibrium. This important equilibrium is reached when
the vapour pressure of the film of molasses (also called vapour pressure of the sugar) is equal
to that of the air surroundings.

In the study of this equilibrium, one usually uses relative humidity (i.e. the ratio between the
moisture in the air and the moisture at saturation point for a given temperature) Thus, the value
of the equilibrium is called the equilibrium relative humidity (ERH). If the humidity of air is
greater than the ERH of the sugar, the later will absorb moisture from the air and in the reserve
condition, the sugar dries out.
Factors which influence the equilibrium are:

a) Purity of Sugar, hence that of the film of molasses .Impurities decreases ERH. So
the purer is the sugar, the higher is its ERH. Not only the quantity of impurities,
but also the quality of these impurities affects the ERH. So, two sugars of the
same purity may have different ERH.

b) Grain Size: Fine and false grains increase the surface of contact to help the sugar
crystals to “grow together”. Hence, this effect decreases ERH.

c) Temperature: An increase in temperature reduces the relative humidity of the air

and a decrease in temperature produces the reserve situation.

d) Moisture of Sugar: Equilibrium curves have been established between ERH of

sugar and its moisture content, but a better estimation of the relationship is by the
establishment of the equilibrium curve of the sugar under study itself.

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Physical Changes

If the film of molasses which enrobes the crystal gives off its water content, the film becomes
supersaturated: the sugar crystallizes to attain equilibrium, thus binding together adjacent
crystals. This is the process occurring during caking of sugar.

If on the other hand the film of molasses absorbs moisture, liquefaction of the sugar crystals
occurs.

Studying equilibrium (b), it is noted that the film of molasses will give off it’s a water content
every time the ERH is greater than that of the air surroundings.

Hence, it is important to have a sugar which is in equilibrium with the ambient air and to have a
sugar at a suitable temperature.

Chemical and Bacteriological Changes

1. If sugar has high moisture content the development of micro-organism is accelerated.
Below a certain ERH, the activity of these micro-organisms (mainly yeasts and fungi) is
reduced to a minimum and it’s thus harmless. As soon as fermentation starts, there is
inversion taking place and an increase in reducing sugars is noted. These reducing
sugars beings hygroscopic, moisture content of the sugar is increased. As a result of
fermentation, the acidity of sugar increase, thus lowering pH and causing further
deterioration of the sugar. Microbial activity is also related to temperature and it seems
that as the temperature is increased up to a maximum of approximately 40 0C, activity
is also increased.
So, it is important to store sugar as dry as possible to prevent moisture migration and moisture
concentration at a certain point, and to maintain a low temperature.
2. Increase in reducing sugars is a result of fermentation. In raw sugars, this can also occur
if sugar has been stored previously at a low pH.

3. Changes in colour of raw sugar usually take place at pH values below 7.0. “Maillard
Reaction” occurs and the increase in temperature produced by the reaction increases
colour through caramelisation. Colour changes can also happen as a consequently of
reducing sugars produced and a lowering of pH values through fermentation. It is
highly influenced by a high temperature and amino acids of the stored sugar.

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5.4 Control

5.4.1 Dilution Indicator

For many years, the potential microbiological activity in the syrup layer enrobing the crystals of
raw sugar has been assessed by calculating the dilution indicator (D.I)

% Moisture
Dilution Indicator ( D.I ) = × 100
100 − ( Pol O
Z + % Moisture )

However, the formula has serious limitations and should only be regarded as an indication based
on the usual standard raw sugar analysis.

Raw sugars should have a polarization within the following range on reception at the bulk
terminal.

Minimum = 98.5 0S

Maximum = 99.0 0S

It is generally considered that a raw sugar with a D.I. of 50 or more will deteriorate on storage,
but will not deteriorate if its D.I. is 33.3 or less. Between 33.3 and 50, it is in a so- called
doubtful zone.

In practice, however , penalties are generally jot inflected non raws when the D.I lies in the
doubtful zone, but the more the D.I gets close to 50, the greater the danger of deterioration.

Referring to chart of penalties, (See Table. 5.1 Below) it is noted that raws polarizing bless than
98.5 and above are penalized. It is observed from this table that the penalties are more severe
when the D.I is 50 or more, and very severe for D.I values of 60 or more. Provision is also made
for sugars with a D.I of less than 25.0 because of the dangers of moisture migration, hence
caking, and of explosion due to sugar dust.

Should the polarization be lower than 98.5, colour formation during storage will be more
important and the danger of deterioration will be greater at D.I values falling within the doubtful
zone. Hence, sugars of Pol lower than 98.5 suffer more severe penalties on D.I than those above
98.5 and are also penalized for colour, the lower the Po, the larger the colour penalty.

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Table 5.1: Bulk Raw Sugar, Chart of Penalties on Keeping Qualities

D Indicator Penalty Rs /Tonns Low

O
Pol Z Polarization
Min. = < 98.10 – 98.20 – 98.30 – 98.40 – = > Polarization Penalty
Max. 98.09 98.19 98.29 - 98.39 98.49 98.59 Rs /Tonns
< 25.0 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 97.99 14.00
25.0 - 39.9 - - - - - - 97.90 15.00
40.0 - 40.9 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 - 97.80 16.00
41.0 - 41.9 2.00 1.60 1.20 0.80 0.40 - 97.70 17.00
42.0 - 42.9 3.00 2.40 1.80 1.20 0.60 - 97.60 18.00
43.0 - 43.9 4.00 3.20 2.40 1.60 0.80 - 97.50 23.00
44.0 - 44.9 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 - 97.40 28.00
45.0 - 45.9 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 97.30 33.00
46.0 - 46.9 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 97.20 38.00
47.0 - 47.9 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 97.10 48.00
48.0 - 48.9 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 97.00 60.00
49.0 - 49.9 10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 10.00 5.00 96.90 74.00
50.0 - 50.9 12.00 11.60 11.20 10.80 12.00 10.00 96.80 90.00
51.0 - 51.9 14.00 13.60 13.20 12.80 14.00 12.00 96.70 108.00
52.0 - 52.9 16.00 15.60 15.20 14.80 16.00 14.00 96.60 128.00
53.0 - 53.9 18.00 17.60 17.20 16.80 18.00 16.00 96.50 150.00
54.0 - 54.9 20.00 19.60 19.20 18.80 20.00 18.00 96.40 174.00
55.0 - 55.9 22.00 21.60 21.20 20.80 22.00 20.00 96.30 200.00
56.0 - 56.9 24.00 23.60 23.20 22.80 22.40 22.00 96.20 228.00
57.0 - 57.9 26.00 25.60 25.20 24.80 24.40 24.00 96.10 290.00
58.0 - 58.9 28.00 27.60 27.20 26.80 26.40 26.00 = < 95.90 600.00
59.0 - 59.9 30.00 29.60 29.20 28.80 28.40 28.00
= > 60.0 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00 40.00

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D.I. Penalty on sugar polarizing less than 98.5 starts at 40.0 D.I, instead of 45 for sugars
polarizing 98.5 or more

The Tolerable Ranges for:

Polarisation less than 98.50 = D.I 25.0 up to D.I. 39.9

Polarisation more than 98.50 = D.I 25.0 up to D.I 44.9

Since colour of Maurtiuis raws has so for not been a problem to refiners, a penalty is inflected on
sugars polarizing less than 98.5.

5.4.2 Temperature and Relative Humidity Control

Silo Insulation and Structure

As silo insulation is one of the conditions which will check the caking of sugars, it is very
important to be up to the standard. The insulation of the horizontal sugar silo is provided by
using a synthetic cladding material which has physical strength and a long life even in corrosive
conditions. The insulating material minimizes condensation within the silo, while the outer
surfacing is resistant to abrasion.

Doors and windows are as airtight as possible.

It is also recommended that sugars should no leave factories at a temperature above 32 0C.

Ventilation of the silo is eased by the installed at intervals along the ridge of the loading roof and
in the end walls. Ventilation is required:

To remove exhaust fumes produced by front-end loaders when ship loading

operations are in progress.

To introduce dry air when suitable conditions exist outside the sheds
To dry the interior after washing down the sheds following removal of sugars.

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5.4.3 Dust Formation and Explosion

The major cause of dust formation is the rapid drying of the film of syrup left in sugar crystals
after spinning. This rapid drying deposits fine sugar particles on the crystals faces. Unfavorable
phenomena, such as caking and dust formation, may be caused by condition existing during the
drying process. A high degree of Pol, a low percentage of moisture and a fine grain will favour
dust formation. As a result of this, sugar handling, sugar loading and shipment may also increase
the dust level 3 to 5 times the level in the original product.

Danger of explosion can happen at any instant. Dust explosions occur in two stages. Firstly,
ignition of a dust cloud takes place, producing a primary explosion. The disturbance produced by
the primary explosion rises into the air dust which may have been lying on the floor, shelves,
sills, beams and machinery. The explosion is then propagated through this secondary coluld,
producing a secondary explosion which can spread through the whole of the silo. A dust
explosion of 7 – 8 bars can easily damage a sugar silo and lead to death of many people.

Necessary precautions to reduce dust hazards are:

Prevention of excessive dust by making sure that sugars is at a relatively high

degree of polarisaion and not excessively dry.

A good house- keeping system so that dust can be cleaned up as often as necessary.

5.4.4 Fire

Pure sugars melts at 160 0C and decomposes at 170 to 180 0C. Its ignition temperature is about
460 0C. Stored in bulk, pure sugar is not easily ignited. Generally, sugar chars and caramelises
before it reaches the temperature at which it will burn in air. A skin forms over the surface of the
bulk of sugar, restricting air access and reducing the rate of burning. Even so, serious fires have
occurred where the flow of the molten sugar encourage fire spread.

Most fires start small and in their early stages grow comparatively slowly so providing over an
appreciable tie the opportunity of discovery and treatment. This is not the case, however, with
explosions which are the result of extremely rapid burning in a confined space and which are
more difficult to suppress once started. Fires sometimes produce explosions, and explosions start
from fires.

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Fire Protection Measures

To enable action to be taken as rapidly as possible to control any fire which may break out within
the terminal installation, fire warning and fighting equipment are installed.

A fire detector system would perform the following functions:

Automatically detect both visible and invisible products of combustion

Sound a fire alarm bell located near to the fire control panel
Sound a siren mounted externally to the building
Transmit a coded signal to the district fire station
Provide a district audible alarm at the indicator at the indicator board in the event of
loss of power to the detector circuits.
Provide a visual indication that the man supply is switched on to the equipment.
Provide a warning light and audible alarm in the Terminal manager’s office.

These detectors are located in the sugar silos, switch rooms, weight tower and reclaiming
tunnels.

5.4.5 Fresh Water Storage Tank and Pump Houses

Two sources of water supply are available: a fresh water storage tank with a capacity of 450,000
liters and slat water from the harbour in unlimited quantities.

An electrically driven fresh water pump is installed adjacent to the fresh water tank and a diesel
driven salt water pump nearby. These pumps have a minimum capacity of 11,500 liters peer
minutes at 90 meters head.

Hydrant services are provided throughout the terminal station and are charged with fresh water
all the time. On opening any hydrant, the drop in pressure starts up the fresh water pump.

External fire walkways are provided along the top of the sides walls of the silos. These enable
fire hoses to be brought to bear upon a fire within a silo and ready access to the silo interior is
obtained from walkways by means of doors and kick-in panels in this side wall sheeting.

A total of approximately 66 portable manually operated fire extinguishers are located at readily
accessible places throughout the bulk terminal.

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5.4.6 Safety Equipment

Emergency stop switches and pull wire operated stop with indicator lights are provided for each
conveyor, together with belt tracking and motor isolating switches, where necessary.

Automatically operated safety warming hoots furnish pre-warning of conveyor belts starting, to
ensure safety of personnel.

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Self Check Exercises

1. List the physical and chemical changes noted due to bad storage of sugar

2. List the bacteriological changes noted due to bad storage of the sugar in bags and
describe the causes of such changes.

3. List the microbiological changes that are noted due to bad storage of sugar.

4. A Quality Assurance department ensures that all the activities related to quality provide
Confidence that the sugar delivered satisfies the buyers’ needs.

5. Where in your factory would you suggest to establish an inspection measurement and
record programmme?

6. Even in a badly “infected” raw sugar, the micro-organisms are relatively inactive unless
the syrup layer surrounding the crystal of sugar is in a suitable condition to allow their
activity.
(a) Describe the changes that occur when hot (40 OC) sugar at 0.02 – 0.04 % moisture in
polypropylene bags with liners in stored at a relative humidity levels of 50 – 55 %.

7. Food safety is today an obligation in any sugar manufacturing plant.

(a) List three biological, three physical and three chemical hazards linked to the
manufacture of sugar.

(b) What does a CCP mean? List the four important questions in the decision tree you
would apply to each process in order to identify a CCP.

8. What are the various “Processes” in the sugar manufacture that are linked to the
determination of sugar moisture? Describe briefly each of them?

9. Describe the changes that occur to white sugar if bagged hot (~ 40 OC) in polypropylene
lined bags and stored in a dry and hot condition relative humidity of air is 50 % – 65 %
and air temperature is 35 OC – 40 OC).

10. Name the analyses involved and explain why points are allocated to only those three
analyses of refined sugar EEC Grade II?

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11. What are the effects of high ash content of raw sugar on the refining process?

12. List the precautions taken when performing the analyses of conductivity ash content
of raw sugar.

13. Describe one chemical, one physical and one microbiological change.

14. What do you understand by ERH?

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