 INTRODUCTION

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The term heavy metal refers to any metallic chemical element that has a relatively high density
and is toxic or poisonous at low concentrations.

Examples of heavy metals include.

 Mercury (Hg)
 Cadmium (Cd)
 Arsenic (As)
 Chromium (Cr)
 Thallium (Tl)
 Lead ( Pb ).

Heavy metals are natural components of the Earth's crust. They cannot be degraded or destroyed.
To a small extent they enter our bodies via food, drinking water and air. As trace elements, some
heavy metals (e.g. copper, selenium, zinc) are essential to maintain the metabolism of the human
body. However, at higher concentrations they can lead to poisoning. Heavy metal poisoning could
result, for instance, from drinking-water contamination (e.g. lead pipes), high ambient air
concentrations near emission sources, or intake via the food chain.

Heavy metals are dangerous because they tend to bioaccumulate. Bioaccumulation means an
increase in the concentration of a chemical in a biological organism over time, compared to the
chemical's concentration in the environment. Compounds accumulate in living things any time
they are taken up and stored faster than they are broken down (metabolized) or excreted.
Heavy metal poisoning refers to when excessive exposure to a heavy metal affects the normal
function of the body. Examples of heavy metals that can cause toxicity include lead, mercury,
arsenic, cadmium, and chromium. Exposure may occur through the diet, from medications, from
the environment, or in the course of work or play. Heavy metals can enter the body through the
skin, or by inhalation or ingestion. Toxicity can result from sudden, severe exposure, or from
chronic exposure over time. Symptoms can vary depending on the metal involved, the amount
absorbed, and the age of the person exposed. For example, young children are more susceptible to
the effects of lead exposure because they absorb more compared with adults and their brains are
still developing. Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and abdominal pain are common symptoms of acute

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metal ingestion. Chronic exposure may cause various symptoms resulting from damage to body
organs, and may increase the risk of cancer. Treatment depends on the circumstances of the
exposure.

Metal toxicity or metal poisoning is the toxic effect of certain metals in certain forms and doses
on life. Some metals are toxic when they form poisonous soluble compounds. Certain metals have
no biological role, i.e. are not essential minerals, or are toxic when in a certain form.
In the case of lead, any measurable amount may have negative health effects.

It is often thought that only heavy metals can be toxic, but lighter metals such as beryllium and
lithium may also be in certain circumstances. Not all heavy metals are particularly toxic, and some
are essential, such as iron. The definition may also include trace elements when abnormally high
doses may be toxic. An option for treatment of metal poisoning may be chelation therapy, a
technique involving the administration of chelation agents to remove metals from the body.

Toxic metals sometimes imitate the action of an essential element in the body, interfering with the
metabolic process resulting in illness. Many metals, particularly heavy metals are toxic, but some
heavy metals are essential, and some, such as bismuth, have a low toxicity. Most often the
definition of toxic metals includes at least thallium, cadmium, manganese, lead, mercury and the
radioactive metals.
Metalloids (arsenic, polonium) may be included in the definition. Radioactive metals have both
radiological toxicity and chemical toxicity. Metals in an oxidation state abnormal to the body may
also become toxic: chromium(III) is an essential trace element, but chromium(VI) is a carcinogen.

Toxicity is a function of solubility. Insoluble compounds as well as the metallic forms often exhibit
negligible toxicity. The toxicity of any metal depends on its ligands. In some cases, organometallic
forms, such as methylmercury and tetraethyl lead, can be extremely toxic. In other cases,
organometallic derivatives are less toxic such as the cobaltocenium cation.

Decontamination for toxic metals is different from organic toxins: because toxic metals are
elements, they cannot be destroyed. Toxic metals may be made insoluble or collected, possibly by
the aid of chelating agents, or through bioremediation. Alternatively, they can be diluted into a
sufficiently large reservoir, such as the sea, because immediate toxicity is a function of
concentration rather than amount. Another method of decontamination of heavy metals in the soil
is using a method called phytoremediation.
[This method uses plants to extract and lower the concentration of toxic heavy metals in the soil.

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Toxic metals can bioaccumulate in the body and in the food chain. Therefore, a common
characteristic of toxic metals is the chronic nature of their toxicity. This is particularly notable with
radioactive heavy metals such as radium, which imitates calcium to the point of being incorporated
into human bone, although similar health implications are found in lead or mercury poisoning.

Sources of heavy metal exposure to humans

Heavy metals are naturally present in our environment. They are present in the atmosphere,
lithosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere . Although these heavy metals are present in the
ecosystem, their exposure to humans is through various anthropogenic activities of man. In the
earth crust, these heavy metals are present in ores which are recovered during mining activities as
minerals. In most ores heavy metals such as arsenic, iron, lead, zinc, gold, nickel, silver and cobalt
exist as sulfides while others such as manganese, aluminum, selenium gold, and antimony exist as
oxides. Certain heavy metals such as copper, iron and cobalt can exist both as sulfide and oxide
ores. Some sulfides may contain two or more heavy metals together such as chalcopyrite,
(CuFeS2) which contains both copper and iron. During these mining activities, heavy metals are
released from the ore and scattered in open in the environment; left in the soil, transported by air
and water to other areas. Furthermore, when these heavy metals are used in the industries for
various industrial purposes, some of these elements are released into the air during combustion or
into the soil or water bodies as effluents. More so, the industrial products such as paints, cosmetics,
pesticides, and herbicides also serve as sources of heavy metals. Heavy metals may be transported
through erosion, run-off or acid rain to different locations on soils and water bodies. As reviewed
from , the sources of specific heavy metals are described below.

1. Arsenic
Arsenic is the 20th most abundant element on earth and the 33rd on the periodic table. The
inorganic forms such as arsenite and arsenate compounds are lethal to humans and other organisms
in the environment. Humans get in contact with arsenic through several means which include
industrial sources such as smelting and microelectronic industries. Drinking water may be
contaminated with arsenic which is present in wood preservatives, herbicides, pesticides,
fungicides and paints .

Health effects: Signs and Symptoms

Inorganic arsenic is a confirmed carcinogen.

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Acute effects:
 vomiting
 abdominal pain
 diarrhea
 numbness
 tingling of the extremities
 muscle cramping
 death (in extreme cases)

Long-term effects:
 pigmentation changes
 skin lesions
 hard patches on the palms and soles of the feet (hyperkeratosis)
 bladder cancer
 lung cancer

Other effects:

 developmental effects
 diabetes
 pulmonary disease
 cardiovascular disease

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Further Reading:Mechanism for Arsenic-Induced Toxic Effects
 Causes of arsenic poisoning
 contaminated groundwater
 smoking tobacco products
 breathing contaminated air contain arsenic
 living near the industrial area
 exposed to landfill or waste sites
 eating arsenic-contaminated food
 Diagnosis

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Forensic testing:
 blood
 hair
 urine
 fingernail samples
 Urine tests should be done within 1-2 days of the initial exposure.
 Tests on hair and fingernails can determine the level of arsenic exposure over the period of up
to 12 months.
 Chronic exposure levels between 0.1 to 0.5mg/kg
 Acute toxicity has a range of 1 to 3mg/kg.

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2 Lead
Lead is a slightly bluish, bright silvery metal in a dry atmosphere. The main sources of lead
exposure include drinking water, food, cigarette, industrial processes and domestic sources. The
industrial sources of lead include gasoline, house paint, plumbing pipes, lead bullets, storage
batteries, pewter pitchers, toys and faucets . Lead is released into the atmosphere from industrial
processes as well as from vehicle exhausts. Therefore, it may get into the soil and flow into water
bodies which can be taken up by plants and hence human exposure of lead may also be through
food or drinking water.Sources of Lead : The principal salts of lead which produce toxic effects
are the acetate ( sugar of lead or salt of saturn ) , the oxide ( litharge , mudrasang ) converted into
the oleate in the form of diachylon , the carbonate or white lead ( safeda ) , the tetroxide or the red
lead ( vermillion , sindur ) , the yellow chrome or the chromate of lead , and tetraethyl lead .

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Fatal dose:
The fatal dose of absorbed lead has been estimated to be 0.5 gram. Fatal dose of lead acetate is
about 20 grams, and lead carbonate about 4 grams. A drop or two of pure tetraethyl lead may
cause serious symptoms.

Fatal period:

Death may occur on the second or third day. Acute poisoning is rare, and may be followed by
chronic poisoning.

Postmortem appearances :

These are chiefly of gastroenteritis. The gastric mucosa is congested. There may be eroded
patches. The large intestine may contain black colored faeces.

3 Mercury
The metallic mercury is a shiny silver-white, odorless liquid metal which becomes colorless and
odorless gas upon heating. Mercury is used in producing dental amalgams, thermometers and some
batteries. Also, it can be found in some chemical, electrical-equipment, automotive, metal-
processing, and building industries. Mercury can exist in a gaseous form thus it can be inhaled.
Other forms of mercury contamination in humans may be through anthropogenic activities such
as municipal wastewater discharges, agriculture, incineration, mining, and discharges of industrial
wastewater

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Fatal dose :

The fatal dose of corrosive sublimate is about 1 to 2 gms.

Fatal period :

Death may occur within a few hours but is usually delayed for 3 to 5 days. Delayed deaths are
usually due to uraemia .

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Postmortem appearances :

The appearances of corrosive poisoning will be present if the poison is taken in a concentrated
form. Otherwise, the signs of irritant poisoning will be observed. The tongue is white and sodden
in appearance and the mouth generally has a diffuse grayish white escharotic appearance.
Escharmeans a hard crust over a raw surface, eg, material covering a deep burn. The mucous
membrane of the alimentary tract is inflamed and corroded. The muscular coats are so softened
that it is difficult to remove the organ without rupture. Mercury has a selective action on the
caecum and large intestine which show intense inflammation, ulceration, and even gangrene. The
kidneys show a toxic nephritis. The liver and heart may show fatty degeneration, and heart
subendocardial haemorrhages also.

Cadmium
This metal is mostly used in industries for the production of paints, pigments alloys, coatings,
batteries as well as plastics. Majority of cadmium, about three-fourths is used as electrode
component in producing alkaline batteries. Cadmium is emitted through industrial processes and
from cadmium smelters into sewage sludge, fertilizers, and groundwater which can remain in soils
and sediments for several decades and taken up by plants. Therefore, significant human exposure
to cadmium can be by the ingestion of contaminated foodstuffs especially cereals, grains, fruits
and leafy vegetables as well as contaminated beverages . Also, humans may get exposed to
cadmium by inhalation through incineration of municipal waste.

Chromium
Chromium is a metal that is present in petroleum and coal, chromium steel, pigment oxidants,
fertilizers, catalyst, oil well drilling and metal plating tanneries. Chromium is extensively used in
industries such as wood preservation, electroplating, metallurgy, production of paints and
pigments, chemical production, tanning, and pulp and paper production. These industries play a
major role in chromium pollution with an adverse effect on biological and ecological species .
Following the anthropogenic activities by humans, disposal of sewage and use of fertilizers may
lead to the release of chromium into the environment . Therefore, these industrial and agricultural
practices increase the environmental contamination of chromium. Environmental pollution by
chromium has been mostly by the hexavalent chromium in recent years .

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Health effects of heavy metal toxicity in humans
Heavy metal toxicity can have several health effects in the body. Heavy metals can damage and
alter the functioning of organs such as the brain, kidney, lungs, liver, and blood. Heavy metal
toxicity can either be acute or chronic effects. Long-term exposure of the body to heavy metal can
progressively lead to muscular, physical and neurological degenerative processes that are similar
to diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, multiple sclerosis, muscular dystrophy and Alzheimer’s
disease. Also, chronic long-term exposure of some heavy metals may cause cancer . The various
health effects of some heavy metals will be highlighted below.

Arsenic
Arsenic exposure can lead to either acute or chronic toxicity. Acute arsenic poisoning can lead to
the destruction of blood vessels, gastrointestinal tissue and can affect the heart and brain. Chronic
arsenic toxicity which is termed arsenicosis usually focus on skin manifestations such as
pigmentation and keratosis .
Lower level exposure to arsenic can cause nausea and vomiting, reduced production of
erythrocytes and leukocytes and damage blood vessels, cause abnormal heart beat and pricking
sensation in hands and legs. Long-term exposure can lead to the formation of skin lesions,
pulmonary disease, neurological problems, peripheral vascular disease, diabetes mellitus,
hypertension and cardiovascular disease .
Chronic arsenicosis may results to irreversible changes in the vital organs and possibly lead to
death. Also, chronic arsenic exposure can promote the development of a number of cancers which
include skin cancer, cancers of the bladder, lung, liver (angiosarcoma), and possibly the colon and
kidney cancers .

Recently in the United States, the tolerable amount of arsenic in drinking water is 50 μg/liter but
there is much concern of lowering this standard dose of population exposures to arsenic as the
present dose is believed to increase the risk for cancer. Most environmental scientists studying this
problem are of the view that the current tolerable limit of arsenic in drinking water or food be
reduced.

Lead

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Toxicity due to lead exposure is called lead poisoning. Lead poisoning is mostly related to the
gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system in children and adults .
Lead poisoning can be either acute or chronic. Acute exposure of lead can cause headache, loss of
appetite, abdominal pain, fatigue, sleeplessness, hallucinations, vertigo, renal dysfunction,
hypertension and arthritis while chronic exposure can result in birth defects, mental retardation,
autism, psychosis, allergies, paralysis, weight loss, dyslexia, hyperactivity, muscular weakness,
kidney damage, brain damage, coma and may even cause death .

Although lead poisoning is preventable, it still remains a dangerous disease as it can affect most
of the organs of the body. Exposure to elevated levels of lead can cause the plasma membrane of
the blood brain barrier to move into the interstitial spaces leading to edema .

Mercury
Mercury is an element that can easily combine with other elements to form inorganic and organic
mercury. Exposure to elevated levels of metallic, inorganic and organic mercury can damage the
kidney, brain and developing fetus while methyl mercury is highly carcinogenic.
Organic mercury is lipophilic in nature and thus can easily penetrate cell membranes. Mercury and
its compound affects the nervous system and thus increased exposure of mercury can alter brain
functions and lead to tremors, shyness, irritability, memory problems and changes in hearing or
vision. Short-term exposure to metallic mercury vapors at higher levels can lead to vomiting,
nausea, skin rashes, diarrhea, lung damage, high blood pressure, etc. while short-term exposure to
organic mercury poisoning can lead to depression, tremors, headache, fatigue, memory problems,
hair loss, etc. Since these symptoms are also common in other illness or disease conditions,
diagnosis of mercury poisoning may be difficult in such cases .
Chronic levels of mercury exposure can lead to erethism, a disease condition characterized by
excitability, tremor of the hands, memory loss, timidity, and insomnia. Also, occupational
exposure to mercury as observed by researchers has been associated with measurable declines in
performance on neurobehavioral tests of motor speed, visual scanning, visuomotor coordination,
verbal and visual memory. Dimethylmercury is a very toxic compound that can penetrate the skin
through latex gloves and its exposure at very low dose can cause the degeneration of the central
nervous system and death. Mercury exposure to pregnant women can affect the fetus and offspring
may suffer from mental retardation, cerebellar symptoms, retention of primitive reflexes,
malformation and other abnormalitiesMercury may affect the nervous system, leading to
neurological symptoms such as:

 nervousness or anxiety

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  irritability or mood changes
 numbness
 memory problems
 depression
 physical tremors
As the levels of mercury in the body rise, more symptoms will appear. These symptoms may vary
depending on a person’s age and exposure levels. Adults with mercury poisoning may experience
symptoms such as:

 muscle weakness
 metallic taste in the mouth
 nausea and vomiting
 lack of motor skills or feeling uncoordinated
 inability to feel in the hands, face, or other areas
 changes in vision, hearing, or speech
 difficulty breathing
 difficulty walking or standing straight
Mercury can also affect a child’s early development. Children with mercury poisoning may show
symptoms such as:

 impaired motor skills

 problems thinking or problem-solving
 difficulties learning to speak or understanding language
 issues with hand-eye coordination
 being physically unaware of their surroundings
Mercury poisoning tends to develop slowly over time if a person comes into frequent contact with
mercury. However, in some cases, mercury poisoning comes on quickly and is associated with a
specific incident.

Anyone who experiences a sudden onset of mercury poisoning symptoms should call a doctor or
poison control.………

Cadmium

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Cadmium and its compounds have several health effects in humans. The health effects of cadmium
exposure are exacerbated due to the inability of the human body to excrete cadmium. In fact,
cadmium is re-absorbed by the kidney thereby limiting its excretion. Short-term exposure to
inhalation of cadmium can cause severe damages to the lungs and respiratory irritation while its
ingestion in higher dose can cause stomach irritation resulting to vomiting and diarrhea. Long-
term exposure to cadmium leads to its deposition in bones and lungs. As such, cadmium exposure
can cause bone and lung damage .
Cadmium can cause bone mineralization as studies on animals and humans have revealed
osteoporosis (skeletal damage) due to cadmium. It has been observed that “Itai-itai” disease, an
epidemic of bone fractures in Japan is due to cadmium contamination .
Increased cadmium toxicity in this population was found to be associated with increased risk of
bone fractures in women, as well as decreased bone density and height loss in males and females.
Cadmium is highly toxic to the kidney and it accumulates in the proximal tubular cells in higher
concentrations. Thus, cadmium exposure can cause renal dysfunction and kidney disease. Also,
cadmium exposure can cause disturbances in calcium metabolism, formation of renal stones and
hypercalciuria. Cadmium is also classified as group 1 carcinogens for humans by the International
Agency for Research on Cancer. Tobacco is the main source of cadmium uptake in smokers and
thus, smokers are more susceptible to cadmium intoxication than non-smokers . Also, cadmium
can cause testicular degeneration and a potential risk factor for prostate cancer.

Chromium
Chromium, in its hexavalent form, is the most toxic species of chromium though some other
species such as Chromium (III) compounds are much less toxic and cause little or no health
problems. Chromium (VI) has the tendency to be corrosive and also to cause allergic reactions to
the body. Therefore, breathing high levels of chromium (VI) can cause irritation to the lining of
the nose and nose ulcers. It can also cause anemia, irritations and ulcers in the small intestine and
stomach, damage sperm and male reproductive system. The allergic reactions due to chromium
include severe redness and swelling of the skin. Exposure of extremely high doses of chromium
(VI) compounds to humans can result in severe cardiovascular, respiratory, hematological,
gastrointestinal, renal, hepatic, and neurological effects and possibly death .

Exposure to chromium compounds can result in the formation of ulcers such as nasal septum ulcer
which are very common in chromate workers. Exposure to higher amounts of chromium
compounds in humans can lead to the inhibition of erythrocyte glutathione reductase, which in
turn lowers the capacity to reduce methemoglobin to hemoglobin. In vivo and in vitro experiments
have shown chromate compounds to induce DNA damage in many different ways and can lead to
the formation of DNA adducts, chromosomal aberrations, alterations in replication sister
chromatid exchanges, and transcription of DNA .

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 Thus, there are substantial evidence of chromium to promote carcinogenicity of humans as
increase stomach tumors have been observed in animals and humans who were exposed to
chromium(VI) in drinking water.

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Heavy Most affected
Chronic health effects
metal organs

(i) Cancers
(ii) Peripheral vascular disease, which in its extreme
(i) Central nervous
form leads to gangrenous changes (black foot disease,
system
only reported in Taiwan)
(ii) Lungs
(iii) Skin lesions (melanosis, keratosis)
(iii) Digestive
Arsenic (iv) Hearing loss
tract
(v) Reproductive toxicity
(iv) Circulatory
(vi) Hematologic disorders
system
(vii) Neurological diseases
(v) Kidneys
(viii) Developmental abnormalities and neurobehavioral
disorders

(i) Central nervous (i) Cancers

system (ii) Kidney damage
Lead (ii) Erythropoiesis (iii) Neurological diseases
(iii) Kidneys (iv) Impaired intellectual ability and behavioral
(iv) Liver problems in children

(i) Cancers
(i) Kidneys (ii) Kidney damage
(ii) Bone (iii) Bronchiolitis, COPD, emphysema, fibrosis
Cadmium
(iii) Liver (iv) Skeletal damage, first reported from Japan, the itai-
(iv) Lungs itai (ouch-ouch) disease (a combination of osteomalacia
and osteoporosis)

(i) Lung damage

(ii) Kidney damage
(i) Central nervous (iii) Neurological diseases
system (iv) Impaired intellectual ability and behavioral
Mercury (ii) Kidneys problems in children
(iii) Liver (v) Metallic mercury is an allergen, which may cause
(iv) Lungs contact eczema
(vi) Mercury from amalgam fillings may give rise to
oral lichen

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Extraction of Toxic Metals in Matrices:
Non-Biological Matrices:
The non-biological matrices may be subjected to chemical analysis by preparing solution of
samples and their systematic group analysis.

Biological Matrices:
The extraction of metals in biological matrices may be carried out by the following methods.

 Dry Ashing Method;

 Wet Digestion or Acid Digestion Method;
 Fresenius and Babo Method;
 Selective Chemical Treatment.
The organic matter which constitute the bulk portion are destroyed by chemical means to get the
active constituents (metal ions) free completely for qualitative and quantitative analysis

Dry Ashing Method:

About 10 gm. Of tissue or other biological materials is taken in a silica crucible and heated in a
Bunsen burner for removing the moisture and partially destroying the organic material. Then the
crucible is kept in a muffle furnace. The temperature of the furnace is raised up to 5500C and at
this temperature the incineration of the organic matter is performed by keeping the silica
crucible for one hour. After incineration in complete, the crucible is taken out. The colour of
the residue is noted when hot because in presence of zinc the residue assumes yellow colour
while in presence of copper the colour of the residue is somewhat bluish green. The residue in
the silica basin is boiled with 10 ml. of 4(N) hydrochloric acid and then filtered. The clear acidic
solution is tested for metallic poisons such as copper, bismuth, zinc, barium etc. by performing
general group analysis by suing micro methods, chromatographic and instrumental techniques.

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Wet Digestion Method:
Procedure : 100 gms. of biological materials or 10 ml. of blood are taken into a large Kjeldahl
flask and 20 to 40 ml. of Conc. HNO3 are added to cover the material and flask is gently heated
in a small flame when the mass begins to liquefy. The heating is continued until the liquefaction
of the material is complete and that must be done in the presence of copious brown fumes of

nitrogen dioxide in the flask. At this stage about 20 –30 ml. of Conc. H2SO4 are added and the

flask is heated strongly over a wire gauge and Conc. HNO3 is added in drops (by using
dropping funnel) to the contents of the flask at the rate of about 10 drops per minute so that the
atmosphere in the flask must at no times be free from brown fumes. Heating is continued until
all organic matter is destroyed and the liquid becomes clear and colourless or straw coloured.
To find out if the oxidation is complete, the flask is heated without adding any HNO3. If there is
any un-burnt organic matter, the liquid begins to darken and if the digestion is complete no
darkening takes place and the white fumes of SO3 are given off. In the former case, the addition
of HNO3 and heating are continued further till the organic matter is completely oxidized. strong

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is continued for 15 minutes more to expel the nitric acid completely. Then, after cooling 25 ml.
of saturated ammonium, oxalate solution is added. The liquid is boiled until SO3 fumes appear.
This ensures complete removal of HNO3. It is then cooled, diluted with an equal volume of
water and carefully transferred to a beaker. The beaker is heated on a hot plate or sand bath to
expel the excess H2SO4. The solution is cooled and diluted with water in such a way that the
strength of acid is in the neighborhood of 10%. At this stage a precipitate may be formed which
contains the insoluble salts of lead, bismuth, tin, barium, strontium or silver etc. The precipitate
is filtered off and tested for the metals mentioned above. The filtrate will now contain all other
metals except mercury. It is subjected to systematic group analysis and quantitative
determination thereafter as and required.

Fresenium and Babo Method (for Mercury):

The nitric-sulphuric acid method of destruction of organic matter is not at all suitable for
mercury, which is almost completely lost by volatilsation. The method is considered most
suitable for liberation of mercury although there is a possibility of some loss of mercury by
vaporisation.

Procedure: A definite amount of biological material viz. 20-25 gms. of viscera or 5-10 ml. of
blood is taken in a flask fitted with a reflux condenser. In the case of viscera or other solid
material sufficient water is added to make a gruel like consistency. One third of its volume of
chemically pure hydrochloric acid and a few gms. of solid KC1O3 are added. The content are
mixed by shaking. The mixture is heated over a wire gauge on a burner flame or on a boiling
water bath. Small amount of KC1O3 is added time to time and the flask is shaken. Chlorine gas
evolves. The heating is continued until the contents of the flask becomes a uniform, straw
coloured liquid free from organic matter except some fatty substances in suspension which can

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not be oxidized. If heating for an hour after the last addition of KC1O3 produces no darkening
of the mixture, the oxidation of organic matter may be taken as completed. It takes 4-6 hours to
attain the stage. It is filtered and washed with water. The filtrate and washings are collected.
Sufficient sodium sulphite or bisulphate is added to reduce the excess of chlorine into
hydrochloric acid. The liquid is warmed on water bath and a current of air is passed to expel the
excess SO2. The solution is now ready for analysis.

Chemical Test

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