AMERICAN LANGUAGE COURSE

INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

GRAMMAR SUMMARY

Compiled by Wayne Dann

Contributions and Inspiration for Summary

from the late William H. DeVane

Compiled by Wayne Dann

RSALFAC USE
Grammar Summary
Supplemental Material

Table of Contents
Page Title
5 PARTS OF SPEECH
5 NOUNS
5 How to form the plural of regular nouns
6 How to form the plural of irregular nouns
7 GERUNDS
8 PRONOUNS
8 Subject Pronouns
9 Object Pronouns
9 Possessive Adjectives
9 Possessive Pronouns
10 Reflexive Pronouns
11 Indefinite Pronouns
12 VERBS
12 SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE
12 How to Form the Simple Present Tense For Regular Verbs
13 Rules for Forming the Simple Present Tense Verb Endings
13 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
13 Rules for Forming the Present Continuous Tense Verb Endings
14 SIMPLE PAST TENSE
14 Rules for Forming the Simple Past Tense Verb Endings
15 THE VERB…TO BE
15 Simple Present Tense
15 TO BE Followed by a Noun
15 TO BE Followed by an Adjective
16 TO BE Followed by a Prepositional Phrase
16 Simple Past Tense
17 COMPARISON AND FORMATION OF DIFFERENT VERB TENSES
17 Comparison Chart for Simple Present, Past and Future Tenses
17 Comparison Chart for Present, Past and Future Continuous Tenses
18 Comparison of the Present Simple and Present Continuous Tenses
19 Comparison of the Simple Past and the Past Continuous Tenses
20 Comparison of the Simple Future and Future Continuous Tenses
21 Comparison Chart for Simple Present, Past and Future Perfect Tenses
21 Comparison Chart for Present, Past and Future Continuous Perfect Tenses
22 Comparison of Present Perfect Simple and Present Perfect Continuous Tenses
23 Comparison of Past Perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous Tenses

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24 Comparison of Future Perfect Simple and Future Perfect Continuous Tenses
25 INFINITIVES
27 MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES)
28 Using Modal Verbs To Express Degrees Of Certainty
28 Other Modal Verbs
29 AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS
30 IRREGULAR VERBS
34 Irregular Verbs With Similar Endings
36 Other Similar Irregular Verbs
39 ADJECTIVES
39 Using Adjectives
39 Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
39 How to use Comparatives and Superlatives
40 Rules for Forming Regular Comparatives and Superlatives
41 Irregular Comparative and Superlative Adjectives
42 ADVERBS
42 Different Types Of Adverbs
43 PARTICIPLES
44 ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
45 PREPOSITIONS
45 English Prepositions List
46 Prepositions of Time
47 Commonly used Prepositions of Place and Direction
48 Other Prepositions of Place and Direction
49 How to use Prepositions For / Since / Ago / Already / Yet
50 How to use Prepositions So / Too / Either / Neither / Also / As Well (As)
51 How to use Prepositions Too, So, Such, Enough
52 How to use Prepositions In, Into
53 CONDITIONALS
53 First Conditional
53 Second Conditional
53 Third Conditional
54 EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE
55 CAUSATIVES
55 Basic Causative Sentence Structure
55 Passive Causative Sentence Structure
55 The Causative with Have
56 The Causative with Get
56 The Causative with Make
56 The Causative with Let
57 The Causative with Help
57 REPORTED SPEECH / INDIRECT SPEECH
59 PASSIVE VOICE

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 61 TAG QUESTIONS
62 EMBEDDING
63 CLAUSES
63 Definition of Clause
63 Independent Clause
63 Dependent Clause
63 Relative Clause
64 Noun Clause
64 Adjective Clause
64 Subject Adjective Clause
65 Object Adjective Clause
66 Possessive Adjective Clause
66 Location Adjective Clause
66 Adverb Clause
68 PHRASES
68 Prepositional Phrase
68 Participial Phrase
68 Infinitive Phrase
68 Gerund Phrase
68 Verb Phrase

PARTS OF SPEECH
(NOUNS, VERBS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PRONOUNS)

NOUNS:
A noun is a word used to refer to people, animals, objects, substances, states, events and feelings.
Nouns can be a subject or an object of a verb, can be modified by an adjective and can take an article
or determiner. Nouns may be divided into two groups: Countable Nouns have plural forms and
Uncountable Nouns do not.

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A determiner (a word that modifies a noun) is an article (a, an, the car), numeral (two cars, first
day), possessive adjective (my job, their friends), quantifier (some coffee, few tickets) or a
demonstrative adjective (this tape, those books)

NOTE: Words that end in …er, …ment, …ty, …ey, ness…, …tion, are NOUNS.

Examples: He bought a new computer for his office.

We made the reservation on time.
They made an agreement to stay inside for hours.

HOW TO FORM THE PLURAL OF REGULAR NOUNS

Noun ending Forming the plural Examples

boss - bosses
s, x, ch or sh Add -es tax - taxes
bush - bushes

Change y to i
fly - flies
consonant + y then try - tries
curry - curries
Add -es

cat - cats
most others Add -s face - faces
day - days

HOW TO FORM DIFFERENT TYPES OF IRREGULAR PLURAL NOUNS

Noun type Forming the plural Examples

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 Change f to v
knife - knives
Ends with -fe then life - lives
wife - wives
Add -s

Change f to v
half - halves
Ends with -f then wolf - wolves
loaf - loaves
Add -es

potato - potatoes
Ends with -o Add -es tomato - tomatoes
volcano - volcanoes

cactus - cacti
Ends with -us Change -us to -i nucleus - nuclei
focus - foci

analysis - analyses
Ends with -is Change -is to -es crisis - crises
thesis - theses

phenomenon - phenomena
Ends with -on Change -on to -a criterion - criteria

Change the vowel

man - men
or foot - feet
child - children
ALL KINDS Change the word person - people
tooth - teeth
or mouse - mice

Add a different ending

sheep
Unchanging Singular and plural deer
fish (sometimes)

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 are the same

GERUNDS
Gerunds are verb forms used as nouns.

I enjoy books. (The object of a verb is usually a noun or pronoun.)

I enjoy reading. (The object of a verb can also be a gerund, A gerund is the ING form
of the verb which is used as a noun.)

Some verbs are followed by gerunds.

advise I always advise studying outside class.
appreciate He didn’t appreciate listening to Ali’s problems.
avoid He could not avoid being in the accident.
consider You should consider taking another course.
think about You should think about taking another course.
delay You shouldn’t delay studying until the last minute.
deny You can’t deny taking the last cookie.
discuss We need to discuss using gerunds in sentences.
talk about We need to talk about using gerunds in sentences.
dislike He dislikes doing homework.
enjoy He enjoys doing homework
finish Ali didn’t finish answering all the questions.
imagine He couldn’t imagine leaving home.
keep Keep studying after you finish the course
keep on Keep on studying after you finish the course.
mention He mentioned studying at U.C.L.A.
mind I don’t mind waiting a few minutes.
miss He won’t miss having to study so much.
postpone We can not postpone moving to KKMC.
put off We can put off taking the ALCPT test.
quit He quit smoking.
stop He stopped smoking.

Notice that the gerund follows to with these verbs. Usually to is followed by the infinitive.

be close to They are close to finishing the test.

be used to He wasn’t used to getting up so early.
be accustomed to He wasn’t accustomed to getting up so early.

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get used to He couldn’t get used to getting up so early.
look forward to Do you look forward to finishing the course?
object to Some people object to smoking inside the office.

Go is often followed by the infinitive (ING) form of the verb.

Examples:
I often go swimming in the summer. He went fishing last week.
Ali hasn’t gone hunting for a long time. Can we go shopping tomorrow.
They hadn’t gone running for a long time. I like to go scuba diving in the summer.

Some verbs are followed by either a gerund or an infinitive.

begin It began raining. It began to rain.

can’t stand He can’t stand waiting for people. He can’t stand to wait for people.
continue They continue writing. They continue to write.
hate He hates taking tests. He hates to take tests.
like I like swimming. I like to swim.
love Mohammad loves eating candy. Mohammad loves to eat candy.
start You may start answering now. You may start to answer now.

Gerunds are used as the subject of a sentence. Infinitives are used after adjectives.

Swimming is fun It is fun to swim.

Studying outside class is necessary It is necessary to study outside class.
Being on time for class is important. It is important to be on time for class.
Is learning English difficult? Is it difficult to learn English.
Eating in that restaurant is expensive. It is expensive to eat in that restaurant.
Flying is faster than driving. It is faster to fly than to drive.
Having a broken leg is painful. It is painful to have a broken leg.
Driving too fast is dangerous. It is dangerous to drive too fast.

NOTE: A gerund as a subject always takes a singular verb.

Examples: Swimming is difficult to learn.

Learning English takes time.

The gerund can be used after most prepositions.

by Ali got a high score by working so hard.

for A fire extinguisher is for putting out fires.
about Abdul wanted to learn about scuba diving.
in Mohammad was interested in playing football.

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after People shouldn’t swim after eating a big meal.
before Kim left before finishing the exam.
on They attended a conference on putting out fires.

PRONOUNS
SUBJECT PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as SUBJECT PRONOUNS before the verb as the subject of a
sentence.
Singular Pronouns Plural Pronouns
I am a student. We are students.
You (singular)are a student. You (Plural) are students.
He is a student. They are students.
She is a student.
It is a cat.

OBJECT PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as OBJECT PRONOUNS after a verb or a preposition as the subject.

Singular Object Pronouns Singular Object Pronouns

After the Verb After a Preposition

He gave me the book. He gave the Book to me.

He gave you the book. He gave the book to you.
He gave him the book. He gave the book to him.
He gave her the book. He gave the book to her.
He gave it some food. He gave some food to it.

Plural Object Pronouns Plural Object Pronouns

After the Verb After a Preposition

He gave us the book. He gave the book to us.

He gave you the book. He gave the book to you.
He gave them the book. He gave the book to them.

POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
We use the following pronouns as POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES before nouns to indicate possession.

Singular Pronouns as Plural Pronouns as

Possessive Adjectives Possessive Adjectives

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This is my book. This is our book. (These are our books.)
This is your book. This is your book. (These are your books.)
This is his book. This is their book. (These are their books.)
This is her book.
It is its food.

POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS to indicate possession.

Singular Singular
Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns

This is my book. This is mine. (mine = my book)

This is your book. This is yours. (yours = your book)
This is his book.  The is his. (his = his book)
This is her book. The is hers. (hers = her book)
This food is its food. This is its. (its = its food)
Plural Plural
Possessive Adjectives Possessive Pronouns

This is our book. This is ours. (ours = our book)

This is your book.  This is yours. (yours = your book)
This is their book. This is theirs. (theirs = their book)

REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
We use the following pronouns as REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS to reflect back or refer to the subject
of the verb.

Singular Reflexive Pronouns Plural Reflexive Pronouns

I will pay for myself. We will pay for ourselves.
You will pay for yourself. (singular) You will pay for yourselves. (plural)
He will pay for himself. They will pay for themselves.
She will pay for herself.
One will pay for oneself.
It will for look after itself.

__________________________________________________________________________________
We use the following the following PRONOUNS to show:
1. If the NOUN is singular or plural.
2. If the NOUN is near or far.
Singular Plural

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 Near This These
Far That Those
___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

PRONOUN / POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVE CHART

SUBJECT OBJECT POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE REFLEXIVE

PRONOUNS PRONOUNS ADJECTIVES PRONOUNS PRONOUNS
I me my mine myself
You you (singular) your (singular) yours (singular) yourself
He him his his himself
She her her hers herself
It it its its itself
We us our ours ourselves
You you (Plural) your (Plural) yours (Plural) yourselves
They them their theirs themselves

NOTE: One additional reflexive pronoun that is not like the other pronouns is oneself.

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS

Indefinite pronouns refer to things or people without mentioning what or who they are.
For people we use: anybody or anyone / somebody or someone / nobody or no one
For things we use: anything or something / nothing or none.
For locations we use: anywhere or somewhere / nowhere.

SOMEONE / ANYONE / SOMEBODY / ANYBODY / NOBODY / NO ONE

Someone or Somebody are used in affirmative statements.

Examples: I saw (someone or somebody) in the lab.
My friend met (someone or somebody) at the restaurant.
He wants (someone or somebody) to help me.

Anyone or Anybody are used in negative statements.

Examples: I didn’t see (anyone or anybody) in the lab.
My friend didn’t meet (anyone or anybody) at the restaurant.
He doesn’t want (anyone or anybody) to help me.

Someone or Somebody can be used in affirmative questions.

Anyone or Anybody can be used in affirmative and negative questions.
Examples: Did you see (someone, anyone, somebody or anybody) in the lab?
Doesn’t he want (anyone or anybody) to help him?

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 Nobody and No one are used in affirmative statements only.
(nobody = not anybody) (No one = not anyone)
Examples: (Nobody or No one) is in the lab.
(Nobody or No one) met my friend at the restaurant.
(Nobody or No one) wants to help me.

SOMETHING / ANYTHING / NOTHING

Something or Nothing are used in affirmative statements.

Examples: I saw something in the lab.
My friend ate something bad at the restaurant.
There is nothing he can do.

Anything is used in negative statements.

Examples: I didn’t see anything in the lab.
My friend didn’t eat anything bad at the restaurant.
He doesn’t want to buy anything for me.

Something or Anything can be used in questions.

Examples: Did you see (something or anything) in the lab?
Did my friend eat (something or anything) bad at the restaurant?
Does he want to buy (something or anything) for me?

VERBS
Verbs are one of the major grammatical groups, and all sentences must contain one. Verbs refer to an
action (do, break, walk, etc.) or a state (be, like, own). The verb tense shows the time of the action or
state (present, past of future).

SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

HOW TOFORM THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE

There are only two basic forms for the simple present tense; one ends with –s or -es and the
other doesn't. Here are the rules, using the example verb "sing":

Subject Verb Form Example

I simple form I sing

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 You simple form You sing

He simple form + S He sings

She simple form + S She sings

It simple form + S It sings

We simple form We sing

They simple form They sing

NOTE: Only THIRD PERSON SINGULAR subjects (he, she, and it) have
to have a verb with -S.

RULES FOR FORMING THE SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE - S or - ES?

With most verbs, the third person singular form is created simply by adding -S. However,
with some verbs, you need to add -ES or change the ending a little. Here are the rules:

Verb ending How to make the 3rd person

Example
in... singular (he, she it)

He passes
She dozes
s, z, sh, ch Add -ES
She wishes
He watches

consonant + y Change Y to I, then add -ES It flies

[anything else] Add -S He sings

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 Verb ending in... How to make the -ING form Examples

Double the consonant, then add - swim - swimming

1 vowel + 1 consonant hit - hitting
ING get - getting

1 vowel + 1 consonant + come - coming

Remove E, then add -ING lose - losing
E live - living

say - saying
[anything else] Add -ING go - going
walk - walking

PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

RULES FOR FORMING THE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
With many verbs, the you can simply add -ING to the end of the verb. However, with some verbs, you
need to change the ending a little. Here are the rules:

SIMPLE PAST TENSE

RULES FOR FORMING THE SIMPLE PAST TENSE
With most verbs, the simple past is created simply by adding -ED. However, with some verbs,
you need to change the ending a little. Here are the rules:

How to make the simple

Verb ending in... Examples
past

live - lived
e Add -D
date - dated

try - tried
Consonant + y Change y to i, then add -ED
cry - cried

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 One vowel + one
Double the consonant, then add -
tap - tapped
consonant
commit - committed
ED
(but NOT w or y)

boil - boiled
[anything else] Add -ED fill - filled
hand - handed

THE VERB…TO BE
SIMPLE PRESENT TENSE … THE VERB… TO BE

Singular forms of the verb TO BE Plural forms of the verb TO BE

I am We are
You are You are
He is They are
She is
It is

The verb TO BE can be followed by a noun, by an adjective, or a prepositional phrase in statements or

questions.

TO BE Followed by a Noun

Singular forms of verb TO BE followed by a noun.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

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 I am a student. Am I a student?
You are a student. Are you a student?
He is a student. Is he a student?
She is a student. Is she a student?
It is a dog. Is it a dog?

Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by a noun.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

We are students. Are we students?

You are students. Are you students?
They are students. Are they students?

TO BE Followed by an Adjective

Singular forms of verb TO BE followed by an adjective.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

I am happy. Am I happy?
You are sad. Are you sad?
He is handsome. Is he handsome?
She is smart. Is she smart?
It is brown. Is it brown?
Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by an adjective.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

We are intelligent. Are we intelligent?

You are generous. Are you generous?
They are crazy. Are they crazy?

TO BE Followed by a Prepositional Phrase

Singular forms of verb TO BE followed by a prepositional phrase.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

I am in the library. Am I in the library?

You are on the base. Are you on the base?
He is at the BX. Is he at the BX?
She is in the store. Is she in the store?
It is on the road. Is it on the road?
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 Plural forms of verb TO BE followed by a prepositional phrase.

STATEMENTS QUESTIONS

We are at the school. Are we at the school?

You are in the classroom. Are you in the classroom?
They are on time. Are they on time?
________________________________________________________________________

SIMPLE PAST TENSE… THE VERB… TO BE

Singular forms of the verb TO BE Plural forms of the verb TO BE

I was We were
You were You were
He was They were
She was
It was
________________________________________________________________________

NOTE: You cannot use DO, DOES, or DID with the verb TO BE

COMPARISONS AND FORMATIONS OF

DIFFERENT VERB TENSES
COMPARISON OF SIMPLE PRESENT, PAST AND FUTURE TENSES

THE SIMPLE TENSES

TENSE EXAMPLES MEANING
SIMPLE I watch TV everyday. Used to express events or situations that
PRESENT She watches TV everyday. exist all the time. These events existed in
the past, presently exist, and will probably
exist in the future.
SIMPLE I watched TV yesterday. Used to express events that happened at
PAST She watched TV yesterday. ONE time in the past. These events began
and ended ONE time in the past.
SIMPLE I will watch TV tomorrow. Used to express events that will happen at

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FUTURE She will watch TV ONE time in the future. These events will
tomorrow. begin and end ONE time in the future.

COMPARISON OF PRESENT, PAST AND FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSES

THE CONTINUOUS (PROGRESSIVE) TENSES

Form: be + ing
TENSE EXAMPLES MEANING
PRESENT I am watching TV. Used to express events or situations
PROGRESSIVE She is watching TV. that began in the past and is in progress
at the present time. It is used to express
things that are happening right now.
PAST I was watching TV when Used to express events or situations
PROGRESSIVE Abdul arrived. that happened in the past and was in
She was watching TV progress before another event that
when Abdul arrived. happened in the past.
FUTURE I will be watching TV Used to express events or situations
PROGRESSIVE tomorrow when Abdul that will be happening in the future
arrives. prior to another event that will be
She will be watching TV happening in the future.
tomorrow when Abdul
arrives.

THE PRESENT SIMPLE AND PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSES

The present simple tense is used for actions that occur regularly or all the time.
The present continuous tense is used for actions that occur right now or in the near future. The
present simple tense can also be used for a future action if a time in the near future is added to the
sentence.

.
PRESENT SIMPLE TENSE PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I I am working.
You work.
We You .
They We are working.
They

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 He He
She works. She is working
It It
NEGATIVE I I am not working.
You don’t work.
We You are not (aren’t) working.
They We
They

He He
She doesn’t work. She is not (isn’t) working.
It It
QUESTIONS I Am I working?
Do you work?
we you
they Are we working?
they

he he
Does she work? Is she working?
it it

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions for both the simple past and the past continuous tenses.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Simple Past Tense Did you not work? Didn’t you work?
Did we not work? Didn’t we work?
Did he not work? Didn’t he work?

Past Continuous Are you not working? Aren’t you working?

Tense Are we not working? Aren’t we working?
Is he not working? Isn’t he working?

THE SIMPLE PAST AND THE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES

The simple past tense is used for actions that began and ended in the past.
The past continuous tense is used for actions that occurred in the past and continued over a period of
time.

SIMPLE PAST TENSE PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE

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STATEMENT I I
You He was working when the phone rang.
He She
She worked yesterday. It
It
We We
You You were working when the phone rang.
They They
NEGATIVE I I
You He wasn’t working when the phone rang.
He She
She didn’t work yesterday. It
It
We We
You You weren’t working when the phone rang.
They They
QUESTIONS I I
you Was he working when the phone rang?
he she
Did she work yesterday? it
it
we we
you Were you working when the phone rang?
they they

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions for both the simple past and the past continuous tenses.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Simple Past Tense Did you not work? Didn’t you work?
Did we not work? Didn’t we work?
Did he not work? Didn’t he work?

Past Continuous Were you not working? Weren’t you working?

Tense Were we not working? Weren’t we working?
Was he not working? Wasn’t he working?

THE SIMPLE FUTURE AND FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSES

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The simple future tense is used to express events that will happen at ONE time in the future. These
events will begin and end ONE time in the future.
The future continuous tense is used to express events or situations that will be happening in the
future prior to another event that will be happening in the future.

SIMPLE FUTURE TENSE FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I I
You He will be working when the phone rings.
He She
She will work tomorrow. It
It
We We
You You will be working when the phone rings.
They They
NEGATIVE I I
You He won’t be working when the phone rings.
He She
She won’t work tomorrow. It
It
We (won’t = will not) We
You You won’t be working when the phone rings.
They They
QUESTIONS I I
you Will he be working when the phone rings?
he she
Will she work tomorrow? it
it
we we
you Will you be working when the phone rings?
they they

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions for both the simple future and the future continuous tenses.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Simple Past Tense Will you not work? Won’t you work?
Will we not work? Won’t we work?
Will he not work? Won’t he work?

Past Continuous Will you not be working? Won’t you be working?

Tense Will we not be working? Won’t we be working?

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 Will he not be working? Won’t he be working?

THE SIMPLE PERFECT TENSES

Form: have + past participle
TENSE EXAMPLES MEANING
SIMPLE I have already watched TV. Used to express events or situations that
PRESENT She has already watched TV. finished sometime before now.
SIMPLE I had already watched TV Used to express events or situations that
PAST yesterday. completely finished before another time
She had already watched TV in the past.
yesterday.
SIMPLE I will already have watched Used to express events or situations that
FUTURE TV when you arrive. completely finished before another time
She will already have watched in the future.
TV when you arrive.

THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES

Form: have + been + ing
TENSE EXAMPLES MEANING
PRESENT I have been watching TV for Used to express events or situations
PROGRESSIVE 2 hours. that are in progress before now and
She has been watching TV for up to now.
2 hours.
PAST I had been watching TV for 2 Used to express events or situations
PROGRESSIVE hours before my friend that were in progress before
arrived. another event in the past.
She had been watching TV
for 2 hours before her friend
arrived.
FUTURE I will have been watching TV Used to express events or situations
PROGRESSIVE for 2 hours before my friend that will have been in progress
arrives. before another event in the future.
She will have been watching
TV for 2 hours before her

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 friend arrives.

PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE AND CONTINUOUS TENSES

The present perfect simple tense is used when the action of the verb happened at an unspecified time
in the past and when the action of the verb began in the past and continues until now.
The present perfect continuous tense is used when the action of the verb began in the past and is
continuing at the present time.

PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT

SIMPLE TENSE CONTINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I I
You have finished. You have been finishing.
We We
They They

He He
She has finished. She has been finishing.
It It
NEGATIVE I I
You have not (haven’t) finished. You have not (haven’t) been finishing.
We We
They They

He He
She has not (hasn’t) finished. She has not (hasn’t) been finishing.
It It
QUESTIONS I I
Have you finished? Have you been finishing?
we we
they they

he he
Has she finished? Has she been finishing?
it it

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 NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Present Perfect Have you not finished? Haven’t you finished?

Simple Tense Have we not finished? Haven’t we finished?
Has he not finished? Hasn’t he finished?

Present Perfect Have you not been finishing? Haven’t you been finishing?
Continuous Tense Have we not been finishing? Haven’t we been finishing?
Has he not been finishing? Hasn’t he been finishing?

PAST PERFECT SIMPLE AND PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES

The past perfect simple tense is used when the action of the verb began and ended before another
time in the past. It is often combined with a clause using the simple past.
The past perfect continuous tense is used to express events or situations that were in progress before
another event in the past.

PAST PERFECT PAST PERFECT

SIMPLE TENSE PROGRESSIVE TENSE

STATEMENT I I
You You
We We
They had left when Bob came. They had been leaving when Bob came.
He He
She She
It It
NEGATIVE I I
You You
We We
They had not left when Bob came. They had not been leaving when Bob came.
He He
She (had not = hadn’t) She
It It
QUESTIONS I I
you you
we we
Had they left when Bob came? Had they been leaving when Bob came?
he he
she she

24
 it it

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Past Perfect Had you not left when Bob came? Hadn’t you left when Bob came?
Simple Tense Had we not left when Bob came? Hadn’t we left when Bob came?
Had he not left when Bob came? Hadn’t he left when Bob came?

Past Perfect Had you not been leaving when Bob came?
Continuous Hadn’t you been leaving when Bob came?
Tense Had we not been leaving when Bob came?
Hadn’t we been leaving when Bob came?
Had he not left when Bob came?
Hadn’t he been leaving when Bob came?

FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE AND FUTURE

PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSES

The future perfect simple tense is used to express events or situations that completely finished before
another time in the future.
The future perfect continuous tense is used to express events or situations that will have been in
progress before another event in the future.

FUTURE PERFECT FUTURE PERFECT

SIMPLE TENSE CONTUINUOUS TENSE

STATEMENT I I
You will have finished. You will have been finishing.
We We
They They

He He
She will have finished. She will have been finishing.
It It
NEGATIVE I I
You will not have finished. You will not have been finishing.
We We
They They
(have not = haven’t) (have not = haven’t)
He He

25
 She will not have finished. She will not have been finishing.
It It
QUESTIONS I I
Will you have finished? Will you have been finishing?
we we
they they

he he
Will she have finished? Will she have been finishing?
it it

NOTE: There is a difference between the word order for negative questions when using full words
and contractions.

Example: Full Words Contractions

Present Perfect Will you not have finished? Won’t you have finished?
Simple Tense Will we not have finished? Won’t we have finished?
Will he not have finished? Won’t he have finished?

Present Perfect Will you not have been finishing? Won’t you have been finishing?
Continuous Tense Will we not have been finishing? Won’t we have been finishing?
Will he not have been finishing? Won’t he have been finishing?

INFINITIVES
An infinitive is the form of the verb, but it is not a verb. An infinitive can be a noun, an adjective or an
adverb. It is always "to" plus a verb.

Examples: Students need to learn the parts of speech.

(The infinitive to learn is the object of the verb. Therefore, it is a noun.)
The ants have arrived to grab the leftovers from the picnic.
(The infinitive to grab is an adverb explaining why or where they have arrived.)
That attorney has the right to represent you.
(To represent is an adjective telling us what kind of right.)

Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs.

agree Mohammad agreed to go with us.

aim Ali aims to become an officer.
appear You appear to know all the answers.
arrange We must arrange to send these boxes to Dallas.
ask You shouldn’t ask to leave the class early.
bother Don’t bother to return this pencil

26
can/can’t afford Abdulrazac can’t afford to buy a new car.
care Mohammad doesn’t care to watch television.
choose Tared chose not to go with us.
decide They have decided to go on vacation in June.
demand He demanded to see the manager of the store.
expect That student expects to complete the course.
fail He failed to ask for permission to leave.
happen Sam happened to get all of the answers correct.
hesitate Do not hesitate to ask for help.
hope He hopes to return by the end of the month.
instruct He was instructed to come immediately.
intend Where do you intend to study next year?
invite I was invited to come next year.
learn You must learn to read fast.
manage I managed to pass the quiz.
mean Ali didn’t mean to interrupt the meeting.
need You need to study to get a good grade.
neglect Don’t neglect to get a good nights sleep.
offer I offered to give him a ride.
plan I didn’t plan to go to Riyadh.
prefer I prefer to study by myself.
prepare I am prepared to take the test.
pretend I am pretending to study.
promise I promise to be a good student.
refuse I refuse to move to Iraq.
remember I remembered to bring my book.
request I requested to see the Major.
seem You seem to be upset.
tend I tend to get upset easily.
threaten I threaten to leave the program.
try I tried to give him some advice.
volunteer I volunteered to help him learn English.
wait I will wait to go to Egypt.
want I want to visit my mother.
wish I wish to travel around the world.
would like I would like to know you better.

Use TO + INFINITIVE after the following verbs when they are followed by a noun or pronoun.

advise We advised him to come early.

allow The manager wouldn’t allow Ali to go.
cause The sudden noise caused him to jump.

27
direct He directed Mohammad to clean the aircraft.
encourage Mr. Dann encourages his students to study.
expect * He expects them to do well on the test.
forbid The colonel forbids them to smoke.
instruct He instructed them to replace the engine.
invite Mohammad invited Abdul to come to dinner.
motivate I motivate my students to try hard.
order * The doctor ordered him to stop smoking
permit They won’t permit us to leave.
persuade * I persuaded Ali to go with us
promise * He promised her to send a post card.
recommend * He recommended Ali to get a medal.
remind * Ali reminded the students to arrive early.
request * I requested the general to find a good location.
want Mr. Smith wants all of his students to pass.

The verbs marked with * can be followed by a THAT clause.

The following verbs are followed by a WH question word and the infinitive.

ask They should have asked when to come.

decide He must decide when to go on leave.
find out We will find out what to do in an emergency.
forget Abdul hasn’t forgotten how to cook steaks.
know They don’t know where to put the new sofa.
learn He needs to learn who to ask for help.
remember Ali couldn’t remember which book to bring.
show Mohammad showed him how to repair the engine
teach I am teaching him how to drive.
tell The teacher will tell him which homework to do.

MODAL VERBS (MODAL AUXILIARIES)

Modal verbs are used to express ideas such as possibility, intention, obligation and necessity. CAN,
COULD, WILL, WOULD, SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, DARE and NEED are some examples.
Modal verbs have to do with degrees of certainty.

Most Degree of Certainty

28
 Will

Must

Can

Should

May

Might

Least Degree of Certainty

For Modal Verbs the Sentence Structures are always the same.

For statements: Subject + Modal Verb + Main Verb

For Questions: Modal Verb + Subject + Main Verb

Note: Modal auxiliary verbs are invariable (no conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare
infinitive" (the infinitive without "to").

No conjugation... means modal verbs do not change for present, past or future
tenses.
Bare infinitive… means do not use to before the verb… you can use ‘can eat’ ‘may eat’ ‘might
eat’…but do not use ‘can to eat’ ‘may to eat’ ‘might to eat’

29
USING MODAL VERBS TO EXPRESS DEGREES OF CERTAINTY

Will… Is used to express something that is certain.

Example: I will go to Riyadh this weekend

Must… Is used to express something that is necessary.

Example: I must go to Riyadh to see my doctor.

Can… Is used to express something that is possible, ability or to ask or give

permission.
Examples: I can go to Riyadh on Thursday since it is a weekend.
I can swim.
Can he smoke here?

Should… Is used when we want something to happen, and it is reasonable to expect it to happen.
Example: We should be able to go to Spain next summer if we save
our money.

May… Is used when we wish to express the something will possibly happen.
Example: We may go to the party but we haven’t made a decision
yet.

Might… Is used when we want to express that something will possibly happen, but we are less
certain.
Example: He might be at home, but he usually prays at this time.

OTHER MODAL VERBS

Could… Is used when we talk about what was possible in the past or to make
requests.
Examples: I could swim when I was 5 years old.
Could you tell me where the bank is, please?

Would… Is used when we want to express a condition, a doubt, or to make a polite

request.
Examples: She would go to the movie if you would go with her.
It would appear he was wrong.
Would you please get me my hat?

30
AUXILLARY (HELPING) VERB QUESTIONS
Auxiliary verbs are verbs that COME WITH ANOTHER VERB. Any verb that is by itself is not a
helping verb! For instance, in the sentence: He IS GOING to class. _The word "is" is a helping verb
because it is with the action verb "going."

The helping verbs DO, DOES, DID, and MODALS are followed by the infinitive (verb one).

Examples: DO you know the phone number?

DOES he drive to work everyday?
DID they pass the test?
WILL you eat lunch today?
SHOULD I visit my mother?
MAY I go to the washroom?
CAN you swim?
MUST she wear a uniform?
_________________________________________________________________________________

The helping verbs AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary verbs (such as in the
continuous tenses) are followed by the ING form of the MAIN VERB.

Examples: AM I DOING this correctly?

ARE you COMING to class tomorrow?
IS she MAKING dinner now?
WAS he DRIVING carefully?
WERE they SLEEPING in class?
WILL they be EATING at 1:30?
HAVE they been WRITING for 2 hours?

Note: AM, ARE, IS, WAS, WERE, BE and BEEN auxiliary (helping verbs) are not followed by the
ING form of the MAIN VERB if the sentence is passive.

Examples: ARE the planes INSPECTED daily?

WAS the job FINISHED early?
Have the chairs BEEN PAINTED?
_____________________________________________________________________________

The helping verbs HAVE, HAS, and HAD are followed by the PAST PARTICIPLE.

Examples: HAVE you DONE your homework?

HAS he ARRIVED yet?
HAD they EATEN before they left?

31
 Simple Past
Base Form Past Participle
Tense
awake awoke awoken IRREGULAR
be was, were been
bear bore born VERBS
beat beat beat
become became become
begin began begun
bend bent bent
beset beset beset
bet bet bet
bid bid/bade bid/bidden
bind bound bound
bite bit bitten
bleed bled bled
blow blew blown
break broke broken
breed bred bred
bring brought brought
broadcast broadcast broadcast
build built built
burn burned/burnt burned/burnt
burst burst burst
buy bought bought
cast cast cast
catch caught caught
choose chose chosen
cling clung clung
come came come
cost cost cost
creep crept crept
cut cut cut
deal dealt dealt
dig dug dug
dive dived/dove dived
do did done
draw drew drawn
dream dreamed/dreamt dreamed/dreamt
drive drove driven 32
drink drank drunk
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
fit fit fit
flee fled fled
fling flung flung
fly flew flown
forbid forbade forbidden
forget forgot forgotten
forego (forgo) forewent foregone
forgive forgave forgiven
forsake forsook forsaken
freeze froze frozen
get got gotten
give gave given
go went gone
grind ground ground
grow grew grown
hang hung hung
hear heard heard
hide hid hidden
hit hit hit
hold held held
hurt hurt hurt
keep kept kept
kneel knelt knelt
knit knit knit
know knew know
lay laid laid
lead led led
leap leaped/lept leaped/lept
learn learned/learnt learned/learnt
leave left left
lend lent lent
let let let
lie lay lain
light lighted/lit lighted 33
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
misspell misspelled/misspelt misspelled/misspelt
mistake mistook mistaken
mow mowed mowed/mown
overcome overcame overcome
overdo overdid overdone
overtake overtook overtaken
overthrow overthrew overthrown
pay paid paid
plead pled pled
prove proved proved/proven
put put put
quit quit quit
read read read
rid rid rid
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
run ran run
saw sawed sawed/sawn
say said said
see saw seen
seek sought sought
sell sold sold
send sent sent
set set set
sew sewed sewed/sewn
shake shook shaken
shave shaved shaved/shaven
shear shore shorn
shed shed shed
shine shone shone
shoe shoed shoed/shod
shoot shot shot
show showed showed/shown
shrink shrank shrunk
shut shut shut
sing sang sung 34
sink sank sunk
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slay slew slain
slide slid slid
sling slung slung
slit slit slit
smite smote smitten
sow sowed sowed/sown
speak spoke spoken
speed sped sped
spend spent spent
spill spilled/spilt spilled/spilt
spin spun spun
spit spit/spat spit
split split split
spread spread spread
spring sprang/sprung sprung
stand stood stood
steal stole stolen
stick stuck stuck
sting stung stung
stink stank stunk
stride strod stridden
strike struck struck
string strung strung
strive strove striven
swear swore sworn
sweep swept swept
swell swelled swelled/swollen 
swim swam swum
swing swung swung
take took taken
teach taught taught
tear tore torn
tell told told
think thought thought
thrive thrived/throve thrived
throw threw thrown
thrust thrust thrust
tread trod trodden
understand understood understood
uphold upheld upheld 35
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
upset upset upset
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave weaved/wove weaved/woven
wed wed wed
weep wept wept
wind wound wound
win won won
withhold withheld withheld
withstand withstood withstood
wring wrung wrung
write wrote written

IRREGULAR VERBS

WITH SIMILAR ENDINGS

36
 Verbs ‘ought’
Simple Past weave wove Woven
Base Form Past Participle
Tense Verbs ‘ew’
bring brought brought
blow blew blown
buy bought bought
draw drew drawn
fight fought fought
fly flew flown
seek sought sought
grow grew grown
think thought thought
know knew knew
Verbs ‘aught’ overthrow overthrew Overthrown
catch caught slay
caught slew slain
teach taught throw
taught threw thrown

Verbs ‘ent’ Verbs ‘ame’

bend bent bent become became Become
go went wentcome came Come
lend lent lent overcome overcame Overcome
send sent sent Verbs ‘oke’
spend spent spentawake awoke awoken
Verbs ‘ang’ break broke broken
ring rang rang lead led led
sing sang sang plead pled pled
spring sprang shed
sprang shed Shed
speed sped sped
Verbs ‘ove’
wed wed Wed
dive dove dove
drive drove drove Verbs ‘aid’
strive strove lay
striven laid laid
pay paid paid
say said Said
Verbs ‘id’
bid bid bid
do did done
hide hid Hidden
rid rid Rid
slide slid Slid
Verbs ‘ot’
forget forgot forgotten
get got gotten
shoot shot Shot
Verbs ‘ook’
forsake forsook Forsaken
37
38
mistake mistook mistaken
overtake overtook overtaken
shake shook shaken
take took Taken

Verbs ‘ore’
bear bore born
shear shore shorn
swear swore sworn
tear tore torn
wear wore worn

OTHER SIMILAR IRREGULAR VERBS

Here you find irregular verbs listed according to there similarities and differences.
ALL 3 FORMS ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

bet* bet bet
burst burst burst
cost cost cost
cut cut cut
hit hit hit
hurt hurt hurt
let let let
put put put
read read read
set set set
shut shut shut

INFINITIVE AND SIMPLE PAST ARE SIMILAR

PAST
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST
PARTICIPLE
beat beat beaten

INFINITIVE AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR

PAST
INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST
PARTICIPLE
come came come
run ran run

39
become became become
SIMPLE PAST AND PAST PARTICIPLE ARE SIMILAR

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

bring brought brought
build built built
buy bought bought
catch caught caught
deal dealt dealt
feed fed fed
feel felt felt
fight fought fought
find found found
get got got
hang hung hung
have had had
hear heard heard
hold held held
keep kept kept
lay laid laid
lead led led
leave left left
lend lent lent
light* lit lit
lose lost lost
make made made
mean meant meant
meet met met
pay paid paid
say said said
sell sold sold
send sent sent
shine shone shone
shoot shot shot
sit sat sat
sleep slept slept
slide slid slid
spend spent spent
stand stood stood
stick stuck stuck
sweep swept swept
swing swung swung

40
teach taught taught
tell told told
think thought thought
understand understood understood
win won won

ALL 3 FORMS ARE DIFFERENT

INFINITIVE SIMPLE PAST PAST PARTICIPLE

be was/were been
begin began begun
blow blew blown
break broke broken
choose chose chosen
do did done
draw drew drawn
drink drank drunk
drive drove driven
eat ate eaten
fall fell fallen
fly flew flown
forget forgot forgotten
freeze froze frozen
give gave given
go went gone
grow grew grown
hide hid hidden
know knew known
lie lay lain
ride rode ridden
ring rang rung
rise rose risen
see saw seen
shake shook shaken
show* showed shown
sing sang sung
sink sank sunk
speak spoke spoken
spring sprang sprung

41
steal stole stolen
swear swore sworn
swim swam swum
take took taken
tear tore torn
throw threw thrown
wake woke woken
wear wore worn
weave wove woven
write wrote written

ADJECTIVES
An adjective modifies a noun. It describes the quality, state or action that a noun refers to.

USING ADJECTIVES
i) Adjectives can come before nouns: a new car
ii) Adjectives can come after verbs such as be, become, seem, look, etc.: that car looks fast
iii) Adjectives can be modified by adverbs: a very expensive car
iv) Adjectives can be used as complements to a noun: the extras make the car expensive

NOTE: When we change a plural noun into an adjective we must add a hyphen (-) and remove the “s”
Examples: The shirt costs ten dollars… becomes… It’s a ten-dollar shirt.
The general has five stars… becomes… He’s a five-star general.

NOTE: We can change some verbs into adjectives:

Examples:
interest interested interesting amaze amazed amazing
surprise surprised surprising annoy annoyed annoying
irritate irritated irritating excite excited exciting

The book interested Ali. It is an interesting book. Ali is interested in the book.
The story amazed Ahmed. It is an amazing story. Mohammad is amazing.
The news surprised the boys. The news is surprising. The boys are surprised.
The game excited people. It is an exciting game. They were excited people.
The noise irritated us. It was an irritating noise. They were irritated students.

42
 COMPARATIVE & SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES
Comparatives and Superlatives are special forms of adjectives. They are used to compare two or more
things. Generally, comparatives are formed using -er and superlatives are formed using -est.

HOW TO USE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES

COMPARATIVES are used to compare two things. You can use sentences with THAN, or
you can use a conjunction like BUT.

Examples: Abdul is taller than Ali.

Ali is tall, but Abdul is taller.

SUPERLATIVES are used to compare more than two things. Superlative sentences usually
use THE, because there is only one superlative.

Examples: Abdul is the tallest in the class.

Ali is tall, and Mohammad is taller, but Abdul is the tallest.

RULES FOR FORMING REGULAR COMPARATIVES & SUPERLATIVES

How these forms are created depends on how many syllables there are in the adjective.

Adjective form Comparative Superlative

One syllable, ending in E. Add -R: Add -ST:

wide, fine, cute wider, finer, cuter widest, finest, cutest

One syllable word, with one Double the consonant, and Double the consonant, and
consonant one vowel and one add -ER: add -EST:
consonant at the end (except
words ending in w).
hot, big, drop hotter, bigger, fatter hottest, biggest, dropped

One syllable, with more than Add -ER: Add -EST:

one vowel or more than one
consonant at the end.
light, neat, fast lighter, neater, faster lightest, neatest, fastest

All words ending in w Add –ER Add –EST

slow, new, narrow slower, newer, narrower slowest, newest, narrowest

43
Two syllables, ending in Y. Change Y to I, then add - Change Y to I, then add -
ER: EST:
happy, silly, lonely happier, sillier, lonelier happiest, silliest, loneliest

Use MORE before the Use MOST before the

Two syllables or more, not
adjective: adjective:
ending in Y.
more modern, more most modern, most
modern, interesting, beautiful
interesting, more beautiful interesting, most beautiful

IRREGULAR COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE ADJECTIVES

ADJECTIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

FORM ADJECTIVE ADJECTIVE
bad worse the worst
good better the best
well better the best
far further the furthest
far farther the farthest
little less the least
much more the most
many more the most

Examples:

GOOD / BETTER / BEST

These tools are GOOD.

These tools are BETTER than those tools.
These are the BEST tools you can buy.

BAD / WORSE / WORST

44
 Abdullah is a bad driver.
Abdullah is a worse driver than Ali.
Abdullah is the worst driver in the class.

LITTLE / LESS / LEAST

I have a little money.

I have less money than you.
I have the least money of everyone in the class.
__________________________________________________________________________________

Use AS ____________ AS to show equality.

Examples: This boy is as heavy as that boy.

Ali is as intelligent as Mohammad.
He studies as much as I study.

ADVERBS
Most adverbs in English are formed by adding -ly to an Adjective. An adverb is a word that modifies
the meaning of a Verb; an Adjective; another adverb; a Noun or Noun Phrase; Determiner; a Numeral;
a Pronoun; or a Prepositional Phrase and can sometimes be used as a Complement of a Preposition.

Adverb Spelling Notes:

i) Adjectives ending -l still take -ly; careful-carefully.
ii) Adjectives ending -y change to -ily; lucky-luckily
iii) Adjectives ending -ble change to -bly; responsible-responsibly

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ADVERBS

ADVERBS OF MANNER
Adverbs of manner modify a verb to describe the way the action is done.
Example: She did the work carefully. ('Carefully' modifies the verb to describe the
way the work was done, as opposed to quickly, carelessly, etc..)

ADVERBS OF PLACE or LOCATION

Adverbs of place show where the action is done.
Example: They live locally.

ADVERBS OF TIME
Adverbs of time show when an action is done, or the duration or frequency.
Example: He did it yesterday. (When)
45
 They are permanently busy. (Duration)
She never does it. (Frequency)

ADVERB OF DEGREE
Adverbs of degree increase or decrease the effect of the verb.
Example: I completely agree with you. (This increases the effect of the verb,
whereas 'partially' would decrease it.)

ADVERBS MODIFYING ADJECTIVES

An adjective can be modified by an adverb, which precedes the adjective, except
'enough' which comes after.
Example: That's really good.
It was a terribly difficult time for all of us.
It wasn't good enough. ('Enough' comes after the adjective.)

ADVERBS MODIFYING ADVERBS

An adverb can modify another. As with adjectives, the adverb precedes the one it is
modifying with 'enough' being the exception again.
Example: She did it really well.
He didn't come last night, funnily enough.
ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUNS
Adverbs can modify nouns to indicate time or place.
Example: The concert will start late tomorrow.
The room is upstairs.

ADVERBS MODIFYING NOUN PHRASES

Some adverbs of degree can modify noun phrases.
Example: We had quite a good time.
They're such good friends.
Quite; rather; such; what (What a day!) can be used in this way.

ADVERBS MODIFYING DETERMINERS, NUMERALS & PRONOUNS

Adverbs such as almost; nearly; hardly; about, etc., can be used:
Example: Almost half the students passed the course.
Nearly everybody came in the end.
I don’t know anything about him.

PARTICIPLES
There are two participles in English: the present participle and the past participle. They can both be
used as adjectives.

46
Present Participle:
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the base form of a verb.

It is used in:
i) Continuous or Progressive verb forms - I'm leaving in five minutes.

ii) As an adjective: A dying man

Past Participle:
The past Frequency Adverbs participle
is formed Always (All of the time) 100% by adding -
ed to the Almost always 90% base form,
unless it Usually / Normally / Generally / Frequently is an
80%
irregular (Most of the time) verb.
Very Often 70%
It is Often (Much of the time) 60% used:
Sometimes (Now and then / From time to time) 25% - 40%
i) As an
Occasionally 30% - 40%
adjective - A tired
Infrequently 20%
group
Seldom / Rarely / Almost never 10%
Never (None of the time) 0%
ii) With the
auxiliary verb 'have' to form the perfect tense – They have just arrived.

iii) With the verb 'be' to form the passive - He was robbed a couple of days ago.

ADVERBS OF FREQUENCY
Adverbs of frequency tell a person how often something happens.

This chart will help you understand the meaning of the adverbs of frequency. These meanings are
subjective (which means everyone has a different understanding of their meaning) and are not exact.
These percentages will give you a general idea of their meaning.

47
OTHER ADVERDS OF FREQUENCY

Daily = Every Day Weekly = Every Week

I eat lunch daily. I visit my mother weekly.
I eat lunch every day. I visit my mother every week.

Monthly = Every Month Yearly = Every Year

The meeting is held monthly. We have one vacation yearly.
The meeting is held every month. We have one vacation every year

Adverbs of Frequency usually come:

1. Before the main verb. Example: I always come to class on time

2. After the verb to be Example: I am never sick

NOTE: Daily, weekly, monthly, and yearly always come after the main verb.

Examples: I get paid monthly. or We go to school daily.

PREPOSITIONS
A preposition is followed by a "noun". It is never followed by a verb. There are no exceptions to this
rule. By "noun" we include:
 noun (dog, money, love)
 proper noun (name) (Bangkok, Mary)
 pronoun (you, him, us)
 noun group (my first job)
 gerund (swimming)

48
ENGLISH PREPOSITIONS LIST

There are about 150 prepositions in English. Yet this is a very small number when you think
of the thousands of other words (nouns, verbs etc). Prepositions are important words. We use
individual prepositions more frequently than other individual words. In fact, the prepositions
of, to and in are among the ten most frequent words in English. Here is a short list of 70 of
the more common one-word prepositions. Many of these prepositions have more than one
meaning. Please refer to a dictionary for precise meaning and usage.

 aboard  despite  past

 about  down  per
 above  during  plus
 across
 after  except  regarding
 against  excepting  round
 along  excluding
 amid  save
 among  following  since
 anti  for
 from  than
 around
 through
 as
 in  to
 at
 inside  toward
 before  into  towards
 behind
 like  under
 below
 underneath
 beneath
 minus  unlike
 beside
 until
 besides  near  up
 between
 upon
 beyond  of
 but  off  versus
 by  on  via
 onto
 concerning  opposite  with
 outside  within
 considering
 over  without

PREPOSITIONS OF TIME

Preposition Use Examples

49
 in months in July; in September; in June; in December

year in 1985; in 1999; in 2006

in seasons in summer; in winter; in spring; in autumn; in the fall

part of the day in the morning; in the afternoon; in the evening

duration in a minute; in two weeks; in three years; in three days

part of the day at night

time of day at noon; at midnight; at 6 o'clock; at 3:15, at 4:25

at
celebrations at Christmas; at Easter; at Ramadan

fixed phrases at the same time; at a different time

days of the week on Sunday; on Friday; on Thursday

date on the 25th of December*

on on Good Friday; on Easter Sunday; on my birthday

special holidays
on labor day; on independence day

a specific part of a day on the morning of September the 11th*

following something;
after after school; after lunch; after class; after swimming
later than something

how far something 6 years ago; 1 month ago; 3 days ago; 5 weeks ago;
ago
happened (in the past) 3 hours ago
earlier than something;
before before Christmas; before Ramadan; the day before yesterday
prior to something

time that separates two between Monday and Friday; between 3 o’clock and 4:20;
between
points between now and 4 PM; between 2005 and 2006

not later than a special by Thursday; by November; by 2007; by 3 o’clock; by next

by
time month; by next year; by Ramadan

throughout an entire period during the holidays; during Ramadan; during March; during
during
of time 2006; during my vacation

for a specific period of time for 3 weeks; for a month; for a day; for 2 years

from ... to from Monday to Wednesday

connects two points in time
from... from Monday till Wednesday
together
till/until from Monday until Wednesday

past for telling time of the day 23 minutes past 6 (6:23); a quarter past 3; half past 2

past time to present time…

since use since with a specific since Monday; since his birthday; since Ramadan
date or time

50
till/until (up up to a specific time or till tomorrow; a quarter till 3; till the year 2007
to) date until tomorrow; a quarter until 3; until next month

to for telling time of the day 23 minutes to 6 (5:37); a quarter to 3

up to 6 hours a day; up to May 1/06; up to the end of March;

up to (until) until a specific time or date
up to 2007; up to tomorrow; up to a quarter to 3

within during a period of time within a day; within a month; within an hour

COMMONLY USED PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION

Preposition Use Examples

in the garden; in a box; in my pocket; in a building; in my

wallet; in a car; in a taxi; in a helicopter; in a boat;
within enclosed spaces
in an elevator; in an office; in a room; in a classroom; in the
swimming pool; in the bathtub

in bodies of water in the water; in the sea; in a river; in the ocean

with lines in a row; in a line; in a queue

names of countries,
in Riyadh; in America; in the United States; in Saudi Arabia;
counties; continents;
in New York; in Texas; in Hafer Al-Batin
towns, cities, states

at the bus stop; at the corner; at the door; at the end of the
with places road; at the entrance; at the exit; at the cinema; at the back

at of the class; at the front of the class

at the top of the page; at the bottom of the page

with places on a page
BUT: in the middle of the page

on the ceiling; on the wall; on the floor; on the table

with surfaces
on on the baseball field; on the tennis court; on the base

with directions on the left; on the right; straight on

with verbs of movement

go to work; drive to California; come to me
to such as go, come, drive,
etc.:

IMPORTANT NOTES:

In / at / on the corner
We say 'in the corner of a room', but 'at the corner (or 'on the corner') of a street'

51
 In / at / on the front
We say 'in the front / in the back' of a car
We say 'at the front / at the back' of buildings / groups of people
We say 'on the front / on the back' of a piece of paper

NOTE: With the words home, downtown, uptown, inside, outside, downstairs, upstairs, we use no
preposition.
I went home at 8 PM. She went inside the house.
They went downtown. The dog is going outside the building.
She went uptown. He is going downstairs to the basement.

OTHER PREPOSITIONS OF PLACE AND DIRECTION

Preposition Use Examples

a position directly overhead or higher than

above The picture hangs above my bed.
something

You mustn't go across this road here.

across from one side to the other side
There isn't a bridge across the river.

after later in time than something else The dog ran after the cat.

against to strike or come in contact with The bird flew against the window.

along in a line; from one point to another They're walking along the beach.

among in a group I like being among people.

around in a circular way We're sitting around the campfire.

behind at the back of Our house is behind the supermarket.

below lower than something, under something Death Valley is 86 metres below sea level.

beside next to Our house is beside the supermarket.

between something or somebody is on each side Our boy is between his dog and cat.

by beside He lives in the house by the river.

close to near, by Our house is close to the supermarket.

down going from a high place to a low place He came down the hill.

52
from the source or beginning of something Do you come from Tokyo?

in front of the part that faces forward Our house is in front of the supermarket.

opposite of outside, being within

inside You shouldn't stay inside the castle.
something

into entering something You shouldn't go into the castle.

near close to, by Our house is near the supermarket.

next to beside Our house is next to the supermarket.

off movement away from something The cat jumped off the roof.

onto to move on the top of something The cat jumped onto the roof.

opposite on the other side, across from Our house is opposite the supermarket.

out of leaving something The cat jumped out of the window.

outside opposite of inside, outdoors Can you wait outside?

over above something or somebody The cat jumped over the wall.

movement that involves passing by

past Go past the post office.
somebody or something

round in a circle We're sitting round the campfire.

through movement from one side to another You shouldn't walk through the forest.

to towards something or somebody Can you come to me?

towards in the direction of something They walk towards the castle.

under below something The cat is under the table.

up going from a low place to a high place He went up the hill…He went up the stairs.

How to use FOR / SINCE / AGO / ALREADY / YET when referring to TIME

SINCE
Use SINCE with a specified time. Refers to the time between a point in the past and now.
Examples: SINCE last week SINCE Monday SINCE three o’clock
SINCE 1975 SINCE I arrived SINCE May 21 1992

Use the PRESENT PERFECT or the PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tense with
SINCE
Examples: I HAVE STUDIED here SINCE last month.
I HAVE BEEN STUDYING here SINCE last month.

FOR
53
 Use FOR with how much time. Refers to a length of time.
Examples: FOR three hours FOR one day FOR a few minutes
FOR a week FOR two months FOR several years
FOR a long time FOR a night FOR a couple of hours

All tenses can be used with FOR

Examples: I study for 3 hours each day. (Simple Present)
I have been studying for 3 hours. (Present Perfect Continuous)
I studied for 3 hours each day (Simple Past)
I will have studied here for one week. (Present Perfect)

AGO
Use AGO with the SIMPLE PAST & PAST CONTINUOUS TENSES.
Examples: They left a few hours AGO. (Simple Past)
They were studying a few minutes AGO. (Past Continuous)

ALREADY
Use ALREADY to refer to something that occurred before now (before this time). It is often
used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS tenses.
Examples: John has ALREADY eaten.

Note: ALREADY is used with affirmative sentences and comes in the middle of the sentence.

YET
Use YET to refer to something that occurs or should occur up to and including the present
time. It is often used with the PRESENT PERFECT or PRESENT PERFECT
CONTINUOUS tenses.
Examples: The plane hasn’t arrived YET. The plane has YET to arrive.
He hasn’t been studying YET. He has YET to study.

Note: When YET is used in negative sentences it comes at the end of a sentence.

How to use SO / TOO / EITHER / NEITHER / ALSO / AS WELL (AS) to connect

sentences.

NO NEGATIVES

If there are NO NEGATIVES in a combined sentence use SO, TOO, ALSO, AS WELL

Examples: I enjoy my work. He enjoys his work.

I enjoy my work AND SO does he.
54
 I enjoy my work AND he does TOO.
I enjoy my work and he does ALSO.
I enjoy my work and he does AS WELL.

ONE NEGATIVE

If there is ONE NEGATIVE in your combined sentence use NEITHER.

Examples: He didn’t like the film. I didn’t like the film.

He didn’t like the film and NEITHER did I.

TWO NEGATIVES

If there are TWO NEGATIVES in your combined sentence use EITHER.

Examples: Tom isn’t coming. Fred isn’t coming.

Tom isn’t coming and Fred isn’t coming EITHER.

SO AND NEITHER

SO and NEITHER come after ‘and’ in the second clause and the VERB comes before the
subject.
The order of the words = and + (SO or NEITHER) + VERB + subject
Examples: He likes rice. We like rice.
He likes rice and SO DO we.
They haven’t gone. We haven’t gone.
They haven’t gone and NEITHER HAVE we.

NOTE: In the four cases cited above the verb in the second clause MUST have the same tense as the
verb in the first clause!!! Substitute the correct auxiliary or modal verb for the main verb in the second
clause of the sentence.

AS WELL AND AS WELL AS

AS WELL comes AT THE END of a sentence.

AS WELL AS comes IN THE MIDDLE of a sentence.
Do not use AND with AS WELL AS.

Examples: He smokes a pipe AND cigarettes AS WELL.

He smokes a pipe AS WELL AS cigarettes.
How to use PREPOSITIONS TOO, SO, SUCH, ENOUGH to stress an idea or
something else in a sentence.

TOO
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 TOO + ADJECTIVE + INFINITIVE
Example: This coffee is TOO hot to drink.
This homework is TOO hard to do.
The car is TOO expensive to buy.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR

Example: This coffee is TOO hot for me.
This homework is TOO hard for me.
The car is TOO expensive for me.

TOO + ADJECTIVE + FOR + INFINITIVE

Example: This coffee is TOO hot for me to drink.
This homework is TOO hard for me to do.
The car is TOO expensive for me to buy.

NOTE: TOO carries a negative idea. It indicates the impossibility of the event that follows.
Example:
This coffee is TOO hot to drink. = I cannot drink this coffee because it is very hot.
This homework is TOO hard for me. = I cannot do this homework because it is hard.
The car is TOO expensive for me to buy. = I cannot buy this car because it is expensive.

SO

SO + ADJECTIVE or ADVERB + THAT + (CLAUSE)

Example: This process is SO complex that I do not understand it.
This pizza is SO bad that I can’t eat it.
This car is SO old that it shouldn’t run.

SUCH

SUCH + (ADJECTIVE) + NOUN + THAT + (CLAUSE)

Example: He is SUCH a busy man that it is difficult to see him.
He is SUCH a good player that he will be an all-star.
The car is SUCH a piece of junk that it should be destroyed.

ENOUGH

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + INFINITIVE

Example: It is warm ENOUGH to remove your coat.
She is beautiful ENOUGH to win the contest.
We were angry ENOUGH to kill someone.
ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR
Example: The coffee is sweet ENOUGH for me.
The water is warm ENOUGH for us to go swimming.
56
 The Omani people were hospitable ENOUGH for them.

ADJECTIVE + ENOUGH + FOR + INFINITIVE

Example: The process is simple ENOUGH for us to understand.
Skiing was easy ENOUGH for us to learn.
They were kind ENOUGH for the children to love them.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR

Example: There is ENOUGH heat for us.
There is ENOUGH candy for all the children.
There isn’t ENOUGH food for all of us.

ENOUGH + NOUN + FOR + INFINITIVE

Examples: There are ENOUGH chemicals for us to finish the experiment.
There isn’t ENOUGH money for us to keep working.
There is ENOUGH heat for us to melt the metal.

How to use PREPOSITIONS IN, INTO

IN

A preposition indicating that something or somebody is within or inside something.

Expressions using IN:
in between means between
in for indicates that somebody will experience something such as a surprise
in on having knowledge about or involvement in something
in that introduces an explanation of a statement
in with associated with or friendly with
the ins and outs all the detailed facts and points about something

INTO

A preposition indicating that something or somebody moves or is moved from outside to inside or
toward the inner part of something

CONDITIONALS
Conditionals are used to talk about possible or imaginary situations.
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FIRST CONDITIONAL
The first conditional is for future actions dependent on the result of another future action or event,
where there is a reasonable possibility of the conditions for the action being satisfied.
It is often called the "real" conditional because it is used for real - or possible - situations. These
situations take place if a certain condition is met.
For the first conditional the if clause (the conditional clause) uses the simple present tense.

Examples: I will go if I have enough money. OR If I have enough money I will go.
I can go I can go.
I may go I may go.
___________________________________________________________________________

SECOND CONDITIONAL
It is often called the "unreal" conditional because it is used for unreal - impossible or improbable -
situations. This conditional provides an imaginary result for a given situation. It is often used to
express a wish.
For the second conditional the if clause uses the simple past tense.

Example: I would go if I had enough money. OR If I had enough money I would go.
I could go I could go.
I might go I might go.

NOTE: Use were after if in the SECOND CONDITIONAL. Don’t use was
Example: If I were rich I would buy an airplane.
If he were lost he would telephone.
___________________________________________________________________________

THIRD CONDITIONAL
The Past Unreal Conditional is used to talk about imaginary situations in the past. You can describe
what you would have done differently or how something could have happened differently if
circumstances had been different.
For the third conditional the if clause uses the past perfect tense.

Examples:

I would have passed the exam if I had worked harder.

could have
might have
OR
If I had worked harder I would have passed the exam.
could have
might have

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EXPRESSIONS OF PURPOSE
Expressions of purpose tell the reason why something is done.

If you want to tell the REASON WHY use these words.

TO + SIMPLE VERB
IN ORDER TO + SIMPLE VERB

Examples: WHY do you come to school?

I come to school TO study English.
I come to school IN ORDER TO study English.

BECAUSE + clause (subject + verb) to indicate the reason.

SO + clause (subject + verb) to indicate the result.

Examples: WHY did he leave early?

He left early BECAUSE he was sick.
He left early SO he could go to bed

FOR + NOUN

Examples: WHY will they go to the store?

They will go to the store FOR some milk.
I will go to Miami FOR my vacation.

TO + SIMPLE VERB or FOR + VERB ING

Examples:
What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?
Hammers are used TO drive nails. Knives are used TO cut meat.
We use hammers TO drive nails. We use knives TO cut meat.

Examples:
What are hammers used for? WHAT are knives used for?
Hammers are used FOR driving nails. Knives are used FOR cutting meat.
We use hammers FOR driving nails. We use knives FOR cutting meat.

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CAUSATIVES
The causative is a common structure in English. It is used when one thing or person causes another
thing or person to do something.

BASIC CAUSATIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

This is the basic structure of the active form.

person + have + agent + action verb + thing

Examples: Susan had her brother do her homework

The police had the suspect stop his car.
We had the carpenter fix the window.

PASSIVE CAUSATIVE SENTENCE STRUCTURE

In the passive form, there is usually no agent. The action verb is in the past participle, and the
object comes before it:

person + have + thing + action verb

Examples: We had our door fixed.

Alice had her hair cut.
Ali had the windows cleaned.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH HAVE

Use a verb word after a person and use a participle after thing

have + person + simple verb

Examples: I have the students read aloud in class.

The man had the mechanic inspect the engine.
They will have the barber cut their hair.
We are having the men take out the furniture.

have + thing + participle

Examples: We have the building cleaned.

The teacher had the lesson reviewed.
He will have the car repaired next week.
We are having the furniture removed.

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THE CAUSATIVE WITH GET

Use an infinitive after a person and use a participle after thing (No verb word)

get + person + infinitive (when you have someone do something)

Examples: I will get the clerk to write the report.

You should get Ali to arrange the desks.
Mohammad hasn’t gotten anyone to make the tape yet.

get + thing + participle (when you have something done to something)

Examples: I will get the report written.

He got his book published.
You should get the files arranged.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH MAKE

Use A verb after a person or thing (No infinitive, No -ing form)

make + person + verb

Examples: I can make your friend work part time.

I can make him do his homework.
I can make him study.

make + thing + verb

Examples: I make this radio work.

I can make this car run.
I make it go fast.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH LET

Let means a person gives permission for another person to do it.

Use a verb after a person or thing (No -ing form, No infinitive)

let + person + verb

Examples: Would you let me join your party?

Let him go home.
Please let Ali go to see the colonel.

let + thing + verb word

61
 Examples: I can let this car cool.
I let the ice melt.
Ali let the cat go free.

THE CAUSATIVE WITH HELP

Help means a person assists another person to do it.

Use a verb or infinitive after a person (No -ing form)

help + person + infinitive

Examples: Would you help me deliver this box?

He helped me study for the exam.
Ali helped Mohammad cook dinner

help + person + verb

Examples: I helped her to pack the luggage.

He helped me to study for the exam.
Ali helped Mohammad to cook dinner.

REPORTED SPEECH
Direct speech or reported speech is the original words of the speaker. Quotation marks (“”) are used
around direct speech. Reported or indirect speech uses a noun clause (that) to tell us what someone has
said. Quotation marks are not used and pronouns will change from direct to indirect speech.

When the verb of the reported speech is in the past tense (said, told, asked). The verb in the noun
clause will also be in the past tense. When the reported speech is a Yes / No question (do does etc.)
use if or whether to begin the clause. When the reported speech is a question word (where, when etc.)
the clause begins with the question word and is a sentence, not a question. Study the examples below.

DIRECT SPEECH REPORTED SPEECH

Command  Infinitive (to + simple verb)

The police man said “Stop!” The police man said to stop.

Present  Past
He said, “I write letters on Tuesdays.” He said (that) he wrote letters on Tuesdays.

Present Continuous  Past Continuous

He said, “I’m writing a letter.” He said (that) he was writing a letter.

62
Present Perfect  Past Perfect
He said, “I have written a letter.” He said (that) he had written a letter.

Past  Past Perfect

He said, “I wrote a letter yesterday.” He said (that) he had written a letter yesterday.

Will  Would
He said, “I will write a letter tomorrow.” He said (that) he would write a letter tomorrow.

Am, Is, Are going to  Was, Were going to

He said, “I’m going to write a letter He said (that) he was going to write a letter
tomorrow. tomorrow.

Can  Could
He said, "I can write a letter next week." He said (that) he could write a letter next week.

May  Might
He said, “I may write a letter to John.” He said (that) he might write a letter to John.

Must  Must
He said, “I must write a letter to Alice.” He said (that) he must write a letter to Alice.

Have to  Had to
He said, “ I have to write a letter to Rob.” He said (that) he had to write a letter to Rob.

Yes / No Question  If or Whether Clause (no do, does, or did)

He asked, “Do you want to write a letter?” He asked if (whether) I wanted to write a letter.

WH Question Word Question  WH Noun Clause

He asked, “When do you usually write He asked when I usually wrote letters.
letters?”

He asked, “Where is the letter?” He asked where the letter was.

NOTE: The verb tenses change for yes / no and WH questions as above, and in reported speech there
is no question. (The speaker is reporting a question not asking a question.)

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PASSIVE VOICE
To make a verb passive use a form of BE (am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, had been, will
be) and the past participle.

With the passive voice the subject does not do anything. Something or someone does it
to the subject.

Examples: The streets are cleaned every morning.

The book was written by Ali.
The house was damaged by fire.

________________________________________________________________________

The verb TO BE indicates the verb tense in the passive voice.

Examples: The planes are inspected daily (Present Tense)

He is being punished now. (Present Continuous Tense)
The job was finished yesterday. (Past Tense)
A new school was being built. (Past Continuous Tense)
The chairs have been painted. (Present Perfect Tense)
The letter had been mailed. (Past Perfect Tense)
________________________________________________________________________

Use the verb TO BE or HAVE BEEN + PAST PARTICIPLE after MODALS

Examples: The tire MUST BE CHANGED.

A new procedure WILL BE FOLLOWED.
Such conduct WOULD not HAVE BEEN ALLOWED.
You COULD HAVE BEEN KILLED.
________________________________________________________________________

GET is also used in a passive tense.

The verb combination is TO GET + PAST PARTICIPLE or

MODAL + TO GET + PAST PARTICIPLE

Examples: John sometimes GETS confused in class.

Ali GOT worried by the heavy traffic.
Mohammad HAS GOTTEN married since we last saw him.
Careless pedestrians MIGHT GET hit by a car.
64
 Abdulaziz MIGHT HAVE GOTTEN bored by the movie.
________________________________________________________________________

NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is a non-specific word like he, they, or
someone, we usually leave it out of the passive sentence.

Examples: He left the book on the desk. The book was left on the desk.
Someone makes this car in Japan. This car is made in Japan.
They inspected the planes. The planes were inspected.

NOTE: When the subject of the equivalent active sentence is specific we usually include it in the
passive sentence as the AGENT with the preposition BY.

Examples: Mr. Smith taught us last year. We were taught BY Mr. Smith last year.
Shakespeare wrote that play. That play was written BY Shakespeare.
The heavy traffic worried Ali. Ali got worried BY the heavy traffic.
The fire will damage the house. The house will be damaged BY the fire.

TENSE ACTIVE PASSIVE

(BE + PAST PARTICIPLE)
SIMPLE Mr. Smith teaches me. I am taught by Mr. Smith.
PRESENT Ali writes many letters. Many letters are written by Ali.
I help ten students. Ten students are helped by me
PRESENT Mr. Smith is teaching me. I am being taught by Mr. Smith.
PROGRESSIVE Ali is writing many letters. Many letters are being written by Ali.
I am helping ten students. Ten students are being helped by me
SIMPLE Mr. Smith taught me. I was taught by Mr. Smith.
PAST Ali wrote many letters. Many letters were written by Ali.
I help ten students. Ten students were helped by me
PAST Mr. Smith was teaching me. I was being taught by Mr. Smith.
PROGRESSIVE Ali was writing many letters. Many letters were being written by Ali.
I was helping ten students. Ten students were being helped by me
PRESENT Mr. Smith has taught me. I have been taught by Mr. Smith.
PERFECT Ali has written many letters. Many letters have been written by Ali.
I have helped ten students. Ten students have been helped by me
FUTURE Mr. Smith will teach me. I will be taught by Mr. Smith.
Ali will write many letters. Many letters will be written by Ali.
I will help ten students. Ten students will be helped by me
MODALS Mr. Smith will teach me. Mr. Smith will be teaching me.
Ali can write many letters. Ali could be writing many letters.
I should help ten students. I should be helping ten students.
I would help ten students. I would be helping ten students.
I ought to help ten students. I ought to be helping ten students.

65
 I must help ten students. I must be helping ten students.
I have to help ten students. I have to be helping ten students.
I might help ten students. I might be helping ten students.

I might have helped ten students. I might have been helping ten students.
Ali should have sent it. It should have been sent by Ali.

TAG QUESTIONS
A tag question can be made by making a statement and putting an auxiliary verb and a pronoun at the
end. Use must be careful to use the proper auxiliary (helping) or modal verb to make a tag question.

AFFIRMATIVE SENTENCE  NEGATIVE TAG QUESTIONS

He came, didn’t he?

He is coming, isn’t he?

They agree. don’t they?

You will help, won’t you?

We have seen it, haven’t we?

We can leave, can’t we?

She was here, wasn’t she?

He should be here, shouldn’t he?

NEGATIVE SENTENCES AFFIRMATIVE TAG QUESTIONS

He didn’t come, did he?

He isn’t coming, is he?

They don’t agree, do they?

You won’t help, will you?

We haven’t seen it, have we?

We can’t leave, can we?

She wasn’t here, was she?

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 He shouldn’t be here, should he?

NOTE: The tag question after I AM is AREN”T I

Examples: I’m next in line. AREN”T I?

I am on duty tomorrow. AREN”T I?

EMBEDDING
Embedding is a way to include yes / no and WH question word questions in another sentence. The
embedded question becomes a noun clause. The new sentence is no longer a question. If the
embedded question is originally a yes / no question it is introduced by if or whether. The order of
the words changes from the original question when the question is embedded in another sentence. In
other words:

Original Question Word Order = Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb
Embedded Question Word Order = Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb

Examples:

Original Question Word Order Embedded Question Word Order

Is he sick? I don’t know if he is sick.
Do they know John? I wonder if they know John.

If the question is a WH question word question the clause is introduced by the WH question word and
the other words changes as follows:

Original Question Word Order = WH ? + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Subject + Main Verb
Embedded Question Word Order = WH ? + Subject + Auxiliary (Helping Verb) + Main Verb
.
Examples:

Original Question Word Order Embedded Question Word Order

When can we leave? They didn’t tell us when we can leave.
Where is the post office? They want to know where the post office is.
How will he go? He hasn’t decided how he will go.
What has he decided? I have no idea what he has decided.
Why is he doing that? I don’t know why he is doing that.
Who are they? I have no idea who they are.

Note: The subject of the embedded question clause comes immediately after the WH question word
or IF or WHETHER. DO, DOES, and DID cannot be used in this kind of clause. DON’T, DOESN’T,
and DIDN’T can be used. Other auxiliary (helping) verbs and modals can be used but remember that
they come after the subject in the clause.

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Embedded question clauses are often used as the object after verbs like know, wonder, understand,
ask, tell, find out, learn, hear, be sure, decide, remember and have.

This kind of verb can also occur as the subject of a sentence (What he told us surprised everyone.)

Note: Remember that the verb TO BE does not have auxiliary (helping) verbs in the present and past
tenses. In embedded clauses the verb TO BE must come after the subject and it is often the last word
in the clause. (I don’t know where they ARE. He hasn’t heard what the answer IS.)

CLAUSES
Definition of Clause:
A Clause is a part of a sentence that usually contains a Subject and a Verb. It is usually
connected to the other part of the sentence by a conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its
own.

Example: I don't know what I'm going to wear to the wedding.

The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
I believe that she told the truth.

Independent Clause
The independent clause is the main idea (main clause) of the sentence. It is not dependent on
another clause for meaning and context. (see examples following dependent clause definition)

Dependent Clause
The dependent clause is the subordinate idea of the sentence. It is dependent on another clause
for meaning and context. A dependent clause can be a relative clause such as a noun clause,
and an adjective clause or it can be an adverb clause. Basically any clause can be a dependent
clause if it is not the subject (main idea or independent clause) of a sentence

Examples of: I don't know what I'm going to wear to the wedding.
independent I don't know = independent clause
& dependent what I'm going to wear to the wedding = dependent clause
clauses The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
The boy never does his homework = independent clause
who sits next to me= dependent clause
I believe that she told the truth.
I believe = independent clause
that she told the truth = dependent clause

Relative Clause
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 Any clause that modifies a noun in a sentence, or a noun phrase, is a relative clause.

Defining Relative Clause

A defining relative clause gives essential information about the noun or noun phrase it
modifies, without which the sentence wouldn't make sense as the listener or reader would not
be able to identify the noun in the sentence.

Example: The boy who sits next to me never does his homework.
who sits next to me… This clause gives essential information about the
boy. It answers the question which boy.

Non-Defining Relative Clause:

A non-defining relative clause gives extra information about a noun or noun phrase and has
commas at both ends.

Example: The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd.

pausing for a moment… This clause gives extra information about a
noun (the actor) but this information is not essential to the sentence.

Noun Clause
Noun clauses serve as subjects and objects of verbs and prepositions, just like regular nouns.

Noun Clauses as Subjects

Noun clauses are not complete sentences all by themselves. A noun clause is used as either the subject
of a sentence or an object. If the noun clause is acting as the subject of the sentence, then you still need
a verb (and possibly other words) to make a complete sentence.

Example: That she is telling the truth should be obvious to everyone.

In this sentence, the noun clause, "That she is telling the truth," is the subject of the sentence.
We make a complete sentence by adding the verb, "should be" and the other words, "obvious
to everyone."

Noun Clauses as Objects

While noun clauses can serve as the subjects of a sentence, they usually serve as objects. When they are
objects, you need to have a subject and verb in order to make a complete sentence.

Example: I need to know if the meeting has been cancelled.

In this sentence, the noun clause, "if the meeting has been cancelled," is the object of the verb,
"need to know." We make a complete sentence by having a subject and verb, "I need to
know," before the object.

Adjective Clause
Adjective clauses generally describe nouns to make them clear to the reader.
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Subject Adjective Clause
A subject adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.
In subject adjective clauses we substitute WHO, WHICH, or THAT for the subject of the
clause.

For people use WHO or THAT

Example: The man looks mean. The man is holding a gun.
WHO… The man WHO is holding the gun looks mean.
THAT… The man THAT is holding the gun looks mean.

For things use WHICH or THAT

Example: This is the letter. The letter arrived yesterday.
WHICH… This is the letter WHICH arrived yesterday.
THAT… This is the letter THAT arrived yesterday.

NOTE: The subject adjective clause must immediately follow the noun it describes.

Subject adjective clauses which contain is, are, was or were can be shortened. The verb TO
BE is removed along with the relative word (who, which, that). Notice that when this happens
the noun can be followed by a prepositional phrase, the ING form of the verb (present
participle), or the past participle of the verb (passive)(verb three).

Examples:

The students who are in the class should pass.

The students in the class should pass. (prepositional phrase)

The man who is wearing the jacket is his father.

The man wearing the jacket is his father. (present participle phrase = active)

The students who were taught by Tom are happy. (past participle phrase = passive)
The students taught by Tom are happy.

Object Adjective Clause

In object adjective clauses the noun which the clause describes is the object of the verb in the
clause.

Examples: The house is very beautiful. He built the house in Riyadh.

The house WHICH he built in Riyadh is very beautiful.
The house THAT he built in Riyadh is very beautiful.
The house he built in Riyadh is very beautiful.

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 The student is from Jeddah. They are talking to the student.
The student WHO they are talking to is from Jeddah.
The student THAT they are talking to is from Jeddah.
The student they are talking to is from Jeddah.
The student WHOM they are talking to is from Jeddah.

IMPORTANT
1. As in subject adjective clauses WHO is used for people, WHICH is used for things, and
THAT can usually be substituted for WHO or WHICH.

2. The relative pronouns WHO, WHICH, or THAT can usually be left out of the clause
without making the meaning unclear.

3. Subject Adjective Clauses and Object Adjective Clauses must follow immediately after
the word it describes.

Possessive Adjective Clause

A possessive adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.
In possessive adjective clauses we substitute the possessive pronoun WHOSE for the noun the
adjective clause describes.

Example: The woman whose baby cried during dinner was my sister.

Location Adjective Clause

A location adjective clause is like an adjective except it comes after the noun.
In location adjective clauses the WH question word where comes after the noun the
adjective clause describes.

Example: The house where we had the party belongs to my Uncle Kenneth.

Adverb Clause

An adverb clause is not a relative clause since it does not modify a noun or noun phrase. It acts like an
adverb because it describes a verb. Adverb clauses tell us WHEN, WHERE, HOW, WHY, and to
WHAT extent something happened.

Use WHERE for place.

They drove down the street. A new hotel is being built on the street.
They drove down the street WHERE a new hotel is being built.
They drove… WHERE a new hotel is being built.
WHERE a new hotel is being built describes where (the place) they drove.

Use WHEN for time or date.

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 Spring is a season. Many flowers bloom in the spring.
Spring is the season WHEN many flowers bloom.
Spring is… WHEN many flowers bloom.
WHEN many flowers bloom tells us the time. It relates back to the verb is.

Use WHY for reason.

He was absent for a reason. The reason was that his father was sick.
The reason WHY he was absent was that his father was sick.
The reason… he was absent was that his father was sick.
In this sentence the clause that his father was sick describes why he was absent.
It refers back to the verb absent so therefore is an adverb clause.
Use HOW for method.

He wants to cook a cake. He can’t remember what to do.

He can’t remember HOW to cook a cake.
HOW to cook a cake. describes what he cannot remember. It refers back to the
verb remember therefore it is an adverb clause.

Use WHAT for clarification.

I do not understand. Please say your words clearly.

I do not understand WHAT you are saying.
WHAT you are saying is an adverb clause because it describes WHAT he does
not understand. It refers back to the verb understand.

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PHRASES
Phrase:
A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain BOTH a subject and a verb.

Prepositional Phrase
Prepositional phrases start with a preposition (such as in, at, by, for, to, over, etc.), have a
noun or pronoun object of the preposition, and may also have other modifiers. Prepositional
phrases function as adjectives, adverbs, or nouns.

Examples:
The announcement for the play arrived after it was over. (as adjective)
He walked into the meeting just as the president arrived. (as adverb)
For you to pass your test is the reason for having a tutor. (as a noun; the subject)

Participial Phrase
Participial phrases are formed from participles and all the related words. Participles are
formed from verbs and end in "ing" or "ed." Participles function as adjectives; therefore,
participial phrases also function as adjectives. They often describe the subject of the sentence.

Examples;
Laughing wildly, she ran down the path. (Describes "she")
The actor, pausing for a moment, looked at the crowd. (Describes "actor")
He showed us the cabinet, painted a brilliant green. (Describes the object "cabinet")

Infinitive Phrase
An infinitive phrase is formed from an infinitive and other related words. An infinitive is the
word "to" followed by a verb. This type of phrase functions as a noun, adjective, or an adverb.

Examples:
To get an appointment with him requires a great amount of patience. (As a noun
subject)
He wrote a letter to raise funds for the foundation. (As an adverb)
The decision to eliminate vacations was very unpopular. (As an adjective)

Gerund Phrase
A gerund phrase if formed from a gerund plus its related words. A gerund is a verb with an
"ing" ending that functions as a noun. Gerund phrases look like some participial phrases. The
difference is that participial phrases function as adjectives; gerund phrases function as nouns.

Examples:
Geraldine's singing always enthralls the audience. (As subject)
Sam hates getting a headache when he works late. (As direct object)
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 His favorite activity is sailing down the Nahanni River. (As subject complement)

Verb Phrase
A verb phrase consists of a verb and all the related helping words such as participles.

Example:
I have been asking for a raise for ten years.

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