Subsurface Flow Module

User’s Guide
Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide
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Part number: CM020701

C o n t e n t s

Chapter 1: Introduction

About the Subsurface Flow Module 14

How the Subsurface Flow Module Helps Improve Your Modeling . . . . 14
The Subsurface Flow Module Physics Interface Guide . . . . . . . . . 15
Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes . . . . . . 18
Subsurface Flow Module Study Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
The Liquids and Gases Materials Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries? . . . . 19

Overview of the User’s Guide 23

Chapter 2: Subsurface Flow Modeling

Where Do I Start with Subsurface Flow Modeling? 28

About Using the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous

Media Interface 31

Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow 33

Chapter 3: Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces 36

The Creeping Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
The Laminar Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow . . . . . 42
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

CONTENTS |3
 Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Boundary Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Periodic Flow Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Flow Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Pressure Point Constraint . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56

Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces 58

General Single-Phase Flow Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Weakly Compressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
The Mach Number Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Incompressible Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
The Reynolds Number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Fully Developed Flow (Inlet) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Fully Developed Flow (Outlet). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
No Viscous Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Normal Stress Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Pressure Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Mass Sources for Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow . . . . . . 76
Solvers for Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces . . . . . 83

Chapter 4: Porous Media and

4 | CONTENTS
Subsurface Flow Interfaces

Selecting the Right Fluid Flow Interface for Porous Media 90

Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface 92

About Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Storage Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Hydraulic Head, Pressure Head, and Elevation Head . . . . . . . . . 95
Average Linear Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Permeability Models and Non-Darcian Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
References for the Darcy’s Law Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

The Darcy’s Law Interface 102

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s
Law Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Storage Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Richards’ Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Poroelastic Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
No Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Thickness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

CONTENTS |5
 Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Pressure Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Hydraulic Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Atmosphere/Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Pervious Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Fracture Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface 124

About Richards’ Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Retention and Permeability Relationships. . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
References for the Richards’ Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . 128

The Richards’ Equation Interface 129

Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Richards’
Equation Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Richards’ Equation Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Flownet Plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 134

Darcy’s Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Capillary Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface . . . . . . . . 136

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface 137

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Pressure and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Inlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Thin Barrier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

6 | CONTENTS
Theory for the Phase Transport Interface 144
Phase Transport in Free Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Phase Transport in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Predefined Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability Models . . . . 146
Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . 147
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface 149

The Phase Transport Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport
and Phase Transport in Porous Media Interfaces . . . . . . . . 152
Phase and Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . 153
Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Volume Fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Mass Flux. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Interior Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Porous Medium Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158

Theory for the Fracture Flow Interface 160

About Fracture Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Equations and Inputs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

The Fracture Flow Interface 163

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture
Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Fluid and Fracture Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Aperture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

CONTENTS |7
 Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface 168
About the Brinkman Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Brinkman Equations Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
References for the Brinkman Equations Interface. . . . . . . . . . 170

The Brinkman Equations Interface 171

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman
Equations Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface 179
Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface. . . . . . . 179

The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface 180

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
Fluid and Matrix Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Volume Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Wall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Chapter 5: Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

The Transport of Diluted Species Interface 188

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface . . . . . 192
Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Transport Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Turbulent Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Initial Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198

8 | CONTENTS
Mass-Based Concentrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Symmetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Flux Discontinuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Partition Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Periodic Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Line Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Point Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Open Boundary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Thin Diffusion Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Thin Impermeable Barrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
Surface Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Surface Equilibrium Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Porous Electrode Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Reaction Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Electrode Surface Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Porous Media Transport Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Partially Saturated Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Volatilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Reactive Pellet Bed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Reactions (Reactive Pellet Bed) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Hygroscopic Swelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224

The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface 225

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Fractures Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

CONTENTS |9
 Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Inflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
No Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Outflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Species Source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface 234

Mass Balance Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Equilibrium Reaction Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Convective Term Formulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Solving a Diffusion Equation Only . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Mass Sources for Species Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Adding Transport Through Migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Supporting Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
Crosswind Diffusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
Convection in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Diffusion in Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Reactions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Mass Transport in Fractures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254

Chapter 6: Heat Transfer Interfaces

The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer 259

Selecting the Right Heat Transfer Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Heat Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Heat Convection and Conduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Phase Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

10 | C O N T E N T S
Chapter 7: Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

Theory for the Poroelasticity Interface 264

Background and Theory: Constitutive Relations . . . . . . . . . . 264
Fluid Flow — Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Solids Deformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Reference for the Poroelasticity Interface . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

The Poroelasticity Interface 269

Poroelasticity (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 273

Pressure-Saturation Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Mass Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface 277

Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling) . . . . . . 278

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface 280

CONTENTS | 11
12 | C O N T E N T S
 1

Introduction

This guide describes the Subsurface Flow Module, an optional add-on package
that extends the COMSOL Multiphysics® modeling environment with customized
physics interfaces for modeling fluid flow below the ground level or in porous
media in general. It allows to combine this flow with other phenomena, such as
poroelasticity, heat transfer, chemistry, and electromagnetic fields.

This chapter introduces you to the capabilities of this module. A summary of the
physics interfaces and where you can find documentation and model examples is
also included. The last section is a brief overview with links to each chapter in this
guide.

• About the Subsurface Flow Module

• Overview of the User’s Guide

13
 About the Subsurface Flow Module
In this section:

• How the Subsurface Flow Module Helps Improve Your Modeling

• The Subsurface Flow Module Physics Interface Guide
• Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes
• Subsurface Flow Module Study Availability
• The Liquids and Gases Materials Database
• Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

The Physics Interfaces and Building a COMSOL Multiphysics Model in

the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

How the Subsurface Flow Module Helps Improve Your Modeling

The earth and surrounding planets are a giant laboratory filled with an unlimited array
of basic physics and multiphysics interactions. Whether in concert or alone, these
physical phenomena alter our access to important resources, affect the quality of the
environment, shape the ground beneath our feet on earth, and form other planets.

The Subsurface Flow Module is used in the quantitative investigation of geophysical

and environmental phenomena, especially within the area of subsurface flow. The
module combines physics interfaces for fundamental processes and links to COMSOL
Multiphysics and the other modules for structural mechanics and electromagnetics
analyses. New physics represented include heating from radiogenic decay that
produces the geotherm, which is the increase in background temperature with depth.
You can use the variably saturated flow interfaces to analyze unsaturated zone processes
(important to environmental engineers) and two-phase flow (of particular interest in
the petroleum industry as well as steam-liquid systems). Important in subsurface flow,
the heat transfer and chemical transport interfaces explicitly account for physics in the
liquid, solid, and gas phases.

The physics interfaces, options, and functions are tailored to account for subsurface
flow and geologic process terminology. The Heat Transfer interfaces, for example,
include features to superpose a background geotherm without incorporating it as a

14 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
boundary condition. These physics interfaces also include options to automate the
calculation of effective thermal properties for multicomponent systems.

The Fluid Flow branch represent a wide range of possibilities. The Richards’ Equation
interface describes nonlinear flow in variably saturated porous media. The options for
saturated porous media include the Darcy’s Law interface for slow flow and the
Brinkman Equations interface where shear is nonnegligible. The Laminar Flow
interface uses the Navier-Stokes equations to cover free flows and the Fracture Flow
interface is used for modeling flow in fractures.

The module also treats the transport of chemicals and their reactions with the
Chemical Species Transport branch. The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media interface account for chemical transfer in solid, liquid, and gas phases for free,
saturated, and variably saturated fluid flows. The Subsurface Flow Module
Applications Libraries has a number examples linking these physics interfaces together.

The Subsurface Flow Module Physics Interface Guide

The table below lists all the physics interfaces specifically available with this module in
addition to the core physics interfaces included in COMSOL Multiphysics. The
Subsurface Flow Module enhances the COMSOL Multiphysics basic interfaces
regarding the “Transport of Diluted Species” interface and adds the Poroelasticity
interface to structural mechanics.

The Subsurface Flow Module has a set of physics interfaces adopted for a broad
category of simulations important in earth investigations. These physics interface and
models can serve equally well as tools for research, applied investigations, and
classroom education.

The predefined physics interfaces available in this module cover three main application
areas. The Subsurface Flow Module interfaces are available in 2D, 2D axisymmetry,
and 3D. The physics interfaces for heat transfer and species transport are also available
in 1D and 1D axisymmetry. All physics interfaces are available for both stationary and
time-dependent analyses. The physics interfaces can be combined to model, for

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 15

 example, reacting systems and nonisothermal flow. Alternatively, predefined
multiphysics interfaces can be used.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Studies and Solvers

• The Physics Interfaces
• For a list of all the core physics interfaces included with a COMSOL
Multiphysics license, see Physics Interface Guide.

PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE

DIMENSION

Chemical Species Transport

Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Species
Transport of Diluted tds all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Species in Porous Media
Transport of Diluted dsf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Species in Fractures axisymmetric
Reacting Flow

Laminar Flow, Diluted — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species axisymmetric

Reacting Flow in Porous Media

Transport of Diluted rfds 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Species axisymmetric
Fluid Flow

Single-Phase Flow

Creeping Flow spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric

16 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Laminar Flow1 spf 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Phase Transport

Phase Transport phtr 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

Brinkman Equations br 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Darcy’s Law dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fracture Flow esff 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
Richards’ Equation dl all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Multiphase Flow in — 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

Porous Media axisymmetric
Two-Phase Darcy’s Law tpdl 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
axisymmetric
Free and Porous Media fp 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Flow axisymmetric
Phase Transport in phtr 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent
Porous Media axisymmetric
Heat Transfer

Heat Transfer in Solids ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Fluids ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Heat Transfer in Solids and ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent

Fluids

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 17

 PHYSICS INTERFACE ICON TAG SPACE AVAILABLE STUDY TYPE
DIMENSION

Heat Transfer in htlsh 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent;

Fractures axisymmetric thermal perturbation,
frequency domain
Heat Transfer in Porous ht all dimensions stationary; time dependent
Media
Structural Mechanics

Poroelasticity poro 3D, 2D, 2D stationary; time dependent

axisymmetric
1
This physics interface is included with the core COMSOL package but has added
functionality for this module.

Common Physics Interface and Feature Settings and Nodes

There are several common settings and sections available for the physics interfaces and
feature nodes. Some of these sections also have similar settings or are implemented in
the same way no matter the physics interface or feature being used. There are also some
physics feature nodes that display in COMSOL Multiphysics.

In each module’s documentation, only unique or extra information is included;

standard information and procedures are centralized in the COMSOL Multiphysics
Reference Manual.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for

links to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help
window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

18 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Subsurface Flow Module Study Availability
All the physics interfaces included with the module have the Stationary and Time
Dependent preset studies available. Custom studies are also available based on the
physics interface.

Studies and Solvers and The Physics Interfaces in the COMSOL

Multiphysics Reference Manual

The Liquids and Gases Materials Database

The Liquids and Gases material database provides temperature-dependent fluid
dynamic and thermal properties such as dynamic viscosity, heat capacity at constant
pressure, density, and thermal conductivity.

For detailed information, see Liquids and Gases Materials Database and
Materials in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Where Do I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

A number of internet resources have more information about COMSOL, including
licensing and technical information. The electronic documentation, topic-based (or
context-based) help, and the application libraries are all accessed through the
COMSOL Desktop.

If you are reading the documentation as a PDF file on your computer,

the blue links do not work to open an application or content
referenced in a different guide. However, if you are using the Help
system in COMSOL Multiphysics, these links work to open other
modules, application examples, and documentation sets.

THE DOCUMENTATION AND ONLINE HELP

The COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual describes the core physics interfaces
and functionality included with the COMSOL Multiphysics license. This book also has
instructions about how to use COMSOL Multiphysics and how to access the
electronic Documentation and Help content.

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 19

 Opening Topic-Based Help
The Help window is useful as it is connected to the features in the COMSOL Desktop.
To learn more about a node in the Model Builder, or a window on the Desktop, click
to highlight a node or window, then press F1 to open the Help window, which then
displays information about that feature (or click a node in the Model Builder followed
by the Help button ( ). This is called topic-based (or context) help.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder, Application Builder, or Physics Builder click a node or

window and then press F1.
• On any toolbar (for example, Home, Definitions, or Geometry), hover the
mouse over a button (for example, Add Physics or Build All) and then
press F1.
• From the File menu, click Help ( ).
• In the upper-right corner of the COMSOL Desktop, click the Help ( )
button.

To open the Help window:

• In the Model Builder or Physics Builder click a node or window and then
press F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Help ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Help.

Opening the Documentation Window

To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• From the File menu select Help>Documentation ( ).

20 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 To open the Documentation window:

• Press Ctrl+F1.
• On the main toolbar, click the Documentation ( ) button.
• From the main menu, select Help>Documentation.

THE APPLICATION LIBRARIES WINDOW

Each model or application includes documentation with the theoretical background
and step-by-step instructions to create a model or application. The models and
applications are available in COMSOL Multiphysics as MPH files that you can open
for further investigation. You can use the step-by-step instructions and the actual
models as templates for your own modeling. In most models, SI units are used to
describe the relevant properties, parameters, and dimensions, but other unit systems
are available.

Once the Application Libraries window is opened, you can search by name or browse
under a module folder name. Click to view a summary of the model or application and
its properties, including options to open it or its associated PDF document.

The Application Libraries Window in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual.

Opening the Application Libraries Window

To open the Application Libraries window ( ):

• From the Home toolbar, Windows menu, click ( ) Applications

Libraries.
• From the File menu select Application Libraries.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the File>Help

menu, select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

Select Application Libraries from the main File> or Windows> menus.

To include the latest versions of model examples, from the Help menu
select ( ) Update COMSOL Application Library.

ABOUT THE SUBSURFACE FLOW MODULE | 21

 CONTACTING COMSOL BY EMAIL
For general product information, contact COMSOL at [email protected].

COMSOL ACCESS AND TECHNICAL SUPPORT

To receive technical support from COMSOL for the COMSOL products, please
contact your local COMSOL representative or send your questions to
[email protected]. An automatic notification and a case number are sent to you by
email. You can also access technical support, software updates, license information, and
other resources by registering for a COMSOL Access account.

COMSOL ONLINE RESOURCES

COMSOL website www.comsol.com

Contact COMSOL www.comsol.com/contact
COMSOL Access www.comsol.com/access
Support Center www.comsol.com/support
Product Download www.comsol.com/product-download
Product Updates www.comsol.com/support/updates
COMSOL Blog www.comsol.com/blogs
Discussion Forum www.comsol.com/community
Events www.comsol.com/events
COMSOL Video Gallery www.comsol.com/video
Support Knowledge Base www.comsol.com/support/knowledgebase

22 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Overview of the User’s Guide
The Subsurface Flow Module User’s Guide gets you started with modeling using
COMSOL Multiphysics. The information in this guide is specific to this module.
Instructions how to use COMSOL in general are included with the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

As detailed in the section Where Do I Access the Documentation and

Application Libraries? this information can also be searched from the
COMSOL Multiphysics software Help menu.

TABLE OF CONTENTS AND INDEX

To help you navigate through this guide, see the Contents and Index.

THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW BRANCH

Single-Phase Flow Interfaces section describes the Laminar and Creeping Flow
interfaces, and The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface section describes the
transport of multiple immiscible phases in free flow.

THE POROUS MEDIA FLOW BRANCH

Porous Media and Subsurface Flow Interfaces chapter describes the following physics
interfaces and includes the underlying theory for each physics interface at the end of
the chapter.

• The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow group of interfaces estimates the pressure
and velocity of fluids flowing in free systems and within the interstices of a porous
medium. Selecting the Right Fluid Flow Interface for Porous Media helps you
choose the right physics interface to use.
• The Darcy’s Law Interface is for flow in porous media that is relatively slow.
• The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface to simulate two-phase slow flow through
interstices in a porous medium.
• The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface to model the transport of multiple
immiscible phases through a porous medium.
• The Richards’ Equation Interface is for variably saturated systems.
• The Fracture Flow Interface is a special application of Darcy’s law for modeling flow
in fractures.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 23

 • The Brinkman Equations Interface is for fast flow in porous media flow.
• The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface is for modeling fluid flow in systems
with both free and porous media flow.

THE CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT BRANCH

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces chapter describes the physics interfaces found
under the Chemical Species Transport branch when adding a physics interface. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface is used to compute the concentration field of a
dilute solute in a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas,
liquid or solid can be computed.

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface characterizes the fate and
transport of individual or multiple and interacting chemical species for systems
containing fluids, solids, and gases. Theory for the physics interfaces is included at the
end of the chapter.

The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface is used to model the transport
of a solute species along thin fractures. The interface takes into account diffusion,
dispersion, convection, and chemical reactions in fractures. The fractures are defined
by boundaries in 2D and 3D, and the solute species is assumed to be diluted in a
solvent. The mass transport equation solved along the fractures is the tangential
differential form of the convection-diffusion-reaction equation.

THE HEAT TRANSFER BRANCH

Heat Transfer Interfaces chapter describe the group of interfaces that estimate the
temperature distribution in solids, fluids, and fluid-solid systems. The Mechanisms for
Heat Transfer helps you choose the physics interface to use. It includes physics
interfaces to estimate effective properties in multicomponent systems. All heat transfer
interfaces come with interfaces to account for a geotherm brought about through
radiogenic decay.

The Heat Transfer Interface models heat transfer by conduction and convection.
Surface-to-ambient radiation effects around edges and boundaries can also be
included. The physics interfaces are available in 1D, 2D, and 3D and for axisymmetric
models with cylindrical coordinates in 1D and 2D.

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface lets you describe heat transferred both
with and without flowing fluids. You can define the velocity in the convective term
with any of the flow equations just mentioned or set it with an arbitrary expression.

24 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
With convective heat transfer, the effective thermal properties also include an option
to estimate the dispersion or spreading of heat from small-scale velocity variations.

When you have the Subsurface Flow Module plus the Chemical Reaction
Engineering and/or Heat Transfer Modules, the Heat Transfer interface
also has extended features available.

THE MULTIPHYSICS COUPLING NODES

In the Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings chapter the predefined multiphysics
interfaces are introduced.

The Poroelasticity Interface chapter describes the physics interface for Biot’s
poroelasticity, and combines Darcy’s law with solid mechanics to provide suitable
settings to describe the interaction between porous media and fluids.

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface combines the functionality of the
Darcy’s Law and Phase Transport in Porous Media interfaces.

The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface combines the Brinkman Equations and
the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interfaces.

OVERVIEW OF THE USER’S GUIDE | 25

26 | CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
 2

Subsurface Flow Modeling

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections:

• Where Do I Start with Subsurface Flow Modeling?
• About Using the Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface
• Modeling Porous Media and Subsurface Flow

27
 Where Do I Start with Subsurface
Flow Modeling?
Many of the physics interfaces have predefined equations or sets of equations adapted
to earth-science applications. These are based on the equations for momentum
transport (fluid flow), energy transport (heat transfer), and mass transport. You can
take the equations in these physics interfaces and the variables they offer and then
modify them, link them together, and couple them to physics interfaces elsewhere in
COMSOL Multiphysics.

Numerical modeling typically begins with a question about some physical

phenomenon within a particular region of interest. Defining the question well means
that the type of information needed to answer it is obvious. Then identify which
physics are actually important to answering the question and how they interact. Next
a mathematical model is defined to fit to this conceptual model of the physics for the
domain of interest. The mathematical model contains governing equations with
boundary conditions and possibly initial conditions. The boundary conditions detail
how the model domain interacts with the surrounding environment. The initial
conditions make up a snapshot of the physics at some initial time. After the software
solves the mathematical model, the results are interpreted in light of the original
question.

In COMSOL Multiphysics you solve equation-based models of physical processes by

balancing modeled entities, for example, mass or heat (energy). To balance a given

28 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

modeled entity u, examine its flux j in a unit cell at a given time t. In this case, u might
represent mass or heat per unit volume where

Δx

Δz
jx

Δy
jy
jz

u t + Δt – u t
ΔxΔyΔz -------------------------- = – Δ yΔz ( j x + Δx – j x ) – ΔxΔz ( j y + Δy – j y )
Δt
– ΔxΔy ( j z + Δz – j z ) + ΔxΔyΔzF

In this equations the term on the left-hand side represents accumulation or the change
in the amount of u stored in some time period Δt. The final term on the right-hand
side represents a volume source or sink. The terms in between represent the difference
in the fluxes across the surfaces of the volume. Dividing both sides by ΔxΔyΔz gives
the equation

u t – u t – Δt ( j x + Δx – j x ) ( j y + Δy – j y ) ( j z + Δz – j z )
-------------------------
- = – -----------------------------
- – ------------------------------ – ----------------------------- + F
Δt Δx Δy Δz

Allowing the time period Δt and the volume to become infinitesimally small gives the
base equation for a large family of problems in subsurface flow:

∂-----
u-
= –∇ ⋅ j + F
∂t

This equation appears in different forms throughout this manual. If the modeled entity
u is a vector, it requires a balance for every direction in space. To find a unique solution
to this system, the proper initial conditions and boundary conditions must be specified.

WHERE DO I START WITH SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING? | 29

 The incompressible Navier-Stokes equations characterize the flow of freely moving
fluids. This suits assessments involving liquids and gases that migrate within rivers,
pipes, fractures, and streams, for example. The physics interface couples arbitrarily with
other physics interfaces including the solute transport and heat transfer equations. It
also links with other flow equations, which allows modeling of unusual systems
including the eddying that results when ferrofluids move in the presence of a magnetic
field. This physics interface is useful for flows of Newtonian fluids where the density
can be assumed to be constant or nearly constant.

30 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

About Using the Transport of Diluted
Species in Porous Media Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface characterizes the fate and
transport of individual or multiple and interacting chemical species for systems
containing fluids, solids, and gases. The equations supply predefined options to
describe mass transfer by convection (advection), dispersion, diffusion, sorption, and
reactions. The convective term is defined in the mass-transport vector either with any
of the momentum balances just mentioned or it can be set to a predefined velocity
profile.

This physics interface describes the movements and reactions of a single solute,
multiple solutes, and solutes that interact. The physics interface suits modeling of
transport in saturated porous media, fluids, and even solid state diffusion, where the
physics can be slow diffusion in a solid or stagnant pond, rapid transport in a fracture,
or temperature-dependent reactions in multiple phases. This physics interface also
covers leaching from pesticide applications and landfills as well as chemical partitioning
from liquid to vapor phase. It is available in all space dimensions.

This physics interface facilitates environmental models of pollutants migrating in an

aquifer and reservoir analyses involving oil flow stimulated by surfactants. It also suits
assessing microbial communities and movement of dissolved oxygen in a river or waste
stream.

Linking arbitrarily to and from other physics interfaces allows an unusually wide range
of investigation. Links provide driving forces such as velocity and electric fields plus
feedback chemical to other physics. Chemical properties and reactions can change and
be changed by temperature, pressure, electric potential, magnetic potential, and shear
rates. Temperature-dependent dissolution rates, exothermic and endothermic
reactions, phase changes, electrochemistry, and ferrofluidics fall well inside the wide
range of multiphysics processes that are straightforward to describe in a single model.

Expressions for fluid velocities can come from any flow equation in COMSOL
Multiphysics, including model results and equations you write. This means you can
enter a number or an expression to drive the solute transport without fully simulating
the flow field.

ABOUT USING THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 31

 As an example, pesticides sprayed onto crops leach into the dry soil with irrigation. The
chemical plume can spread or disperse as the contaminated liquid migrates around
solid grains.

32 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING

Modeling Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow
The Fluid Flow physics features included with the Subsurface Flow Module are used
to characterize movements of liquids, gases, and other flowing media, such as molten
rock. The physics interfaces are set up using terms like pressure and hydraulic heads,
that are familiar to hydrologists. In variably saturated porous media flow, hydraulic
properties may change as fluids move through the medium, filling some pores and
draining others. Richards’ equation is employed to model this type of flow, and the van
Genuchten and Brooks and Corey formulations can be applied to take retention in the
pores into account. Density, dynamic viscosity, saturated and residual liquid fraction,
hydraulic conductivities, and storage models can be provided.

Saturated porous media flow can be modeled through either Darcy’s Law or
Brinkman's extension to Darcy's Law, depending on the size of the pores involved. If
the pore is such that viscous effects to the fluid flow can be ignored, then Darcy's Law
can be used, and flow is described exclusively by the pressure variable. If the size of the
pores is such that the fluid can impose momentum changes through shear effects, then
the Brinkman equations are to be applied. They solve for the same variables as the
Navier-Stokes equations, but include terms that consider the porosity of the media the
fluid is flowing through.

The Fracture Flow interface solves for pressure on internal (2D) boundaries within a
3D matrix and is automatically coupled to the physics describing the porous media
flow in the surrounding matrix. This approximation saves you from meshing the actual
fractures and the computational resources this entails. If a fluid happens to flow from
one medium to the other (and back) in the same model, all of the porous media physics
are automatically coupled to descriptions of free flow within the Subsurface Flow
Module.

MODELING POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW | 33

34 | CHAPTER 2: SUBSURFACE FLOW MODELING
 3

Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

This chapter describes the interfaces found under the Fluid Flow>Single-Phase Flow
branch ( ).

• The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

35
 The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow
Interfaces
In this section:

• The Creeping Flow Interface

• The Laminar Flow Interface
• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, Inconsistent Stabilization, and
Advanced Settings sections, some of them accessed by clicking the Show button ( )
and choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to
open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

The Creeping Flow Interface

The Creeping Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used for simulating fluid flows at very low
Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term in the Navier-Stokes equations can be
neglected. Creeping flow, also referred to as Stokes flow, occurs in systems with high
viscosity or small geometrical length scales (for example, in microfluidics and MEMS
devices). The fluid can be compressible or incompressible, as well as Newtonian or
non-Newtonian.

The equations solved by the Creeping Flow interface are the Stokes equations for
conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

The Creeping Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid Properties node, which adds the Stokes equations and
provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties. Except where
noted below, see The Laminar Flow Interface for all other settings.

36 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

PHYSICAL MODEL
By default, the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected. If unchecked,
the inertial terms are included in the computations.

DISCRETIZATION
By default, the Creeping Flow interface uses P2+P1 elements. Contrary to general
laminar and turbulent single-phase flow simulations employing purely linear P1+P1
elements, P2+P1 elements are well suited for most creeping flow simulations but are
not in general fully conservative. Full conservation properties and high accuracy is
obtained by selecting P2+P2 or P3+P3 elements.

Note that P1+P1, P2+P2, and P3+P3 discretizations (the so-called equal order
interpolations) require streamline diffusion to be active.

• The Laminar Flow Interface

• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow InterfacesTheory for the
Single-Phase Flow InterfacesTheory for the Single-Phase Flow
InterfacesTheory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

Pore-Scale Flow: Application Library path Subsurface_Flow_Module/

Fluid_Flow/pore_scale_flow

The Laminar Flow Interface

The Laminar Flow (spf) interface ( ) is used to compute the velocity and pressure
fields for the flow of a single-phase fluid in the laminar flow regime. A flow remains
laminar as long as the Reynolds number is below a certain critical value. At higher
Reynolds numbers, disturbances have a tendency to grow and cause transition to
turbulence. This critical Reynolds number depends on the model, but a classical
example is pipe flow, where the critical Reynolds number is known to be approximately
2000.

The physics interface supports incompressible flow, weakly compressible flow (the
density depends on temperature but not on pressure), and compressible flow at low
Mach numbers (typically less than 0.3). It also supports flow of non-Newtonian fluids.

The equations solved by the Laminar Flow interface are the Navier-Stokes equations
for conservation of momentum and the continuity equation for conservation of mass.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 37

 The Laminar Flow interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.
Time-dependent studies should be used in the high-Reynolds number regime as these
flows tend to become inherently unsteady.

When the Laminar Flow interface is added, the following default nodes are also added
in the Model Builder: Fluid Properties, Wall (the default boundary condition is No slip),
and Initial Values. Other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces, can be added from the Physics toolbar or from the context menu
displayed when right-clicking Laminar Flow.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Physics interface variables can be referred to using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is spf.

About the Physics Interface Label Names

The label for a single-phase flow interface (the node name in the Model Builder) is
dynamic and is reset according to the turbulence model and the neglect inertial term
(Stokes flow) property set at the physics interface level. The availability also depends
on the software license.

If the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, then the Label changes
to Creeping Flow, which is the same Label that displays when that interface is added
from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
Depending of the fluid properties and the flow regime, three options are available for
the Compressibility option. In general the computational complexity increases from
Incompressible flow to Weakly compressible flow to Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) but the
underlying hypotheses are increasingly more restrictive in the opposite direction.

When the Incompressible flow option (default) is selected, the incompressible form of
the Navier-Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is

38 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section. The Reference
temperature is set to 293.15 K.

The Weakly compressible flow option models compressible flow when the pressure
dependency of the density can be neglected. When selected, the compressible form of
the Navier-Stokes and continuity equations is applied. In addition, the fluid density is
evaluated at the Reference pressure level defined in this section.

When the Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) option is selected, the compressible form of the
Navier-Stokes and continuity equations is applied. Ma < 0.3 indicates that the inlet and
outlet conditions, as well as the stabilization, may not be suitable for transonic and
supersonic flow. For more information, see The Mach Number Limit.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes Flow)

For low Reynolds number flows, the inertial terms in the Navier-Stokes equations may
be neglected.

Porous Media Domains

With the addition of various modules, the Enable porous media domains check box is
available. Selecting this option, a Fluid and Matrix Properties node, a Mass Source node,
and a Forchheimer Drag subnode are added to the physics interface. These are described
for the Brinkman Equations interface in the respective module’s documentation. The
Fluid and Matrix Properties can be applied on all domains or on a subset of the domains.

Reference values
Reference values are global quantities used to evaluate the density of the fluid when
the Incompressible flow or the Weakly compressible flow option is selected.

Reference pressure level There are generally two ways to include the pressure in fluid
flow computations: either to use the absolute pressure pA=p+pref, or the gauge
pressure p. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for the gauge pressure
whereas material properties are evaluated using the absolute pressure. The reference
pressure level is also used to define the reference density.

Reference temperature The reference temperature is used to define the reference

density.

Reference position When Include gravity is selected, the reference position can be
defined. It corresponds to the location where the total pressure (that includes the
hydrostatic pressure) is equal to the Reference pressure level.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 39

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u and its components, and the Pressure p.

If required, the names of the field, component, and dependent variable can be edited.
Editing the name of a scalar dependent variable changes both its field name and the
dependent variable name. If a new field name coincides with the name of another field
of the same type, the fields share degrees of freedom and dependent variable names. A
new field name must not coincide with the name of a field of another type or with a
component name belonging to some other field. Component names must be unique
within a model except when two fields share a common field name.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Usually, both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and
should remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do
not perturb the original transport equation. Streamline diffusion must be selected
when using equal-order interpolation for pressure and velocity.

Select the Use dynamic subgrid time scale check box to approximate the time-scale
tensor in time dependent problems from projections of weak expressions. This check
box is selected by default. When not selected the actual time-step is used.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To enable this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There is usually just one inconsistent stabilization method — Isotropic diffusion. This
method is equivalent to adding a term to the diffusion coefficient in order to dampen
the effect of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by
convection. If possible, minimize the use of the inconsistent stabilization method
because by using it you no longer solve the original problem. By default, the Isotropic
diffusion check box is not selected because this type of stabilization adds artificial
diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this option can be
used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

If required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter δid as
a scalar positive value. The default value is 0.25 (a reasonable value to start with is

40 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

roughly 0.5 divided by the element order). A higher value adds more isotropic
diffusion.

• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is per default set to Automatic
from physics. This option can add pseudo time derivatives to the equation when the
Stationary equation form is used in order to speed up convergence. Pseudo time
stepping is triggered when the Laminar Flow interface is selected in some multiphysics
coupling features. Set Automatic from physics to On to apply pseudo time stepping also
for laminar flows. Set it to Off to disable pseudo time stepping completely.

When Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form is set to Automatic from
physics or On, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For the default Automatic
option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy condition) is
determined by a PID regulator.

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

• Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow
• Theory for the Single-Phase Flow Interfaces

DISCRETIZATION
The default discretization for Laminar Flow is P1+P1 elements — that is, piecewise
linear interpolation for velocity and pressure. This is suitable for most flow problems.

Some higher-order interpolations are also available, and they can be cost-effective
options to obtain high accuracy for flows with low Reynolds numbers.

The P2+P2 and P3+P3 options, the equal-order interpolation options, are the preferred
higher-order options because they have higher numerical accuracy than the

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 41

 mixed-order options P2+P1 and P3+P2. The equal-order interpolation options do,
however, require streamline diffusion to be active.

Flow Past a Cylinder: Application Library path COMSOL_Multiphysics/

Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow

Domain, Boundary, Pair, and Point Nodes for Single-Phase Flow

The following nodes, listed in alphabetical order, are available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Boundary Stress • Periodic Flow Condition

• Flow Continuity • Point Mass Source1
• Fluid Properties • Pressure Point Constraint
• Initial Values • Symmetry
• Inlet • Volume Force
1
• Line Mass Source • Wall
• Open Boundary
• Outlet
1
A feature that may require an additional license

For 2D axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and adds an Axial Symmetry
node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can also search for information:
press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations solved by the
physics interface, except for volume forces, which are added by the Volume Force

42 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

feature. The node also provides an interface for defining the material properties of the
fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables, or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs, for
example temperature or pressure, may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the Temperature model input is set to Common model input, and the
temperature is controlled from Default Model Inputs under Global Definitions or by a
locally defined Model Input. If a Heat Transfer interface is included in the component,
it controls the temperature Common model input. Alternatively, the temperature field
can be selected from another physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own
tags (Name). For example, if a Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the
component, the Temperature (ht) option is available for T.

You can also select User defined from the Temperature model input in order to manually
prescribe T.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref, where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier-Stokes or RANS equations, and pref is from the user input defined at

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 43

 the physics interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a
gauge pressure. If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be
set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

Model Inputs and Multiphysics Couplings in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

FLUID PROPERTIES

Density
The density can either be specified by a material, or by a User defined expression. The
density in a material can depend on temperature and/or pressure and these
dependencies are automatically replaced by pref for weakly compressible flows and pref
and Tref for incompressible flows (as specified by the Compressibility setting at the
physics interface level). If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included
in the computations, Compressibility must be set to compressible. Any dependencies in
the density on quantities other than temperature and pressure must be consistent with
the Compressibility setting at the interface level.

Dynamic Viscosity
The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the volume force F on the right-hand side of the
momentum equation.

∂u T 2
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
∂t 3

If several volume-force nodes are added to the same domain, then the sum of all
contributions are added to the momentum equation.

44 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Initial Values
The initial values serve as initial conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial
guess for a nonlinear solver in a stationary simulation. Note that for a transient
compressible-flow simulation employing a material for which the density depends on
the pressure (such as air), discontinuities in the initial values trigger pressure waves
even when the Mach number is small. The pressure waves must be resolved and this
puts a restriction on the time step.

INITIAL VALUES
Initial values or expressions should be specified for the Velocity field u and the Pressure
p.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition to model solid walls. A no slip wall is a wall
where the fluid velocity relative to the wall velocity is zero. For a stationary wall that
means that u = 0.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n=0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 45

 WALL MOVEMENT
This section contains controls to describe the wall movement relative to the lab (or
spatial) frame.

The Translational velocity setting controls the translational wall velocity, utr. The list is
per default set to Automatic from frame. The physics automatically detects if the spatial
frame moves. This can for example happen if an ALE interface is present in the model
component. If there is no movement utr = 0. If the frame moves, utr becomes equal
to the frame movement. utr is accounted for in the actual boundary condition
prescribed in the Boundary condition section.

Select Zero (Fixed wall) from Translational velocity selection list to prescribe utr = 0.

Select Manual from Translational velocity selection list in order to manually prescribe
Velocity of moving wall, utr. This can for example be used to model an oscillating wall
where the magnitude of the oscillations are very small compared to the rest of the
model. Specifying translational velocity manually does not automatically cause the
associated wall to move. An additional Moving Mesh interface needs to be added to
physically track the wall movement in the spatial reference frame.

The Sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. A velocity is prescribed at the wall and
the boundary itself does not have to actually move relative to the reference frame.

• For 3D components, values or expressions for the Velocity of sliding wall uw should
be specified. If the velocity vector entered is not in the plane of the wall, COMSOL
Multiphysics projects it onto the tangential direction. Its magnitude is adjusted to
be the same as the magnitude of the vector entered.
• For 2D components, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the
direction of the boundary. For this reason, the sliding wall boundary condition has
different definitions in different space dimensions. A single entry for the Velocity of
the tangentially moving wall Uw should be specified in 2D.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show More Options button ( ) and selecting
Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings
can be set to Default, Use pointwise constraints, Use DG constraints, or Use weak
constraints. Use mixed constraints can be selected when imposing a no slip condition
exactly.

46 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Use DG constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is not
available for Use DG constraints or Use weak constraints.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

Inlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net flow into the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Outlet conditions when specifying an Inlet condition. For example, if the pressure
is specified at the outlet, the velocity may be specified at the inlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an inlet are Velocity, Fully developed flow,
and Pressure. After selecting a Boundary Condition from the list, a section with the same
or a similar name displays underneath. For example, if Velocity is selected, a Velocity
section, where further settings are defined, is displayed.

VELOCITY
The Normal inflow velocity is specified as u = −nU0, where n is the boundary normal
pointing out of the domain and U0 is the normal inflow speed.

The Velocity field option sets the velocity vector to u = u0. The components of the inlet
velocity vector u0 should be defined for this choice.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. If the reference pressure pref, defined at the physics interface level, is

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 47

 equal to 0, the value of the Pressure p0, at the boundary, is the absolute pressure.
Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the boundary.

• The Suppress backflow option adjusts the inlet pressure locally in order to prevent
fluid from exiting the domain through the boundary. If you clear the suppress
backflow option, the inlet boundary can become an outlet depending on the
pressure field in the rest of the domain.
• Flow direction controls in which direction the fluid enters the domain.
- For Normal flow, it prescribes zero tangential velocity component.
- For User defined, an Inflow velocity direction du (dimensionless) should be
specified. The magnitude of du does not matter, only the direction. du must
point into the domain.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

The Fully developed flow option adds contributions to the inflow boundary, which force
the flow towards the solution for a fully developed channel flow. The channel can be
thought of as a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section. The inlet boundary must
hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to work properly. In 2D
axisymmetric models, the inlet normal must be parallel to the symmetry axis.

Select an option to control the flow rate at the inlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the inflow
boundary.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the inlet boundary.

A fully developed flow boundary cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

• Normal Stress Boundary Condition

48 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Outlet
This condition should be used on boundaries for which there is a net outflow from the
domain. To obtain a numerically well-posed problem, it is advisable to also consider
the Inlet conditions when specifying an Outlet condition. For example, if the velocity
is specified at the inlet, the pressure may be specified at the outlet, and vice versa.
Specifying the velocity vector at both the inlet and the outlet may cause convergence
difficulties. Selecting appropriate outlet conditions for the Navier-Stokes equations is
a nontrivial task. Generally, if there is something interesting happening at an outflow
boundary, the computational domain should be extended to include this
phenomenon.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The available Boundary condition options for an outlet are Pressure, Fully developed flow,
and Velocity.

PRESSURE CONDITIONS
This option specifies the normal stress, which in most cases is approximately equal to
the pressure. The tangential stress component is set to zero. If the reference pressure
pref, defined at the physics interface level, is equal to 0, the value of the Pressure p0, at
the boundary, is the absolute pressure. Otherwise, p0 is the relative pressure at the
boundary.

• The Normal flow option changes the no tangential stress condition to a no tangential
velocity condition. This forces the flow to exit (or enter) the domain perpendicularly
to the outlet boundary.
• The Suppress backflow check box is selected by default. This option adjusts the outlet
pressure in order to prevent fluid from entering the domain through the boundary.

VELOCITY
See the Inlet node Velocity section for the settings.

FULLY DEVELOPED FLOW

This boundary condition is applicable when the flow exits the domain into a long pipe
or channel, at the end of which a flow profile is fully developed.

The channel can be thought of as a virtual extrusion of the outlet cross section. The
outlet boundary must hence be flat in order for the fully developed flow condition to
work properly. In 2D axisymmetric models, the outlet normal must be parallel to the
symmetry axis.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 49

 Select an option to control the flow rate at the outlet:

• Average velocity, Uav.

• Flow rate, V0. Two-dimensional models also require an Entrance thickness, Dz,
which is the out-of-plane thickness of the extruded entrance channel.
• Average pressure, Pav. Observe that Pav is the average pressure on the outflow.

The fully developed flow condition requires any volume force to be approximately
aligned with the normal of the outlet boundary. A fully developed flow boundary
cannot be adjacent to any Interior Wall feature.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

Symmetry
The Symmetry boundary condition prescribes no penetration and vanishing shear
stresses. The boundary condition is a combination of a Dirichlet condition and a
Neumann condition:

u ⋅ n = 0,  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = 0
  3 

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

for the compressible and incompressible formulations. The Dirichlet condition takes
precedence over the Neumann condition, and the above equations are equivalent to
the following equation for both the compressible and incompressible formulations:

u ⋅ n = 0, K – ( K ⋅ n )n = 0
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

BOUNDARY SELECTION
For 2D axial symmetry, a boundary condition does not need to be defined for the
symmetry axis at r = 0. The software automatically provides a condition that prescribes

50 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

ur = 0 and vanishing stresses in the z direction and adds an Axial Symmetry node that
implements these conditions on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

Open Boundary
The Open Boundary condition describes boundaries in contact with a large volume of
fluid. Fluid can both enter and leave the domain on boundaries with this type of
condition.

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The Boundary condition options for open boundaries are Normal stress and No viscous
stress.

Normal Stress
The Normal stress f0 condition implicitly imposes p ≈ f 0 .

No Viscous Stress
The No Viscous Stress condition specifies vanishing viscous stress on the boundary. This
condition does not provide sufficient information to fully specify the flow at the open
boundary and must at least be combined with pressure constraints at adjacent points.

The No viscous stress condition prescribes:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations. This condition can be useful
in some situations because it does not impose any constraint on the pressure. A typical
example is a model with volume forces that give rise to pressure gradients that are hard
to prescribe in advance. To make the model numerically stable, this boundary
condition should be combined with a point constraint on the pressure.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 51

 Boundary Stress
The Boundary Stress node adds a boundary condition that represents a general class of
conditions also known as traction boundary conditions.

BOUNDARY CONDITION
The Boundary condition options for the boundary stress are General stress, Normal
stress, and Normal stress, normal flow.

General Stress
When General stress is selected, the components for the Stress F should be specified.
The total stress on the boundary is set equal to the given stress F:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = F
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = F

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- – n ⋅ F (3-1)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-1 states that p ≈ −n·F.

Normal Stress
Normal Stress is described for the Open Boundary node.

Normal Stress, Normal Flow

For Normal stress, normal flow, the magnitude of the Normal stress f0 should be
specified. The tangential velocity is set to zero on the boundary:

n  – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 ,
T 2
t⋅u = 0
3

T
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 , t⋅u = 0

for the compressible and the incompressible formulations.

This boundary condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure that for 2D flows is

52 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-2)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-2 states that p ≈ f0.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

If Normal Stress, Normal Flow is selected as the Boundary condition, then to Apply
reaction terms on all dependent variables, the All physics (symmetric) option should be
selected. Alternatively, the Individual dependent variables could be selected to restrict
the reaction terms as needed.

Periodic Flow Condition

The Periodic Flow Condition splits its selection into a source group and a destination
group. Fluid that leaves the domain through one of the destination boundaries enters
the domain through the corresponding source boundary. This corresponds to a
situation where the geometry is a periodic part of a larger geometry. If the boundaries
are not parallel to each other, the velocity vector is automatically transformed.

If the boundaries are curved, the orientation of the source must be specified manually
(see Orientation of Source).

No input is required when Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) is selected for Compressibility

under the Physical Model section for the physics interface. Typically when a periodic
boundary condition is used with a compressible flow, the pressure is the same at both
boundaries and the flow is driven by a volume force.

PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
This section is available when Incompressible flow is selected for Compressibility under
the Physical Model section for the physics interface.

A value or expression should be specified for the Pressure difference, psrc − pdst. This
pressure difference can, for example, drive the fully developed flow in a channel.

To set up a periodic boundary condition, both boundaries must be selected in the

Periodic Flow Condition node. COMSOL Multiphysics automatically assigns one
boundary as the source and the other as the destination. To manually set the
destination selection, a Destination Selection subnode is available from the context

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 53

 menu (by right-clicking the parent node) or from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.
All destination sides must be connected.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

ORIENTATION OF SOURCE
For information about the Orientation of Source section, see Orientation of Source and
Destination in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flow Continuity
The Flow Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it
prescribes that the flow field is continuous across the pair.

A Wall subnode is added by default and it applies to the parts of the pair boundaries
where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination boundary and vice versa.
The Wall feature can be overridden by any other boundary condition that applies to
exterior boundaries. By right-clicking the Flow Continuity node, additional Fallback
feature subnodes can be added.

The Wall fallback condition is incompatible with the Low Re wall treatment for the k-ω,
SST, and Low Reynolds number k-ε turbulence models.

Pressure Point Constraint

The Pressure Point Constraint condition can be used to specify the pressure level. If it
is not possible to specify the pressure level using a boundary condition, the pressure
level must be set in some other way, for example, by specifying a fixed pressure at a
point.

PRESSURE CONSTRAINT
The relative pressure value is set by specifying the Pressure p0. Or, if the reference
pressure pref defined at the physics interface level is equal to zero, p0 represents the
absolute pressure.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

54 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The Apply reaction terms on setting is set per default to Individual dependent variables.
All physics (symmetric) cannot be used together with a segregated solver when fluid
flow is coupled with Moving Mesh, Level Set, or Phase Field.

Point Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Batteries & Fuel Cells
Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain centered around a point

For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Batteries & Fuel
Cells Module, there are two nodes: one for the fluid flow (Fluid Point Source) and one
for the species (Species Point Source).

SOURCE STRENGTH
·
The source Mass flux, q p should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the point into the computational domain. A negative value results in mass
being removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that a point source located on a symmetry
plane has twice the given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Line Mass Source

This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: Batteries & Fuel Cells
Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, Corrosion Module,
Electrochemistry Module, Electrodeposition Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe
Flow Module, or Subsurface Flow Module.

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube region with
infinitely small radius.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 55

 For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which is available
with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, or Batteries & Fuel
Cells Module, there are two nodes, one for the fluid flow (Fluid Line Source) and one
for the species (Species Line Source).

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the axis of symmetry
3D Edges

SOURCE STRENGTH
·
The source Mass flux, q l , should be specified. A positive value results in mass being
ejected from the line into the computational domain and a negative value means that
mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This,
for example, has the effect that a line source located on a symmetry plane has twice the
given strength.

Mass Sources for Fluid Flow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference

Manual

Gravity
This feature requires at least one of the following licenses: CFD Module, Heat Transfer
Module.

The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Physical Model settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Acceleration of gravity value. When a turbulence model that solves for the turbulent
kinetic energy, k, is used, the option Include buoyancy-induced turbulence is available.
When selected, the Buoyancy contribution is by default set to Automatic from
multiphysics. Contributions are only obtained from multiphysics couplings that
support buoyancy-induced turbulence, such as Nonisothermal Flow. If the Buoyancy
contribution is switched to User defined, an edit field for the Turbulent Schmidt number

56 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

appears. See also Theory for Buoyancy-Induced Turbulence in the CFD Module
User’s Guide.

ACCELERATION OF GRAVITY
The Acceleration of gravity (SI unit m/s, default value −gconstez in 2D axial symmetry
and 3D and −gconstey in 2D) is used to define the gravity forces. It should be a global
quantity.

THE LAMINAR FLOW AND CREEPING FLOW INTERFACES | 57

 Theory for the Single-Phase Flow
Interfaces
The theory for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow and Viscoelastic Flow interfaces
is described in this section:

• General Single-Phase Flow Theory

• Compressible Flow
• Weakly Compressible Flow
• The Mach Number Limit
• Incompressible Flow
• The Reynolds Number
• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition
• Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions
• Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)
• Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
• No Viscous Stress
• Normal Stress Boundary Condition
• Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Solvers for Laminar Flow
• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models
• Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation
• Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow
• References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

The theory about most boundary conditions is found in Ref. 2.

58 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

General Single-Phase Flow Theory
The Single-Phase Fluid Flow interfaces are based on the Navier-Stokes equations,
which in their most general form read

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-3)
∂t

∂u
ρ ------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + τ ] + F (3-4)
∂t

∂T T ∂ρ ∂p
ρC p  ------- + ( u ⋅ ∇ )T = – ( ∇ ⋅ q ) + τ:S – ---- -------  ------ + ( u ⋅ ∇ )p + Q (3-5)
 ∂t  ρ ∂T p  ∂t 

where

• ρ is the density (SI unit: kg/m3)

• u is the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• p is pressure (SI unit: Pa)
• τ is the viscous stress tensor (SI unit: Pa)
• F is the volume force vector (SI unit: N/m3)
• Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure (SI unit: J/(kg·K))
• T is the absolute temperature (SI unit: K)
• q is the heat flux vector (SI unit: W/m2)
• Q contains the heat sources (SI unit: W/m3)
• S is the strain-rate tensor:

1
S = --- ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )
2

The operation “:” denotes a contraction between tensors defined by

a:b =   anm bnm (3-6)

n m

This is sometimes referred to as the double dot product.

Equation 3-3 is the continuity equation and represents conservation of mass.

Equation 3-4 is a vector equation which represents conservation of momentum.
Equation 3-5 describes the conservation of energy, formulated in terms of

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 59

 temperature. This is an intuitive formulation that facilitates boundary condition
specifications.

To close the equation system, Equation 3-3 through Equation 3-5, constitutive
relations are needed. For a Newtonian fluid, which has a linear relationship between
stress and strain, Stokes (Ref. 1) deduced the following expression:

2
τ = 2μS – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I (3-7)
3

The dynamic viscosity, μ (SI unit: Pa·s), for a Newtonian fluid is allowed to depend on
the thermodynamic state but not on the velocity field. All gases and many liquids can
be considered Newtonian. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are honey, mud, blood,
liquid metals, and most polymer solutions. The Heat Transfer Module treats all fluids
as Newtonian according to Equation 3-7.Other commonly used constitutive relations
are Fourier’s law of heat conduction and the ideal gas law.

In theory, the same equations describe both laminar and turbulent flows. In practice,
however, the mesh resolution required to simulate turbulence with the Laminar Flow
interface makes such an approach impractical.

There are several books where derivations of the Navier-Stokes equations

and detailed explanations of concepts such as Newtonian fluids can be
found. See, for example, the classical text by Batchelor (Ref. 3) and the
more recent work by Panton (Ref. 4).

Many applications describe isothermal flows for which Equation 3-5 is decoupled from
Equation 3-3 and Equation 3-4.

2D AXISYMMETRIC FORMULATIONS
A 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-3 and Equation 3-4 requires ∂ ⁄ ∂φ to
be zero. That is, there must be no gradients in the azimuthal direction. A common
additional assumption is, however, that u φ = 0 . In such cases, the φ -equation can be
removed from Equation 3-4. The resulting system of equations is both easier to
converge and computationally less expensive compared to retaining the φ -equation.
The default 2D axisymmetric formulation of Equation 3-3 and Equation 3-4 therefore
assumes that

∂ ⁄ ∂φ = 0
uφ = 0

60 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Compressible Flow
The equations of motion for a single-phase fluid are the continuity equation:

∂ρ
------ + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (3-8)
∂t

and the momentum equation:

∂u
ρ ------- + ρu ⋅ ∇u = – ∇p + ∇ ⋅  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I + F
2
(3-9)
∂t  3 

These equations are applicable for incompressible as well as for compressible flow with
density and viscosity variations.

Weakly Compressible Flow

The same equations as for Compressible Flow are applied for weakly compressible flow.
The only difference is that the density is evaluated at the reference pressure. The
density may be a function of other quantities, in particular it may be temperature
dependent.

The weakly compressible flow equations are valid for incompressible as well as
compressible flow with density variations independent of the pressure.

Provided that the densities dependency pressure is specified through model inputs, the
density is automatically evaluated at the reference pressure level.

The Mach Number Limit

An important dimensionless number in fluid dynamics is the Mach number, Ma,
defined by

u
Ma = -------
a

where a is the speed of sound. A flow is formally incompressible when Ma = 0. This is

theoretically achieved by letting the speed of sound tend to infinity. The Navier-Stokes
equations then have the mathematical property that pressure disturbances are
instantaneously propagated throughout the entire domain. This results in a parabolic
equation system.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 61

 The momentum equation, Equation 3-9, is parabolic for unsteady flow and elliptic for
steady flow, whereas the continuity equation, Equation 3-8, is hyperbolic for both
steady and unsteady flow. The combined system of equations is thus hybrid
parabolic-hyperbolic for unsteady flow and hybrid elliptic-hyperbolic for steady flow.
An exception occurs when the viscous term in Equation 3-9 becomes vanishingly
small, such as at an outflow boundary, in which case the momentum equation becomes
locally hyperbolic. The number of boundary conditions to apply on the boundary then
depends on the number of characteristics propagating into the computational domain.
For the purely hyperbolic system, the number of characteristics propagating from the
boundary into the domain changes as the Mach number passes through unity. Hence,
the number of boundary conditions required to obtain a numerically well-posed
system must also change. The compressible formulation of the laminar and turbulent
interfaces uses the same boundary conditions as the incompressible formulation, which
implies that the compressible interfaces are not suitable for flows with a Mach number
larger than or equal to one.

The practical Mach number limit is lower than one, however. The main reason is that
the numerical scheme (stabilization and boundary conditions) of the Laminar Flow
interface does not recognize the direction and speed of pressure waves. The fully
compressible Navier-Stokes equations do, for example, start to display very sharp
gradients already at moderate Mach numbers. But the stabilization for the single-phase
flow interface does not necessarily capture these gradients. It is impossible to give an
exact limit where the low Mach number regime ends and the moderate Mach number
regime begins, but a rule of thumb is that the Mach number effects start to appear at
Ma = 0.3. For this reason, the compressible formulation is referred to as Compressible
flow (Ma<0.3) in COMSOL Multiphysics.

Incompressible Flow
When the temperature variations in the flow are small, a single-phase fluid can often
be assumed incompressible; that is, ρ is constant or nearly constant. This is the case for
all liquids under normal conditions and also for gases at low velocities. For constant ρ,
Equation 3-8 reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = 0 (3-10)

and Equation 3-9 becomes

∂u T
ρ + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-11)
∂t

62 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Provided that the densities dependency on temperature and pressure is specified
through model inputs, the density is evaluated at the reference pressure level and at the
reference temperature. However, if the density is a function of other quantities such as
a concentration field, or if the density is specified by a user defined expression, the user
has to make sure that the density is defined as constant when the incompressible flow
formulation is used.

The Reynolds Number

A fundamental characteristic in analyses of fluid flow is the Reynolds number:

ρUL
Re = ------------
μ

where U denotes a velocity scale, and L denotes a representative length. The Reynolds
number represents the ratio between inertial and viscous forces. At low Reynolds
numbers, viscous forces dominate and tend to damp out all disturbances, which leads
to laminar flow. At high Reynolds numbers, the damping in the system is very low,
giving small disturbances the possibility to grow by nonlinear interactions. If the
Reynolds number is high enough, the flow field eventually ends up in a chaotic state
called turbulence.

Observe that the Reynolds number can have different meanings depending on the
length scale and velocity scale. To be able to compare two Reynolds numbers, they
must be based on equivalent length and velocity scales.

The Fluid Flow interfaces automatically calculate the local cell Reynolds number
Rec = ρ|u|h/(2μ) using the element length h for L and the magnitude of the velocity
vector u for the velocity scale U. This Reynolds number is not related to the character
of the flow field, but to the stability of the numerical discretization. The risk for
numerical oscillations in the solution increases as Rec grows. The cell Reynolds
number is a predefined quantity available for visualization and evaluation (typically it
is available as: spf.cellRe).

Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

See Wall for the node settings.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 63

 SLIP
The Slip condition assumes that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence,
no boundary layer develops. From a modeling point of view, this is a reasonable
approximation if the important effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the
domain. Mathematically, the constraint can be formulated as:

u ⋅ n = 0, ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

The no-penetration term takes precedence over the Neumann part of the condition
and the above expression is therefore equivalent to

u ⋅ n = 0, K – ( K ⋅ n )n = 0
K = μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T )n

expressing that there is no flow across the boundary and no viscous stress in the
tangential direction.

For a moving wall with translational velocity utr, u in the above equations is replaced
by the relative velocity urel = u−utr.

SLIDING WALL
The sliding wall option is appropriate if the wall behaves like a conveyor belt; that is,
the surface is sliding in its tangential direction. The wall does not have to actually move
in the coordinate system.

• In 2D, the tangential direction is unambiguously defined by the direction of the

boundary, but the situation becomes more complicated in 3D. For this reason, this
boundary condition has slightly different definitions in the different space
dimensions.
• For 2D and 2D axisymmetric components, the velocity is given as a scalar Uw and
the condition prescribes
u ⋅ n = 0, u ⋅ t = Uw

where t = (ny , −nx) for 2D and t = (nz, −nr) for axial symmetry.
• For 3D components, the velocity is set equal to a given vector uw projected onto
the boundary plane:

64 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n
u = -------------------------------------------- u w
u w – ( n ⋅ u w )n

The normalization makes u have the same magnitude as uw even if uw is not exactly
parallel to the wall.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
The wall feature uses three different techniques to constraint the velocity field:

• Pointwise constraints is the standard technique to enforce strong constraints in the

finite element method. The desired value of the velocity is prescribed at each node
point in the mesh. Since the constraint is enforced locally at each node, only local
values are affected by the constraint and the constraints are independent of each
other. The solvers can therefore eliminate both the constrained degrees of freedom
and the constraint force terms, effectively reducing the number of degrees of
freedom being solved for.
The main advantage of pointwise constraints is that they enforce the constraint
exactly pointwise. This means that they do not introduce any leakage of the velocity
across the wall, unless specified. The main disadvantage of pointwise constraints is
that they introduce locking effects when trying to impose a no penetration
condition for the velocity, u · n = 0, on curved walls or walls with sharp corners.
• Using Weak constraints is an alternative method to prescribe the velocity. It consists
on enforcing the boundary condition for the velocity via Lagrange multipliers.
Their main advantage is that the Lagrange multiplier can provide an accurate
representation of the reaction flux at the wall. Their main disadvantage is that they
introduce extra unknowns, and are usually difficult to combine with other constraint
methods on adjacent boundaries. Moreover, they may require extra constraints for
the Lagrange multipliers. For more information, see Weak Constraints in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.
• Discontinuous Galerkin (DG) constraints use a numerical flux to prescribe the
velocity at the wall. They impose the constraint in a integral sense rather than
pointwise, and do not suffer from the locking effects introduced by pointwise
constraints when trying to prescribe a no penetration condition for the velocity.
They are also better behaved when prescribing nonlinear constraints. Their main
disadvantage is that the constraint is only imposed approximately, and may produce
small leaks. For more information, see Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 65

 The following combination of Constraint techniques can be selected in the Constraint
Setting sections of Wall boundary conditions:

• Use default settings. The default settings use different constraint methods
depending on whether only the normal component of the velocity is prescribed,
such as in the no penetration condition, u · n = 0, imposed for example in Slip walls
or No Slip walls using Wall Functions or Automatic Wall Treatment, or both
tangential and normal components are prescribed, as is the case of No Slip walls in
laminar flow.
DG constraints are used to impose the no penetration condition for Slip walls. When
a No Slip condition is prescribed, pointwise constraints are used except for moving
walls where DG constraints are used.
• Use Pointwise constraints.
• Use DG constraints.
• Use Weak constraints. Weak constraints are not available on Interior Walls.
• Use Mixed constraints. This option is only available when both the tangential and
normal components of the velocity need to be prescribed. The velocity on the wall
normal direction is imposed via pointwise constraints. The constraint for the
tangential directions is relaxed, and DG constraints are used instead. This provides
improved accuracy and performance when working with coarse boundary layer
meshes. For more information, see Ref. 18.

Prescribing Inlet and Outlet Conditions

The Navier-Stokes equations can show large variations in mathematical behavior,
ranging from almost completely elliptic to almost completely hyperbolic. This has
implications when it comes to prescribing admissible boundary conditions. There is
also a discrepancy between mathematically valid boundary conditions and practically
useful boundary conditions. See Inlet and Outlet for the node settings.

INLET CONDITIONS
An inlet requires specification of the velocity components. The most robust way to do
this is to prescribe a velocity field using a Velocity condition.

A common alternative to prescribing the complete velocity field is to prescribe a

pressure and all but one velocity component. The pressure cannot be specified
pointwise because this is mathematically over-constraining. Instead the pressure can be
specified via a stress condition:

66 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂u n
– p + 2μ --------- = F n (3-12)
∂n

where ∂un/∂n is the normal derivative of the normal velocity component.

Equation 3-12 is prescribed by the Pressure condition in the Inlet and Outlet features
and the Normal stress condition in the Open Boundary and Boundary Stress features.
Equation 3-12 is mathematically more stringent compared to specifying the pressure
pointwise and at the same time cannot guarantee that p obtains the desired value. In
practice, p is close to Fn, except for low Reynolds number flows where viscous effects
are the only effects that balance the pressure. In addition to Equation 3-12, all but one
velocity component must be specified. For low Reynolds numbers, this can be specified
by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

which is what the Normal stress condition does. Vanishing tangential stress becomes a
less well-posed inlet condition as the Reynolds number increases. The Pressure
condition in the Inlet feature therefore requires a flow direction to be prescribed,
which provides a well-posed condition independent of Reynolds number.

OUTLET CONDITIONS
The most common approach is to prescribe a pressure via a normal stress condition on
the outlet. This is often accompanied by a vanishing tangential stress condition:

∂u t
μ -------- = 0
∂n

where ∂ut/∂n is the normal derivative of the tangential velocity field. It is also possible
to prescribe ut to be zero. The latter option should be used with care since it can have
a significant effect on the upstream solution.

The elliptic character of the Navier-Stokes equations mathematically permit specifying

a complete velocity field at an outlet. This can, however, be difficult to apply in
practice. The reason being that it is hard to prescribe the outlet velocity so that it is
consistent with the interior solution at each point. The adjustment to the specified
velocity then occurs across an outlet boundary layer. The thickness of this boundary
layer depends on the Reynolds number; the higher the Reynolds number, the thinner
the boundary layer.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 67

 ALTERNATIVE FORMULATIONS
COMSOL provides several specialized boundary conditions that either provide
detailed control over the flow at the boundary or that simulate specific devices. In
practice they often prescribe a velocity or a pressure, but calculate the prescribed values
using for example ODEs.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

Fully Developed Flow (Inlet)

The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

pinl Ω

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pinl is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( – μ ( ∇tu + ( ∇tu ) T ) + p ) ∇tûL – P inl ( n ⋅ û )

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the inlet
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical

68 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. This is
most notably if the flow is strongly curved just downstream of the inlet. This can for
example be the case if an object is positioned just downstream of the inlet or if the
adjacent boundaries are not orthogonal to the inlet. The analytical solution can in
these cases be recovered by including a little bit of the inlet channel in the
computational domain.

The inlet pressure, Pinl, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pinl. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the DAE
reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ inl

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pinl is a DAE (the
equation for Pinl does not contain Pinl), it must be solved coupled to Navier-Stokes
and it must be treated by a Vanka pre- and post-smoother if iterative solvers are
employed.

The boundary conditions for the virtual inlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the inlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries). So in the
figure above, if the lower boundary of Ω is a no-slip wall and the top boundary is a
symmetry boundary, the lower boundary of the virtually extruded channel becomes a
no-slip wall and the upper boundary a symmetry boundary.

Algebraic turbulence models need to additional equations or constraints. For all other
turbulence models, their weak equations in the virtual inlet channel are projected onto
the inlet of the computational domain. The projections are regularized to prevent the
production to fall to zero, so the solutions of the projects can show slight deviation
from the correct solutions close to no-slip walls.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 69

 Fully Developed Flow (Outlet)
The Fully developed flow boundary condition can be understood from the following
figure:

Ω pexit

The flow to the domain Ω is assumed to enter through a straight channel of length L.
The channel is a virtual extrusion of the inlet cross section and a pressure constant
pressure Pexit is applied on the inlet of the virtual channel.

The Fully Developed Flow boundary condition prescribes that the tangential flow
component on the boundary is zero:

u – ( u ⋅ n )n = 0

The momentum equation for a fully developed flow in the virtual extrusion of the inlet
cross section can then be projected onto the inlet boundary with the following weak
equation as the result:

( – μ ( ∇tu + ( ∇tu ) T ) + p ) ∇tûL – P exit ( n ⋅ û )

The exact value of L is somewhat arbitrary as long as it is not too high or too low. L is
therefore set to ten times the inlet edge length in 2D and to ten times the square root
of the inlet area in 2D axisymmetry and in 3D.

The fact that the velocity profile is not prescribed, but rather the solution of a projected
weak contribution, means that the actual velocity profile that is obtained on the outlett
can deviate from the analytical fully developed flow profile (in cases such an analytical
solution exists) if required by the solution inside the computational domain, Ω. The
inlet pressure, Pexit, must be solved for and the its equation is a discrete algebraic
equation (DAE) for Pexit. When, for example, the average velocity is specified, the
DAE reads

(  u ⋅ n + U av )P̂ exit

where <⋅> denotes the average over the inlet. Since the equation for Pext is a DAE, it
must be solved coupled to Navier-Stokes and it must be treated by a Vanka pre- and
post-smoother if iterative solvers are employed.

70 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The boundary conditions for the virtual outlet channel are inherited from the
boundaries adjacent to the outlet channel. Virtual boundaries adjacent to walls (except
slip walls) are treated as no-slip walls. Virtual boundaries adjacent to any other type of
boundary are treated as slip-walls (or equivalently as symmetry boundaries).

No Viscous Stress
For this module, and in addition to the Pressure, No Viscous Stress boundary
condition, the viscous stress condition sets the viscous stress to zero:

 μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = 0
 3 

( μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = 0

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

The condition is not a sufficient outlet condition since it lacks information about the
outlet pressure. It must hence be combined with pressure point constraints on one or
several points or lines surrounding the outlet.

This boundary condition is numerically the least stable outlet condition, but can still
be beneficial if the outlet pressure is nonconstant due to, for example, a nonlinear
volume force.

Normal Stress Boundary Condition

The total stress on the boundary is set equal to a stress vector of magnitude f0, oriented
in the negative normal direction:

 – pI +  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  n = – f 0 n
  3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – f 0 n

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This implies that the total stress in the tangential direction is zero. This boundary
condition implicitly sets a constraint on the pressure which for 2D flows is

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 71

 ∂u n
p = 2μ ---------- + f 0 (3-13)
∂n

If ∂un/∂n is small, Equation 3-13 states that p ≈ f0.

The Normal Stress condition is the mathematically correct version of the Pressure
Conditions condition (Ref. 4), but it is numerically less stable.

Pressure Boundary Condition

For single-phase flow, a mathematically correct natural boundary condition for outlets
is

 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – p 0 n (3-14)
 3 

( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p 0 n (3-15)

using the compressible/weakly compressible and the incompressible formulation,

respectively.

This is a normal stress condition together with a no-tangential-stress condition. When

μ > 0, Equation 3-14 or Equation 3-15 can be supplemented with a tangential velocity
condition

u⋅t = 0 (3-16)

If so, the no-tangential-stress condition is overridden. An issue with Equation 3-14 or

Equation 3-15 is that it does not strongly enforce unidirectional flow on the boundary.
If the prescribed pressure on an outlet is too high, parts of the outlet can actually have
inflow. This is not as much of an issue for the Navier-Stokes equations as it is an issue
for scalar transport equations solved along with the Navier-Stokes equations. Hence,
when applying the Pressure boundary condition at an outlet or inlet you can further
constrain the flow. With the Suppress backflow option

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 n
 – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
 3 
, (3-17)
( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – pˆ 0 n
pˆ ≤ p
0 0

the normal stress is adjusted to keep

72 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

 u⋅n≥0 (3-18)

Equation 3-17 effectively means that the prescribed pressure is p0 if u⋅n ≥ 0, but
smaller at locations where u⋅n < 0. This means that Equation 3-17 does not completely
prevent backflow, but the backflow is substantially reduced. Backflow is suppressed
also when external forces are acting on the fluid, provided the magnitude of these
forces are of the same order as the dynamic pressure at the outlet.

A pressure condition can also be applied at an inlet. In this case, either the normal stress
is prescribed

n  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0
T 2
3
(3-19)
n ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – pˆ 0
T

pˆ ≥ p
0 0

together with the tangential condition in Equation 3-16, or, a general flow direction
is prescribed.

--- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I n = – pˆ 0 ( r ⋅ n )
T  – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) – 2
ru  3  u
T ( – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) T ) )n = – p
ru ˆ (r ⋅ n)
0 u
(3-20)
pˆ ≥ p
0 0
du
u – ( u ⋅ r u )r u = 0, r u = -------------
du

The “>” option is used with suppress backflow to have u ⋅ n ≤ 0 or u ⋅ r u ≥ 0 .

See Inlet, Outlet, Open Boundary, and No Viscous Stress for the individual node
settings. Note that some modules have additional theory sections describing options
available with that module.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 73

 Mass Sources for Fluid Flow
There are two types of mass sources in a Single-Phase Flow interface: point sources and
line sources.

These features require at least one of the following licenses: Batteries &
Fuel Cells Module, CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, Corrosion Module, Electrochemistry Module,
Electrodeposition Module, Microfluidics Module, Pipe Flow Module, or
Subsurface Flow Module.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by taking a mass injection/ejection, Q (SI unit:
3
kg/(m ·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend to zero
while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p (SI unit:
kg/s), this can be expressed as

· ·
lim
δV → 0  Q = qp (3-21)
δV

An alternative way to form a point source/sink is to assume that mass is injected/

extracted through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to
zero while keeping the mass flux constant, results in the same point source. For this
alternative approach, effects resulting from the physical object volume, such as drag
and fluid displacement, need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p test ( p )
·
is added to a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 3-21, Q must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the pressure
also tends to plus or minus infinity.

Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 3-21 corresponds to a finite pressure in

a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region around the point.

74 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of the source. A finer
mesh gives a smaller affected region, but also a more extreme pressure value. It is
important not to mesh too finely around a point source since the resulting pressure can
result in unphysical values for the density, for example. It can also have a negative effect
on the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q (SI unit:
kg/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross-sectional area δS and then letting δS tend
to zero, while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l (SI unit: kg/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

·
lim Q = q· l (3-22)
δS → 0
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is injected/
extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass source,
but requires that effects on the fluid resulting from the physical object volume are
neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l test ( p )

is added to lines in 3D or to points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added to the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added to geometrical lines in 2D because they
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 75

 For the Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Diluted Species interface, which
is available with the CFD Module, Chemical Reaction Engineering
Module, or Batteries & Fuel Cells Module, these shared physics nodes are
renamed as follows:

• The Line Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Line Source) and one for the species (Species Line Source).
• The Point Mass Source node is available as two nodes, one for the fluid
flow (Fluid Point Source) and one for the species (Species Point Source).

Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow

The momentum equation (Equation 3-9 or Equation 3-11) is a (nonlinear)
convection-diffusion equation. Such equations can easily become unstable if
discretized using the Galerkin finite element method. Stabilized finite element
methods are usually necessary in order to obtain physical solutions. The stabilization
settings are found in the main Fluid Flow interface features. To display this section,
click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization in the Show More
Options dialog box.

There are three types of stabilization methods available for Navier-Stokes —

streamline diffusion, crosswind diffusion, and isotropic diffusion. Streamline
diffusion and crosswind diffusion are consistent stabilization methods, whereas
isotropic diffusion is an inconsistent stabilization method.

For optimal functionality, the exact weak formulations of and constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods depend on the order of the
shape functions (basis functions) for the elements. The values of constants in the
streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion methods follow Ref. 5 and Ref. 6.

STREAMLINE DIFFUSION
For strongly coupled systems of equations, the streamline diffusion method must be
applied to the system as a whole rather than to each equation separately. These ideas
were first explored by Hughes and Mallet (Ref. 8) and were later extended to Galerkin
least-squares (GLS) applied to the Navier-Stokes equations (Ref. 9). This is the
streamline diffusion formulation that COMSOL Multiphysics supports. The time-scale
tensor is the diagonal tensor presented in Ref. 10.

The time-scale tensors for time-dependent problems should in theory depend on a

time-scale that many references just set to the time-step taken by the time-solver, Δt

76 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

(see for example Ref. 9 and Ref. 10). This simple approach doesn’t however necessarily
reflect on the actual time-scales in the physics. A typical example is reacting flows where
the time-step is often guided by fast reactions, while the flow develops relatively slowly.
COMSOL Multiphysics can therefore replace Δt2 in the time scale tensor with
measures of type ( 1 ⁄ ( Δt̃ ) 2 ) – 1 which are calculated from projections of weak
expressions in a fashion similar to those in Ref. 11. These measures of the time scale
are used when Use dynamic subgrid timescale check box is selected. Streamline diffusion
is active by default because it is necessary when convection is dominating the flow.

The governing equations for incompressible flow are subject to the Babuška-Brezzi
condition, which states that the shape functions (basis functions) for pressure must be
of lower order than the shape functions for velocity. If the incompressible
Navier-Stokes equations are stabilized by streamline diffusion, it is possible to use
equal-order interpolation. Hence, streamline diffusion is necessary when using
first-order elements for both velocity and pressure. This applies also if the model is
solved using geometric multigrid (either as a solver or as a preconditioner) and at least
one multigrid hierarchy level uses linear Lagrange elements.

CROSSWIND DIFFUSION
Crosswind diffusion can also be formulated for systems of equations, and when applied
to the Navier-Stokes equations it becomes a shock-capturing operator. COMSOL
Multiphysics supports the formulation in Ref. 9 with a shock-capturing viscosity of the
Hughes-Mallet type Ref. 8.

Incompressible flows do not contain shock waves, but crosswind diffusion is still useful
for introducing extra diffusion in sharp boundary layers and shear layers that otherwise
would require a very fine mesh to resolve.

Crosswind diffusion is active by default as it makes it easier to obtain a solution even if

the problem is fully resolved by the mesh. Crosswind diffusion also enables the iterative
solvers to use inexpensive presmoothers. If crosswind diffusion is deactivated, more
expensive preconditioners must be used instead.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 77

 ISOTROPIC DIFFUSION
Isotropic diffusion adds diffusion to the Navier-Stokes equations. Isotropic diffusion
significantly reduces the accuracy of the solution but does a very good job at reducing
oscillations. The stability of the continuity equation is not improved.

Numerical Stabilization and Iterative in the COMSOL Multiphysics

Reference Manual

Solvers for Laminar Flow

The Navier-Stokes equations constitute a nonlinear equation system. A nonlinear
solver must hence be applied to solve the problem. The nonlinear solver iterates to
reach the final solution. In each iteration, a linearized version of the nonlinear system
is solved using a linear solver. In the time-dependent case, a time marching method
must also be applied. The default suggestions for each of these solver elements are
discussed below.

NONLINEAR SOLVER
The nonlinear solver method depends on if the model solves a stationary or a
time-dependent problem.

Stationary Solver
In the stationary case, a fully coupled, damped Newton method is applied. The initial
damping factor is low since a full Newton step can be harmful unless the initial values
are close to the final solution. The nonlinear solver algorithm automatically regulates
the damping factor in order to reach a converged solution.

For advanced models, the automatically damped Newton method might not be robust
enough. A pseudo time-stepping algorithm can then be invoked. See Pseudo Time
Stepping for Laminar Flow Models.

Time-Dependent Solver
In the time-dependent case, the initial guess for each time step is (loosely speaking) the
previous time step, which is a very good initial value for the nonlinear solver. The
automatic damping algorithm is then not necessary. The damping factor in the
Newton method is instead set to a constant value slightly smaller than one. Also, for
the same reason, it suffices to update the Jacobian once per time-step.

78 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

It is seldom worth the extra computational cost to update the Jacobian more than once
per time step. For most models it is more efficient to restrict the maximum time step
or possibly lower the damping factor in the Newton method.

LINEAR SOLVER
The linearized Navier-Stokes equation system has saddle point character, unless the
density depends on the pressure. This means that the Jacobian matrix has zeros on the
diagonal. Even when the density depends on the pressure, the equation system
effectively shares many numerical properties with a saddle point system.

For small 2D and 3D models, the default solver suggestion is a direct solver. Direct
solvers can handle most nonsingular systems and are very robust and also very fast for
small models. Unfortunately, they become slow for large models and their memory
requirement scales as somewhere between N1.5and N2, where N is the number of
degrees of freedom in the model. The default suggestion for large 2D and 3D models
is therefore the iterative GMRES solver. The memory requirement for an iterative
solver optimally scales as N.

GMRES is accelerated by a multigrid method, per default the Smoothed Aggregation

Algebraic Mutligrid (SAAMG) method. The cost of SAAMG is typically very low
compared to the number of GMRES iterations necessary if no multigrid method is
used. As the name implies, SAAMG builds its coarser meshes algebraically, so the
application requires no additional meshes in order to employ SAAMG. In contrast,
Geometric Multigrid (GMG) requires actual meshes. If a sufficient number of
multigrid levels can be constructed, GMG is often faster than SAAMG. GMG is also
superior for cluster computations and for shared memory computations with many
cores. When the default linear solver is GMRES, an optional, but deactivated, linear
solver node is available where GMRES is accelerated by GMG.

Multigrid methods need smoothers, but the saddle point character of the linear system
restricts the number of applicable smoothers. The choices are further restricted by the
anisotropic meshes frequently encountered in fluid-flow problems. The efficiency of
the smoothers is highly dependent on the numerical stabilization. Iterative solvers
perform at their best when both Streamline Diffusion and Crosswind Diffusion are
active.

The default smoother for P1+P1 elements is SCGS. This is an efficient and robust
smoother specially designed to solve saddle point systems on meshes that contain
anisotropic elements. The SCGS smoother works well even without crosswind
diffusion. SCGS can sometimes work for higher-order elements, especially if Method in
the SCGS settings is set to Mesh element lines. But there is no guarantee for this, so the

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 79

 default smoother for higher order elements is an SOR Line smoother. SOR Line
handles mesh anisotropy but does not formally address the saddle point character. It
does, however, function in practice provided that streamline diffusion and crosswind
diffusion are both active.

A different kind of saddle point character can arise if the equation system contains
ODE variables. Some advanced boundary conditions can add equations with such
variables. These variables must be treated with the Vanka algorithm. SCGS includes an
option to invoke Vanka. Models with higher-order elements must apply SCGS or use
the Vanka smoother. The latter is the default suggestion for higher-order elements, but
it does not work optimally for anisotropic meshes.

TIME-DEPENDENT SOLVERS
The default time-dependent solver for Navier-Stokes is the BDF method with
maximum order set to two. Higher BDF orders are not stable for transport problems
in general nor for Navier-Stokes in particular.

BDF methods have been used for a long time and are known for their stability.
However, they can have severe damping effects, especially the lower-order methods.
Hence, if robustness is not an issue, a model can benefit from using the generalized-α
method instead. Generalized-α is a solver which has properties similar to those of the
second-order BDF solver but it is much less diffusive.

Both BDF and generalized-α are per default set to automatically adjust the time step.
While this works well for many models, extra efficiency and accuracy can often be
gained by specifying a maximum time step. It is also often beneficial to specify an initial
time step to make the solver progress smoothly in the beginning of the time series.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual:

• Time-Dependent Solver
• Multigrid, Direct, Iterative, SCGS, SOR Line, and Vanka
• Stationary Solver

Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models

A stationary formulation has per definition no time derivatives and Equation 3-11
reduces to:

T
ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F (3-23)

80 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

Solving Equation 3-23 requires a starting guess that is close enough to the final
solution. If no such guess is at hand, the fully transient problem can be solved instead.
This is, however, a rather costly approach in terms of computational time. An
intermediate approach is to add a fictitious time derivative to Equation 3-23:

u – nojac ( u ) T
ρ --------------------------------- + ρ ( u ⋅ ∇ )u = ∇ ⋅ [ – pI + μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) ] + F
Δt̃

where Δt̃ is a pseudo time step. Since u−nojac(u) is always zero, this term does not
affect the final solution. It does, however, affect the discrete equation system and
effectively transforms a nonlinear iteration into a step of size Δt̃ of a time-dependent
solver.

Pseudo time stepping is not active per default. The pseudo time step Δt̃ can be chosen
individually for each element based on the local CFL number:

h
Δt̃ = CFL loc -------
u

where h is the mesh cell size. A small CFL number means a small time step. It is
practical to start with a small CFL number and gradually increase it as the solution
approaches steady state.

If the automatic expression for CFLloc is set to the built-in variable CFLCMP, then the
automatic setting suggests a PID regulator for the pseudo time step in the default
solver. The PID regulator starts with a small CFL number and increases CFLloc as the
solution comes closer to convergence.

The default manual expression is

1.3 min ( niterCMP, 9 ) +

if ( niterCMP > 20, 9 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 20, 9 ), 0 ) + (3-24)
if ( niterCMP > 40, 90 ⋅ 1.3 min ( niterCMP – 40, 9 ), 0 )

The variable niterCMP is the nonlinear iteration number. It is equal to one for the first
nonlinear iteration. CFLloc starts at 1.3 and increases by 30% each iteration until it
reaches 1.3 9 ≈ 10.6 . It remains there until iteration number 20 at which it starts to
increase until it reaches approximately 106. A final increase after iteration number 40

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 81

 then takes it to 1060. Equation 3-24 can, for some advanced flows, increase CFLloc
too slowly or too quickly. CFLloc can then be tuned for the specific application.

For details about the CFL regulator, see Pseudo Time Stepping in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation

Some boundary conditions are implemented using a discontinuous Galerkin
formulation. These boundary conditions include

• Wall — Slip, sliding walls, and moving walls (that is, walls with nonzero translational
velocity).
• Periodic Flow Condition
• Flow Continuity

The formulation used in the Fluid Flow interfaces in COMSOL Multiphysics is the
Symmetric Interior Penalty Galerkin method (SIPG). The SIPG method can be
regarded to satisfy the boundary conditions in an integral sense rather than pointwise.
More information on SIPG can be found in Ref. 15.

In particular, the SIPG formulation includes a penalty parameter that must be large
enough for the formulation to be coercive. The higher the value, the better the
boundary condition is fulfilled, but a too high value results in an ill-conditioned
equation system. The penalty parameter in COMSOL Multiphysics is implemented
according to Ref. 16.

Particle Tracing in Fluid Flow

The Particle Tracing Module is available to assist with these types of modeling
problems.

It is possible to model particle tracing with COMSOL Multiphysics provided that the
impact of the particles on the flow field is negligible. First compute the flow field, and
then, as an analysis step, calculate the motion of the particles. The motion of a particle
is defined by Newton’s second law

2
= F  t, x, 
d x dx
m
dt2 dt

82 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

where x is the position of the particle, m the particle mass, and F is the sum of all forces
acting on the particle. Examples of forces acting on a particle in a fluid are the drag
force, the buoyancy force, and the gravity force. The drag force represents the force
that a fluid exerts on a particle due to a difference in velocity between the fluid and the
particle. It includes the viscous drag, the added mass, and the Basset history term.
Several empirical expressions have been suggested for the drag force. One of those is
the one proposed by Khan and Richardson (Ref. 13). That expression is valid for
spherical particles for a wide range of particle Reynolds numbers. The particle
Reynolds number is defined as

u – u p 2rρ
Re p = ------------------------------
μ

where u is the velocity of the fluid, up the particle velocity, r the particle radius, ρ the
fluid density, and μ the dynamic viscosity of the fluid. The empirical expression for the
drag force according to Khan and Richardson is

2 -0.31 3.45
F = πr ρ u – u p ( u – u p ) [ 1.84Re p + 0.293Re p0.06 ]

The model Flow Past a Cylinder (Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/cylinder_flow) demonstrates how to
add and set up particle tracing in a plot group using the Particle Tracing
with Mass node. It uses the predefined Khan-Richardson model for the
drag force and neglects gravity and buoyancy forces.

References for the Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow Interfaces

1. G.G. Stokes, Trans. Camb. Phil. Soc., 8, pp. 287–305, 1845

2. P.M. Gresho and R.L. Sani, Incompressible Flow and the Finite Element Method,
Volume 2: Isothermal Laminar Flow, John Wiley & Sons, 2000.

3. G.K. Batchelor, An Introduction To Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press,

1967.

4. R.L. Panton, Incompressible Flow, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, 1996.

5. I. Harari and T.J.R. Hughes, “What are C and h? Inequalities for the Analysis and
Design of Finite Element Methods”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 97,
pp. 157–192, 1992.

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 83

 6. Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Calo, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “YZβ Discontinuity
Capturing for Advection-dominated Processes with Application to Arterial Drug
Delivery”, Int.J.Num. Meth. Fluids, vol. 54, pp. 593–608, 2007.

7. R.B. Bird,W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed., John
Wiley&Sons, 2007.

8. T.J.R. Hughes and M. Mallet, “A New Finite Element Formulation for

Computational Fluid Dynamics: III. The Generalized Streamline Operator for
Multidimensional Advective-Diffusive System”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg,
vol. 58, pp. 305–328, 1986.

9. G. Hauke and T.J.R. Hughes, “A Unified Approach to Compressible and

Incompressible Flows”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 113, pp. 389–395,
1994.

10. G. Hauke, “Simple Stabilizing Matrices for the Computation of Compressible

Flows in Primitive Variables”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 190, pp. 6881–
6893, 2001.

11. M.-C. Hsu, Y. Bazilevs, V.M. Cali, T.E. Tezduyar, and T.J.R. Hughes, “Improving
stability of stabilized and multiscale formulations in flow simulations at small time
steps”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 199, pp. 828–840, 2010.

12. D.J. Tritton, Physical Fluid Dynamics, 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, 1988.

13. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, “Particle Technology and Separation
Processes”, Chemical Engineering, Volume 2, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2002.

14. J.L. Guermond, P. Minev, and J. Shen, “An overview of projection methods for
incompressible flows”, Comp. Meth. Appl. Mech. Engrg, vol. 195, pp. 6011–6045,
2006.

15. B. Rivière, Discontinuous Galerkin Methods for Solving Elliptic and Parabolic
Equations, SIAM, 2008.

16. Y. Epshteyn and B. Rivière, “Estimation of penalty parameters for symmetric

interior penalty Galerkin methods”, J. Computational and Applied Mathematics,
vol. 206, pp. 843–872, 2007.

17. R.P. Chhabra and J.F. Richardson, Non-Newtonian Flow and Applied Rheology,
2nd ed., Elsevier, 2008.

18. Y. Bazilevs and T.J.R. Hughes, “Weak imposition of Dirichlet boundary conditions
in fluid mechanics”, Computers and Fluids, vol. 36, pp. 12–26, 2007.

84 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES

THEORY FOR THE SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES | 85
86 | CHAPTER 3: SINGLE-PHASE FLOW INTERFACES
 4

Porous Media and

Subsurface Flow Interfaces
This chapter has information about the physics interfaces found under the Fluid
Flow>Porous Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ). It contains physics interfaces
for the following sets of equations that apply under different conditions:

• The Darcy’s Law Interface describes low-velocity flows of one or more fluids.
• The Richards’ Equation Interface governs the wetting and drying of rocks or
soils.
• The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface describes two-phase fluid movement
through interstices in a porous medium. An extra equation is computed to
calculate the saturation transport.
• The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface is used to simulate the transport
of multiple immiscible phases either in free flow or in flow through a porous
medium. The predefined multiphysics interface The Multiphase Flow in Porous
Media Interface which combines low velocity flow with phase transport of
multiple immiscible phases in a porous medium is described in Chapter
Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings.
• The Fracture Flow Interface is a variant of Darcy’s law that defines the flow along
the interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous or solid medium.
• The Brinkman Equations Interface is for porous media high-velocity flows.

87
 • The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface combines free flow adjacent to porous
domains.
• The Laminar Flow and Creeping Flow Interfaces use the Navier-Stokes equations
(in which the inertia term is neglected in case of Creeping Flow) to describe free
flows within a river or well, for example. The Laminar Flow Interface is available
with all COMSOL licenses.

With Darcy’s law and Richards’ equation, COMSOL Multiphysics solves for pressure
and has physics interfaces for pressure head and hydraulic head. Set up these equations
for single or multiple fluids. The physics interfaces can be coupled to other physics
interfaces to describe poroelasticity, convection of heat- and density-driven flows,
solute transfer, and electromagnetic forces, to name a few.

In this chapter you will find the following sections:

• Selecting the Right Fluid Flow Interface for Porous Media

• Darcy’s Law:
- Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
- The Darcy’s Law Interface

• Richards’ Equation:
- Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface
- The Richards’ Equation Interface

• Two-Phase Darcy’s Law:

- Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
- The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface

• Phase Transport:
- Theory for the Phase Transport Interface
- The Phase Transport in Porous Media Interface

• Fracture Flow:
- Theory for the Fracture Flow Interface
- The Fracture Flow Interface

• Brinkman Equations:
- Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface
- The Brinkman Equations Interface

88 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

• Free and Porous Media Flow:
- Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface
- The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

| 89
 Selecting the Right Fluid Flow
Interface for Porous Media
To model fluid flows in porous media, use either Darcy’s Law or the Brinkman
Equations interface. Darcy’s law is preferable when the major driving force for the flow
is the pressure gradient, and the momentum transfer by shear stresses within the fluid
is negligible. This is usually true in the case of low permeability in the porous medium.

The corresponding physics interfaces combine arbitrarily and link to other physics
including solute transport, heat transfer, electric potentials, magnetic potentials, and
structural deformation, to name a few. Because any expression can be entered for
coefficients like permeability or density, the equations set up in this module are
especially flexible.

Figure 4-1 illustrates typical settings where the various flow regimes apply.

unsaturated

saturated
free

transitional

Figure 4-1: Vertical cross section through ground near a river. Labels indicate flow
regimes. The triangle denotes the water table.

The Single-Phase Flow, Laminar Flow interface uses Navier-Stokes equations for flows
of liquids and gases moving freely in pipes, channels, caves, and rivers. These equations
detail fluid movements through the intricate networks of pores and cracks in porous

90 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

media. The scale of interest in most geologic problems, however, makes solving for
velocity profiles within pores unfeasible owing to the sheer volume of the data required
and machine constraints on computational effort.

The Porous Media and Subsurface Flow interfaces — Darcy’s Law, Brinkman
Equation, and Richards’ Equation — circumvent detailing flow in each pore. Instead
these equations estimate flow rates by lumping the properties of the solid grains and
the spaces between them in representative volumes.

The Fluid Flow interfaces in this module can be grouped according to driving forces.
Consider Bernoulli’s equation for mechanical energy along a streamline in inviscid
fluids:

d-  ------
1 2 -------
1 d d
----- u + - ------ p + ------ D = const.
ds  2g  ρ f g ds ds

Here s represents a location on the streamline, u denotes the fluid velocity, ρf is the
fluid density, p refers to the fluid pressure, g represents gravity, and D is the elevation.
The Bernoulli equation states that the total mechanical energy is constant along the
fluid trajectory in a steady flow system. Moreover, the energy can shift between
velocity, pressure, and elevation along the streamline.

With the extended Laminar Flow interface and the Brinkman Equations, all the driving
forces are nonnegligible. When solved, the equations give the directional fluid
velocities and the pressure; elevation is a coordinate in the model. With Darcy’s Law
and Richards’ Equation, the momentum is so small it can be neglected. Pressure alone
drives the flow for these physics interfaces.

SELECTING THE RIGHT FLUID FLOW INTERFACE FOR POROUS MEDIA | 91

 Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Darcy’s Law

• Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation
• Storage Model
• Hydraulic Head, Pressure Head, and Elevation Head
• Average Linear Velocity
• Permeability Models and Non-Darcian Flow
• References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

About Darcy’s Law

In a porous medium, the global transport of momentum by shear stresses in the fluid
is often negligible, because the pore walls impede momentum transport to the fluid
outside the individual pores. A detailed description, down to the resolution of every
pore, is not practical in most applications. A homogenization of the porous and fluid
media into a single medium is a common alternative approach. Darcy’s law together
with the continuity equation and equation of state for the pore fluid (or gas) provide
a complete mathematical model suitable for a wide variety of applications involving
porous media flows, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force.

Darcy’s law describes fluid movement through interstices in a porous medium.

Because the fluid loses considerable energy to frictional resistance within pores, flow
velocities in porous media are very low. The Darcy’s Law interface can be applied to
small-scale tasks in chemical engineering as well as to large-scale geophysical or
hydrological tasks such as water moving in an aquifer or stream bank, oil migrating to
a well, and even magma rising through the earth to a chamber in a volcano (see Ref. 1,
Ref. 2, Ref. 3, and Ref. 4). Also set up multiple Darcy’s Law interfaces to model
multiphase flows involving more than one mobile phase.

Darcy’s law describes flow in porous media driven by gradients in the hydraulic
potential field, which has units of pressure. For many applications it is convenient to
represent the total hydraulic potential or the pressure and the gravitational
components with equivalent heights of fluid or head. Division of potential by the fluid
weight can simplify modeling because units of length make it straightforward to

92 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

compare to many physical data. Consider, for example, fluid levels in wells, stream
heights, topography, and velocities. The physics interface also supports specifying
boundary conditions and result evaluation using hydraulic head and pressure head. In
the physics interface, pressure is always the dependent variable.

Darcy’s Law — Equation Formulation

Darcy’s law states that the velocity field is determined by the pressure gradient, the
fluid viscosity, and the structure of the porous medium:

κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-1)
μ

In this equation, u is the Darcy’s velocity or specific discharge vector (SI unit: m/s);
κ is the permeability of the porous medium (SI unit: m2); μ is the fluid’s dynamic
viscosity (SI unit: Pa·s); p is the pore pressure (SI unit: Pa) and ρ is the density of the
fluid (SI unit: kg/m3).

For large-scale applications it might be necessary to take gravity effects into account.
Darcy’s law then applies when the gradient in hydraulic potential drives fluid
movement in the porous medium. Visualize the hydraulic potential field by
considering the difference in both pressure and elevation potential from the start to
the end points of the flow line. According to Darcy’s law, the net flux across a face of
porous surface is

κ
u = – --- ( ∇p + ρg ) (4-2)
μ

In this equation g is the vector of gravitational acceleration. Furthermore, in the

Subsurface Flow Module, g can be defined as g = − g∇D where g is the magnitude of
gravitational acceleration (SI unit: m/s2), D is the elevation (SI unit: m), and ∇D is a
unit vector in the direction over which the gravity acts. Here the permeability κ

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 93

 represents the resistance to flow over a representative volume consisting of many solid
grains and pores.

• Note that gravity effects are only included in some modules. For a
detailed overview of the functionality available in each product visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.
• Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

The Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law with the continuity equation

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (4-3)
∂t

In the above equation, ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3), εp is the porosity, and
Qm is a mass source term (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). Porosity is defined as the fraction of
the control volume that is occupied by pores. Thus, the porosity can vary from zero
for pure solid regions to unity for domains of free flow.

Storage Model
Inserting Darcy’s law (Equation 4-29) into the continuity equation produces the
generalized governing equation

∂ ρε κ
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p ) = Q m (4-4)
∂t μ

Represent this equation fully in COMSOL Multiphysics because relationships between

density or permeability can be freely specified, for example, and pressure, temperature,
concentration, and so on.

Expand the time-derivative term in Equation 4-31

∂ ρε ∂ρ ∂ε p
( p ) = ε p ------ + ρ --------
∂t ∂t ∂t

Define the porosity and the density as functions of the pressure, and apply the chain
rule

94 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 ∂ρ ∂ε p ∂ρ ∂p ∂ε p ∂p
ε p ------ + ρ -------- = ε p ------ ------ + ρ -------- ------
∂t ∂t ∂p ∂t ∂p ∂t

Insert the definition of fluid compressibility χf = (1/ρ)(∂ρ/∂p) to the right-hand side and
rearrange to arrive at

∂( ρε p ) ∂ε p ∂p ∂p
---------------- = ρ  ε p χ f + -------- ------ = ρS ------
∂t ∂p ∂t ∂t

Using this relation, the generalized governing equation (Equation 4-31) takes the
following form:

∂p κ
ρS ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --- ( ∇p + ρg ∇D ) = Q m (4-5)
∂t μ

In this equation, S is the storage coefficient (SI unit: 1/Pa), which can be interpreted
as the weighted compressibility of the porous material and the fluid. The storage S can
be an expression involving results from a solid-deformation equation or an expression
involving temperatures and concentrations from other analyses. The Darcy’s Law
interface implements Equation 4-5 using the Storage Model node, which explicitly
includes an option to define S as the linearized storage (SI unit: 1/Pa) using the
compressibility of fluids and porous matrix.

Note that the Storage Model node is only available for the Subsurface
Flow Module and the Porous Media Flow Module. For a detailed
overview of the functionality available in each product visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Hydraulic Head, Pressure Head, and Elevation Head

Hydraulic head, H, pressure head, Hp, and elevation head, D, relate to pressure p as

p
H p = ------ ; H = Hp + D (4-6)
ρg

where ρ is the fluid density, g denotes the acceleration of gravity, and D is the elevation.
When defined as vertical elevation, the horizontal gradients in D equal zero and
vertical gradients in D equal one. Choose to specify pressure, hydraulic head, or
pressure head on the boundaries of a model, either directly or as part of the pervious

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 95

 layer boundary condition. Also use pressure, hydraulic head, and pressure head during
analysis and postprocessing.

• Turning off gravity effects sets the elevation D to zero, and the
hydraulic head equals the pressure head.
• This feature is only available with the Subsurface Flow Module

Average Linear Velocity

Because fluids typically occupy only 10% to 50% of a porous medium, it follows that
velocities within the pore channels exceed the Darcy velocity, u, on the order of two
to ten times. For clarity, the physics interface includes the average linear velocity within
the pores, uα, (also termed the seepage velocity) defined as uα = u/εp, where εp is the
porosity.

Permeability Models and Non-Darcian Flow

Different models can define the capacity of the porous medium to transmit flow. Some
use the permeability, κ, and the viscosity of the fluid, μ, and others use the hydraulic
conductivity, K (SI unit: m/s).

HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY
The hydraulic conductivity represents both fluid and solid properties. If the model is
defined using the hydraulic conductivity as in:

--κ- = -------
K
μ ρg

Equation 4-29 changes to

K
u = – ------ ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) (4-7)
ρg

The hydraulic potential in the equation comes from the pore pressure, p, and gravity,
ρgD. COMSOL Multiphysics solves for the pressure, p. By default, g is the predefined
acceleration of gravity (a physical constant), and D is the vertical coordinate. The
choice of D has a significant impact on results and the physics involved. For example,
if D is the vertical coordinate z and if the flow is entirely horizontal within the xy-plane,
then the gradient in D vanishes and the driving force is caused by pressure gradients
alone.

96 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

KOZENY-CARMAN
The Kozeny-Carman equation describes the flow through granular soils and packed
beds by estimating the permeability of the porous medium from the porosity εp and
average particle diameter dp (see, for example, Ref. 5)

d p2 ε p3
κ = ---------- ---------------------2-
180 ( 1 – ε p )

If the model is defined using the Kozeny-Carman equation, the expression for Darcy’s
velocity in Equation 4-29 changes to

d p2 ε p3
u = – ------------- ---------------------2- ( ∇p ) (4-8)
180μ ( 1 – ε p )

The hydraulic conductivity combines properties of both the fluid and

porous matrix, while the permeability is a property of the porous matrix
only.

In case of relatively fast flow (Re > 10) or relatively high Knudsen numbers (Kn > 0.1)
Darcy’s linear relation between velocity and pressure drop is no longer valid.
Therefore, different permeability models have been introduced to capture these
effects.

The flow regime through a packed bed may be identified from the Reynolds number
of the bed. According to textbooks, for Reynolds numbers Re < 10 the flow can be
described by Kozeny-Carman equation (Darcian flow). For 10 < Re < 1000, which is
sometimes called the transitional regime, the flow is better described by the
non-Darcian Ergun equation, and for Re > 1000 Ergun’s equation can be
approximated by the Burke-Plummer equation for turbulent flows.

ERGUN
The Ergun equation is an extension of Kozeny-Carman equation to higher Reynolds
numbers (Re > 10), where Darcy’s linear relation between pressure drop and velocity
is no longer valid. In Ergun equation the linear relation between pressure drop and
velocity is augmented by a quadratic term. The pressure drop (Ref. 6) in Ergun’s
equation is given by:

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 97

 150 ( 1 – ε p ) 1 – εp )
1.75- (------------------
2
– ∇p = ---------
- ---------------------- μu + ---------- - ρu u (4-9)
d p2 ε p3 dp ε p3

Here, dp is the effective (average) particle diameter in the porous medium and εp is the
porosity. With definitions of permeability κ and parameter β (SI unit 1/m) as

d p2 ε p3
κ = ---------- ---------------------2- (4-10)
150 ( 1 – ε p )

and

1.75 ( 1 – ε p )
β = ----------- ------------------
- (4-11)
dp ε p3

we get

μ
∇p = – --- u – β ρ u u
κ

Ergun’s velocity can then be calculated as

κ 2
u = – --- ---------------------------------------------------------- ∇p (4-12)
μ κ 2
1 + 1 + 4  --- βρ ∇p
μ

Using the Reynolds number Re and the friction factor fp for packed beds

dp ρ u
Re = -----------------------
( 1 – ε p )μ

dp ε p3 150
f p = ∇p ---------2- ------------------- = ---------- + 1.75 ,
ρu ( 1 – ε p ) Re

Ergun’s velocity can alternatively be written as

κ κ
u = – --- ----------------------------- ∇p = – ---  1 – ----------- ∇p
1 1.75
μ 1.75 μ  fp 
1 + ----------- Re
150

From this expression, we observe that for low Reynolds numbers Re < 1 (or
equivalently, high friction factors) the flow can be described by the linear Darcy’s Law.

98 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

FORCHHEIMER
For increasing filter velocities (Re > 10), inertial effects and turbulent friction forces
become significant. In the Forchheimer drag this is considered by adding an additional
term to Darcy’s law:

μ cF
– ∇ p = --- u + ------- ρu u (4-13)
κ κ

Here, the Forchheimer parameter cF is dimensionless. The permeability κ is specified

by the user and is not computed from porosity nor particle diameter as for Ergun’s
equation. If the parameter β is defined as

cF
β = -------
κ

Equation 4-13 becomes equivalent to Ergun’s equation (Equation 4-9)

μ
– ∇ p = --- u + βρu u
κ

BURKE-PLUMMER
The Burke-Plummer equation is applicable in flow regimes with Reynolds number
Re > 1000. Here, the pressure drop is proportional to the square of the velocity:

Δp 1 – εp ) 2
1.75- (------------------
------- = ---------- - ρv (4-14)
L dp ε p3

here, L is the length of the packed bed, Δp is the pressure drop dp is the effective
(average) particle diameter in the porous medium, εp is the porosity, and v is the
velocity magnitude.

Using the same definition for the parameter β (SI unit 1/m) as in Ergun’s equation

1.75 ( 1 – ε p )
β = ----------- ------------------
-
dp ε p3

the pressure drop is related to the velocity as

Δp- 2
------ = βρv (4-15)
L

which means that the velocity magnitude can be written in terms of the pressure
gradient as

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 99

 ∇p-
v = ---------
βρ

As flow travels from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure, Equation 4-9
can be more generally written as

– ∇p = βρ u u

replacing

u = v = ∇p ⁄ βρ

we get an expression for the velocity field in terms of the pressure gradient

1
u = – ---------------------- ∇p (4-16)
βρ ∇p

Note that the viscosity is not used to define the velocity as in Darcy’s law, but only the
fluid density, the porosity and particle diameter. Note also that the analytical friction
factor for Burke-Plummer equation is fp = 1.75. A small parameter is added inside the
square-root to avoid division by zero when the pressure gradient approaches zero.

KLINKENBERG
The Klinkenberg effect becomes important for gas flows in porous media where the
mean free path of the gas molecules is comparable to the pore dimensions. In this case,
molecular collisions with the pore walls occur more often than collisions between
molecules. To take this effect into account, Klinkenberg (Ref. 7) derived the following
expression for the permeability:

bK
κ = κ ∞  1 + ------- (4-17)
 p A

here, κ∞ is the permeability of the gas at high pressure and density (Knudsen number
0.001 < Kn < 0.1), bK is the Klinkenberg parameter (also called Klinkenberg slip
factor, or gas slippage factor), whose default value is set to 1 kPa according to Ref. 8,
and pA is the absolute pressure as defined in the Darcy’s Law interface (pA = p + pref).

References for the Darcy’s Law Interface

1. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw-Hill, 1979.

100 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

2. S.E. Ingebritsen and W.E. Sanford, Groundwater in Geologic Processes, Cambridge
University Press, 1998.

3. N.H. Sleep and K. Fujita, Principles of Geophysics, Blackwell Science, 1997.

4. D.L. Turcotte and G. Schubert, Geodynamics, Cambridge University Press, 2002.

5. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

6. Ö. Akgiray and A.M. Saatçı, “A New Look at Filter Backwash Hydraulics,” Water
Science and Technology: Water Supply, vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 65–72, 2001.

7. L. Klinkenberg, “The permeability of porous media to liquids and gases,” Drilling

and Production Practice, Am. Petroleum Inst., pp. 200–213, 1941.

8. Yu-Shu Wu et al., “Gas Flow in Porous Media with Klinkenberg Effects,” Transport
in Porous Media, vol. 32, pp. 117–137, 1998.

THEORY FOR THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 101

 The Darcy’s Law Interface
The Darcy’s Law (dl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and Subsurface Flow
branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid flow through
interstices in a porous medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media
where the permeability and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient
is the major driving force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance
within the pores. Set up multiple Darcy's Law interfaces to model multiphase flows
involving more than one mobile phase. The Darcy’s Law interface can be used for
stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluid and Matrix Properties node, which provides an interface
for defining the fluid material along with the porous medium properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid and Matrix Properties, No Flow (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Darcy's Law
to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

102 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

By default there are no gravity effects added to Darcy’s Law interface. Select the check
box Include gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. When this check box is
selected a global Gravity feature node is shown in the interface model tree.

Enter a value for the acceleration of gravity. The default value g_const is the
predefined standard acceleration of gravity on Earth.

For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit

http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic Lagrange.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is not activated by default. When this option
is selected, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in post processing results, but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

Also the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is checked. The smoothing can provide a better behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transport problems be set to Real which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 103

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is the Pressure. The name can be changed but
the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Darcy’s Law Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Species Transport in the Gas Diffusion Layers of a PEM: Application

Library path
Batteries_and_Fuel_Cells_Module/Fuel_Cells/pem_gdl_species_transport_2
d
• Steam Reformer: Application Library path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Porous_Catalysts/
steam_reformer
• Terzaghi Compaction: Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Flow_and_Solid_Deformation/terzaghi_compacti
on

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Darcy’s Law Interface has the following domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair
nodes, these nodes are available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

104 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

DOMAIN

• Fluid and Matrix Properties • Mass Source

• Gravity • Poroelastic Storage
• Initial Values • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Storage Model • Richards’ Equation Model

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

BOUNDARY, EDGE, AND POINT

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are available on exterior boundaries:

• Atmosphere/Gauge
• Outlet
• Cross Section
• Pervious Layer
• Electrode Surface Coupling
• Point Mass Source
• Flux Discontinuity
• Precipitation
• Fracture Flow
• Pressure
• Hydraulic Head
• Pressure Head
• Inlet
• Reaction Coefficients1
• Interior Wall
• Symmetry
• Line Mass Source
• Thickness
• Mass Flux
• Thin Barrier
• No Flow
1
This node is described for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

Note that some features are only available with certain COMSOL products (see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/)!

The relevant physics interface condition at interior boundaries is continuity:

n ⋅ ( ρ1 u1 –ρ2 u2 ) = 0

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 105

 The continuity boundary condition ensures that the pressure and mass flux are
continuous. In addition, the Pressure boundary condition is available on interior
boundaries.

The continuity boundary condition provides continuity for the pressure and mass flux.
In addition, the following boundary conditions are available on interior boundaries:

• Pressure • Pervious Layer

• Pressure Head • Flux Discontinuity
• Hydraulic Head • Fracture Flow
• Interior Wall • Thin Barrier

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid and Matrix Properties

The Fluid and Matrix Properties node adds the equations for Darcy’s law, Equation 4-18
and Equation 4-19 (excluding any mass sources), and contains settings for the fluid
properties and the porous matrix properties such as the effective porosity.

∂ ( ρε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu )
= Qm (4-18)
∂t

106 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 κ
u = – --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) (4-19)
μ

Note that D is the elevation which is only included in the Subsurface Flow Module.
Otherwise, D is zero and Equation 4-19 simplifies to:

κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-20)
μ

FLUID PROPERTIES
Select the Fluid material to use for the fluid properties. Select Domain material (the
default) to use the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use that
material’s properties for the fluid.

Density
The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection.

• For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is 0 kg/m3.
• For Ideal gas it uses the ideal gas law to describe the fluid. In this case, specify the
thermodynamics properties. Select a Gas constant type — Specific gas constant Rs
(the default) or Mean molar mass Mn (SI unit: J/(mol·K)). For Mean molar mass the
universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/(mol·K) is used as the built-in physical constant.
For both properties, the defaults use values From material. For User defined enter
another value or expression.

Dynamic Viscosity
Select a Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s). The default uses values From material as
defined by the Fluid material selected. For User defined the default is 0 Pa·s.

If the settings for the dynamic viscosity are unavailable, this is due to Hydraulic
conductivity being selected as the Permeability model under the Matrix Properties
section below. The hydraulic conductivity is defined using a combination of fluid and
matrix properties and replaces the need to define the dynamic viscosity. Note that this
option is only available with the Subsurface Flow Module.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix. Select Domain material from the Porous
material list (the default) to use the material defined for the porous domain. Select
another material to use that material’s properties.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 107

 The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selected. For User defined the default is 0.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow — Permeability to define the permeability of the porous matrix, Hydraulic
conductivity to define a combination of fluid permeability and dynamic viscosity,
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter, or Non-Darcian in cases when Darcy’s linear relation between pressure drop
and velocity is no longer valid due to turbulence or inertial effects.

Note that the option to choose Hydraulic conductivity is only available for the
Subsurface Flow Module. The Non-Darcian Flow option is only available in some
modules. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the
field or matrix.

For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) select Isotropic to define a scalar value or
Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value. The default is 2.94·10−4 m/s.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

For Non-Darcian, choose a Non-Darcian flow model from the selection list. The available
options, depending on the modules licensed, are Forchheimer, Ergun, Burke-Plummer,
and Klinkenberg.

For Forchheimer, the default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material,
as defined by the Porous material list. Furthermore, the dimensionless Forchheimer
parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 4-10.

For Burke-Plummer, specify the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm).

If Klinkenberg is selected from the list, the default Permeability κ∞ (SI unit: m2) uses
the value From material, as defined by the Porous material list. Enter the Klinkenberg
parameter bK. Its default value is 1e3 Pa. The corrected permeability κ is then
calculated using Equation 4-17.

108 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source Qm, which appears on the right-hand side of
the Darcy’s Law equation (Equation 4-21, the equation for porosity).

∂ ( ρε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu )
= Qm (4-21)
∂t

For The Fracture Flow Interface — which is available for the Subsurface Flow Module
and the Porous Media Flow Module — the mass source is applicable to the right-hand
side of Equation 4-24 (where it is multiplied with the fracture thickness).

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Mass source Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default is
0 kg/(m3·s).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure that can serve as an initial
condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

If you have the Subsurface Flow Module licensed, you can specify the pressure either
directly or as an expression for the pressure head, Hp, or the hydraulic head, H; the
hydraulic head and the pressure head relate to the pressure p as

p
H p = ------ ; H = Hp + D
ρg

where ρ is the fluid density (SI unit: kg/m3); g denotes the acceleration of gravity
(SI unit: m/s2); and D is the elevation (SI unit: m).

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa.

In case the Subsurface Flow Module is available, click the Pressure head button to enter
a value or expression for Hp (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m. Click the Hydraulic head
button to enter a value or expression for H (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 109

 Storage Model
The Storage Model node adds Equation 4-19 and Equation 4-5 (excluding any mass
sources). Use it to define the fluid and porous media properties, including a storage
term for the specific storage.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The settings are the same as for the Fluid and Matrix Properties node except a gas
constant type is not required.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The settings are the same as in the Matrix Properties section under Fluid and Matrix
Properties.

STORAGE MODEL
Select a Storage S (SI unit: 1/Pa) — Linearized storage (the default) or User defined.

• For User defined, and for The Fracture Flow Interface, enter a value or expression
for Storage S (SI unit: 1/Pa) (Sf in Equation 4-24).
• For Linearized storage it uses the following linear equation to define the storage:

S = εχ f + ( 1 – ε p )χ p

This is equivalent to the Reuss average of the fluid and solid compressibilities. Enter
the value or expression for each of the following:
- Compressibility of fluid χf (SI unit: 1/Pa). The default uses values From material.
For User defined, the default is 4·10−10 1/Pa.
- Effective compressibility of matrix χp (SI unit: 1/Pa). The default is 1·10−4 1/Pa).

FRACTURE FLOW
For The Fracture Flow Interface, enter a value or expression for the Fracture thickness
df (SI unit: m). The default is 0.1 m.

Discrete Fracture: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/discrete_fracture

110 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Richards’ Equation Model
The Richards’ Equation Model node defines the storage and retention models in variably
saturated porous media. See the Richards’ Equation Model described for the Richards’
Equation interface.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Poroelastic Storage
The Poroelastic Storage node adds Equation 4-19 and Equation 4-5 (excluding any
mass sources). Use it to define the fluid and porous media properties, including a
storage term to account for the Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The settings are the same as for the Storage Model node except a gas constant type is
not required. There is also an option to define the fluid compressibility.

Compressibility
Select the Compressibility of fluid χf (SI unit: 1/Pa). The default uses values From
material as defined by the Fluid material selected. For User defined the default is
4·10−10 1/Pa.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The settings are the same as in the Matrix Properties section under Fluid and Matrix
Properties.

Gravity
The Gravity node is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at interface
level in the Darcy’s Law settings and it is active in all domains in which the Darcy’s Law
interface is applied.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 111

 COORDINATE SYSTEM SELECTION
The Global coordinate system is selected by default. The Coordinate system list contains
any additional coordinate systems that the model includes. It can be used when
prescribing the direction of the gravitational forces.

GRAVITY
Specify either the acceleration vector or — in case you have a Subsurface Flow Module
license — the elevation.

When Acceleration is selected from the list, enter the components of the Gravity vector
g. The default value is g_const which is the physical constant having the value
9.8066 m/s2.

• For 3D and 2D axisymmetric models, the default value is -g_const in the

z direction.
• For 2D models, the default value is -g_const in the y direction.

When Elevation is selected from the list, specify the Elevation D (SI unit: m). Select the
check box Specify reference position to define a reference elevation.

Select the acceleration of gravity from either the Darcy’s Law interface Settings
(default), or specify a user defined value. When the check box Include gravity is not
selected in the Darcy’s Law interface Settings, the elevation D is set equal to zero.

Porous Electrode Coupling

Use the Porous Electrode Coupling node to define a mass source based on the volumetric
current densities of one or multiple Porous Electrode Reaction nodes in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The source (or sink) is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species,
the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as
defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

112 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The setting in the table will determine the number of available fields for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use the Electrode Surface Coupling node to define a combined wall and inflow/outflow
boundary condition based on current densities of one or multiple Electrode Reaction
nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flow is proportional to the Molar mass (kg/mol) of the reacting species, the current
densities and the stoichiometric coefficients according to Faraday’s law as defined by
summation over the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

SPECIES
Based on the number of species required for the model, use the Add ( ) and
Delete ) buttons under the table to add or remove Species. Then enter a value for
the Molar mass (kg/mol) in the applicable rows for each species.

The setting in the table will determine the number of available field for entering the
stoichiometric coefficients of the Reaction Coefficient subnodes.

Pressure
Use the Pressure node to specify the pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a
known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example.

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0(SI unit: Pa). Enter a relative pressure
value in p0 (SI unit: Pa).

For the Subsurface Flow Module, the Pressure node provides the pressure P0 as a
condition on edges in 3D models. Then select the edges under Edge Selection.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 113

 Pressure constraint on edges are available for use with the Fracture Flow boundary
condition (which is available in the Subsurface Flow Module). This boundary
condition needs constraints on the edges surrounding the fracture-flow boundary. In
other cases, pressure constraints on edges are not implemented.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux. D
is the elevation head which is set to zero for other than Subsurface Flow Module
applications.

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0. A positive value of N0
represents an inward mass flux whereas a negative value represents an outward mass
flux. The units are based on the geometric entity: Boundaries: (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source node adds mass flow originating from a tube of infinitely small
radius.

SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis
3D Edges

114 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

LINE MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(m·s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the line into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source node models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
sphere centered around a point. It is available for points in 3D geometries.

POINT MASS SOURCE

Enter a value or expression for the source strength, N0 (SI unit: kg/(s)). A positive
value results in mass injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the mass is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has three options that can be used to specify inlet
condition on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity. A negative value represents an outflow
velocity. The inlet velocity boundary condition is implemented as;

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow. D is the elevation head which is set to zero for
other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 115

 PRESSURE
Use the Pressure option to specify the inlet pressure on a boundary. In many cases the
distribution of pressure is known, giving a Dirichlet condition p = p0 where p0 is a
known pressure given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving time, t,
for example. Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0(SI unit: Pa).

MASS FLOW
If you select Mass flow as the inlet condition, specify the total Mass flow rate M0(SI unit:
kg/s), or the Pointwise mass flux N0(SI unit: kg/(m2·s)).

With Mass flow rate boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

–  ρ ( u ⋅ n ) dS = M0
∂Ω

where M0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

Pointwise mass flux boundary condition, positive values correspond to flow into the
model domain:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = N 0
μ

where N0 is a value or expression for the specified inward (or outward) Darcy flux.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary. The following condition
implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow divide:

κ
n ⋅ --- ∇p = 0
μ

κ
n ⋅ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

116 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry
boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

No Flow
The No Flow node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impermeable boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

κ
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = 0
μ

where n is the vector normal to the boundary. D is the elevation head which is set to
zero for any other than Subsurface Flow Module applications.

Flux Discontinuity
Use the Flux Discontinuity node to specify a mass flux discontinuity through an interior
boundary. The condition is represented by the following equation:

– n ⋅ ( ρu 1 – ρ u 2 ) = N 0

In this equation, n is the vector normal (perpendicular) to the interior boundary, ρ is

the fluid density, u1 and u2 are the Darcy velocities in the adjacent domains (as defined
in Equation 4-22) and N0 is a specified value or expression for the flux discontinuity.

κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-22)
μ

For this boundary condition, a positive value of N0 corresponds to a flow discontinuity

in the opposite direction to the normal vector of the interior boundary.

MASS FLUX
Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents a mass flux discontinuity in the opposite direction to the normal
vector of the interior boundary.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 117

 Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow (or inflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary. It has two options that can be used to specify inlet condition
on a boundary, as follows:

VELOCITY
Enter a value or expression for the Normal outflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an outflow velocity whereas a negative value represents an
inflow velocity.

κ
– n ⋅ ρ --- ∇p = ρU 0
μ

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the outward (or inward) Darcy velocity.

PRESSURE
Similar to the inlet Pressure option, the outlet pressure on a boundary can be specified.
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p0(SI unit: Pa).

Precipitation
Enter a value or expression for the Precipitation rate which then contributes to the mass
flux at the boundaries selected. If the boundary is inclined, a Slope correction can be
applied.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Cross Section
Use this node with 1D components to model domains with another cross-sectional
area than the global one that is used in the interface Physical Model section. In 1D
geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the radial direction, and Darcy’s
Law accounts for that.

CROSS SECTION
Enter values for the Cross-sectional area Ac to set the cross section of the domain in the
plane perpendicular to the 1D geometry.

118 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Thickness
Use this node with 2D and 1D axisymmetric components to model domains with
another thickness than the overall thickness that is specified in the interface Physical
Model section. In 2D geometries, the pressure is assumed to be constant in the
out-of-plane direction (z direction with default spatial coordinate names). In 1D
axisymmetric geometries the thickness represents the z direction.

THICKNESS
Specify a value for the Thickness dz of the domain in the out-of-plane direction. This
value replaces the overall thickness in the domains that are selected in the Domain
Selection section, and is used to multiply some terms into the heat equation.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries. It is
similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it applies
on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and pressure
across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to avoid
meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and surfaces
instead.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition models interior permeable walls, membranes,
geotextiles, or perforated plates as thin permeable barriers. The Thin Barrier boundary
condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

WALL
Enter a value or expression for the Thickness db (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m) and
for the Permeability κb (SI unit: m2). The default Permeability κb uses the value From
material. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the field or
matrix.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 119

 Pressure Head
Use the Pressure Head node to specify the pressure head (instead of the pressure) on a
boundary. It adds this boundary condition for the pressure head Hp= Hp0, where Hp0
is a known pressure head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example. The dimension of the pressure head is length (SI unit: m).

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

PRESSURE HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure head Hp0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Hydraulic Head
Use the Hydraulic Head node to specify the hydraulic head (instead of the pressure) on
a boundary. This adds the Dirichlet condition for the hydraulic head H = H0 where H0
is a known hydraulic head given as a number, a distribution, or an expression involving
time, t, for example.

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

HYDRAULIC HEAD
Enter a value or expression for the Hydraulic head H0 (SI unit: m). The default is 0 m.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Atmosphere/Gauge
The Atmosphere/Gauge node specifies an atmospheric pressure or gauges the pressure
to the atmospheric value. This means that the total hydraulic potential reduces to the
gravitational pressure at the free surface. At a free surface, such as a spring or a seepage
face, the pressure is atmospheric. If the pressures in the model is gauged to the

120 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

atmospheric value (p = 0), the total hydraulic potential reduces to the gravitational
potential at the free surface — for example, the height of the free surface multiplied by
the fluid weight, or ρf gD. This boundary condition sets the pressure at the boundary
to zero and p = 0.

The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

Pervious Layer
The Subsurface Flow Module license is required to use this boundary condition (see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/).

The Pervious Layer node provides a boundary condition that describes a mass flux
through a semi-pervious layer connected to an external fluid source at different
pressure, pressure head, or hydraulic head. The model domain might connect to a
larger body of water through the semi-pervious layer. This condition is represented
with the following boundary condition:

κ ( pb – p )
n ⋅ ρ --- ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = ρR b -------------------- + ( D b – D ) (4-23)
μ ρg

In this equation, pb (SI unit: Pa) and Db (SI unit: m) are the pressure and the elevation
of the distant fluid source, respectively, and Rb (SI unit: 1/s) is the conductance of
materials between the source and the model domain (conductance to flow in the
semi-pervious layer adjacent to the boundary). Typically Rb = K'/B', where K' is the
hydraulic conductivity (SI unit: m/s) of the layer and B' (SI unit: m) is its thickness.
Using logical relationships, it is possible to activate these expressions at different times
or under various flow conditions.

When the pressure head Hp is specified instead of the pressure, the boundary condition
is the following:

n ⋅ ρK∇ ( H p + D ) = ρR b [ ( H pb – H p ) + ( D b – D ) ] (4-24)

Hpb is the pressure head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 121

 When the hydraulic head H is specified instead of the pressure head, the boundary
condition becomes:

n ⋅ ρK∇H = ρR b [ H b – H ] (4-25)

Hb is the hydraulic head (SI unit: m) at the edge of the layer.

K in Equation 4-24 and Equation 4-25 is the hydraulic conductivity.

At a free surface, such as a water table or seepage face, the pressure is atmospheric (here
taken to be zero), so the total hydraulic potential equals gravitational potential, which
is defined on D.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

PERVIOUS LAYER
Specify the material properties whether to specify an external pressure, pressure head,
or hydraulic head.

Select an External variable to specify — Pressure and elevation to specify the external
pressure, Pressure head and elevation to specify the external pressure head, or Hydraulic
head. For all selections, enter a value for the Conductance Rb (SI unit: 1/s).

• For Pressure and elevation enter an External pressure pb (SI unit: Pa) and External
elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Pressure head and elevation enter an External pressure head Hpb (SI unit: m), Hpb
(SI unit: m) and External elevation Db (SI unit: m).
• For Hydraulic head enter the Hydraulic head Hb (SI unit: m).

Well
The Well feature is intended to model injection or production wells and is available
with the Subsurface Flow Module.

WELL
Enter a value or expression for the Well diameter dw (SI unit: m, the default is 0.1 m).
Select the Well type from the list, Production or Injection well.

122 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Specify either the Pressure (SI unit: Pa), Pressure head (SI unit: m), Hydraulic head (SI
unit: m), or the Mass flow. If you select Mass flow, specify the total Mass flow rate (SI
unit: kg/s), the Mass flow rate per unit length (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) or the Mass flux (SI
unit: kg/(m2·s)).

Fracture Flow
The Fracture Flow node adds fracture flow on boundaries using tangential derivatives
to define the flow along interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous
medium. It is implemented through The Fracture Flow Interface. Additional subnodes
are available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) or from the Physics
toolbar, Attributes menu.

This feature requires a specific license. For a detailed overview of the functionality
available in each product visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

THE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 123

 Theory for the Richards’ Equation
Interface
The Richards’ Equation Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Richards’ Equation

• Retention and Permeability Relationships
• References for the Richards’ Equation Interface

About Richards’ Equation

Richards’ equation models flow in variably saturated porous media. With variably
saturated flow, hydraulic properties change as fluids move through the medium, filling
some pores and draining others.

This discussion of the Richards’ Equation interface begins with the propagation of a
single liquid (oil or water). The pore space not filled with liquid contains an immobile
fluid (air) at atmospheric pressure.

unsaturated saturated

Hp 0

Figure 4-2: Fluid retention and permeability functions that vary with pressure head, as
given by Van Genuchten formulas available in the Richards’ Equation interface.

124 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Many efforts to simplify and improve the modeling of flow in variably saturated media
have produced a number of variants of Richards’ equation since its appearance. The
form that COMSOL Multiphysics solves is very general and allows for time-dependent
changes in both saturated and unsaturated conditions (see Ref. 1 and Ref. 2):

Cm ∂p κs
ρ  -------- + SeS ------ + ∇ ⋅ ρ  – ----- k r ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D ) = Q m (4-26)
 ρg  ∂t  μ 

where the pressure, p, is the dependent variable. In this equation, Cm represents the
specific moisture capacity, Se denotes the effective saturation, S is the storage
coefficient, κs gives the hydraulic permeability, μ is the fluid dynamic viscosity, kr
denotes the relative permeability, ρ is the fluid density, g is acceleration of gravity, D
represents the elevation, and Qm is the fluid source (positive) or sink (negative). Like
Darcy’s law, COMSOL Multiphysics solves Richards’ equation for a dependent
variable of pressure but provides features for specifying the values of the hydraulic head
or pressure head on the boundaries of a model, either directly or as part of the Pervious
Layer boundary condition. Also use the hydraulic head and the pressure head during
results evaluation.

The fluid velocity across the faces of an infinitesimally small surface is

κs
u = – ----- k r ( ∇p + ρ g ∇D )
μ

where u is the flux vector. The porous medium consists of pore space, fluids, and
solids, but only the liquids move. The equation above describes the flux as distributed
across a representative surface. To characterize the fluid velocity in the pores,
COMSOL Multiphysics also divides u by the volume liquid fraction, θs. This
interstitial, pore or average linear velocity is ua = u/θs.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

Retention and Permeability Relationships

Richards’ equation appears deceptively similar to the saturated flow equation set out
in the Darcy’s Law interface, but it is notoriously nonlinear (Ref. 3). Nonlinearities
arise because the material and hydraulic properties θ, Se, Cm, and kr vary for
unsaturated conditions (for example, negative pressure) and reach a constant value at

THEORY FOR THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 125

 saturation (for example, pressure of zero or above). The volume of liquid per porous
medium volume, θ, ranges from a small residual value θr to the total porosity θs. Its
value is given in a constitutive relation in the model. The effective saturation, Se,
amounts to θ normalized to a maximum value of 1. The specific moisture capacity, Cm,
describes the change in θ as the solution progresses, the slope on a plot of θ versus
pressure (or pressure head). The relative permeability, kr, increases with moisture
content and varies from a nominal value to its maximum value at saturation, which
reveals that the fluid moves more readily when the porous medium is fully wet.

The Richards’ Equation interface in COMSOL Multiphysics includes three retention

models to define θ, Se, Cm, and kr:

• The analytic formulas of van Genuchten.

• The analytic formulas of Brooks and Corey.
• A user-defined expression.

The analytic formulas of van Genuchten (Ref. 4) and Brooks and Corey (Ref. 5) are so
frequently used that they are synonymous with this variably saturated flow modeling.
Posed in terms of pressure head Hp = p/(ρg), the analytic expressions require data for
the saturated θs and residual θr liquid volume fractions as well as constants α, n, m,
and l, which specify a particular medium type.

The van Genuchten equations define saturation when the fluid pressure is atmospheric
(that is, Hp = 0). These equations are

126 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 
 θ + Se ( θ s – θ r ) Hp < 0
θ= r
 θs Hp ≥ 0


 1
 ------------------------------------
- Hp < 0
Se =  [ 1 + αH n ] m
 p
Hp ≥ 0
 1

 (4-27)
 1-
----
1- m
----
αm -
 ------------- m m Hp < 0
Cm =  1 – m ( θ s – θ r )Se  1 – Se 
   Hp ≥ 0
 0



 1 m
-----
2
 Se l 1 –  1 – Se m Hp < 0
kr =   
   Hp ≥ 0
 1


here, the constitutive parameter m is equal to 1 − 1/n. With the Brooks and Corey
approach, an air-entry pressure distinguishes saturated (Hp > −1/α) and unsaturated
(Hp < −1/α) flow so that

THEORY FOR THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 127

  1
H p < – ---
 θ + Se ( θ s – θ r ) α
θ= r
 θs 1
 – --- ≤ H p
α

 1 1
H p < – ---
 ------------------ α
Se =  αH n
p
 1
– --- ≤ H p
 1 α
(4-28)
 –n 1 1
H p < – ---
 ------- ( θ – θ r ) -----------------n- α
Cm = Hp s αH p
 1
– --- ≤ H p
 0 α

 2
--- + l + 2
1
H p < – ---
 n α
k r =  Se
 1
– --- ≤ H p
 1 α

Here, the constitutive parameter m is equal to 1 − 1/n. COMSOL Multiphysics also

provides user-defined options for those who want to incorporate experimental data or
arbitrary expressions to define these relationships.

References for the Richards’ Equation Interface

1. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

2. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw-Hill, 1979.

3. R.A. Freeze, “Three-dimensional, Transient, Saturated-unsaturated Flow in a

Groundwater Basin,” Water Resour.Res., vol. 7, no. 2, 1971.

4. M.Th. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic

Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

5. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

128 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Richards’ Equation Interface
The Richards’ Equation (dl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to analyze flow
in variably saturated porous media. The analytic formulas of van Genuchten, Brooks,
and Corey are available for modeling variably saturated flow, where hydraulic
properties change as fluids move through the porous medium, filling some pores and
draining others. The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent
analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Richards’ Equation. Richards’ Equation Model (which adds the equation for the
pressure and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and its properties,
including the retention model), No Flow (the default boundary condition), and Initial
Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Richards’ Equation to
select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
Gravity effects are active by default. Deselect the check box Include gravity to deactivate
the acceleration of gravity.

Under Acceleration of gravity, enter the value for the acceleration of gravity
(SI unit m/s2). The default value is taken from the predefined physical constant
g_const, which is the standard acceleration of gravity on earth.

THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 129

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Pressure. The name can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Richards’ Equation interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic
Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options..

• Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Richards’ Equation
Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

• Variably Saturated Flow: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/variably_saturated_flow
• Pesticide Transport and Reaction in Soil: Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/pesticide_transport

Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Richards’

Equation Interface
The Richards’ Equation Interface has the same domain, boundary, edge, and point
nodes described for The Darcy’s Law Interface. The exception is Richards’ Equation
Model, which is described in this section.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Darcy’s Law
Interface

Richards’ Equation Model

The Richards’ Equation Model node adds Richards’ equation (Equation 4-26) for flow
in variably saturated porous media and provides an interface for defining the fluid

130 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

properties as well as the retention model. The source term can be included as separate
feature.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on Fluid
material selected. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 kg/m3.

The default Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the
Fluid material selected. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default
is 0 Pa·s.

If Hydraulic conductivity is selected as the Permeability model (see the

Matrix Properties section), dynamic viscosity is not available. The
hydraulic conductivity is defined using a combination of fluid and matrix
properties and replaces the need of defining the dynamic viscosity.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
The default Porous material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain) for the porous matrix. Select another material as needed.

Permeability Model
Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow. Select Permeability to define the permeability of the porous matrix, Hydraulic
conductivity to define a combination of fluid permeability and dynamic viscosity, or
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter.

• For Permeability κs (SI unit: m2) the default uses values From material as defined by
the Porous material selected. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value
or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enter a tensor value.
• For Hydraulic conductivity Ks (SI unit: m/s) enter a value or expression. Select
Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enter a tensor
value.
• For Kozeny-Carman, enter a value or expression for the mean particle diameter dp (SI
unit: m), the default value is 0.5 mm.

THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 131

 Saturated Liquid Volume Fraction
The property that defines the pore volume in Richards’ Equation is the Saturated liquid
volume fraction θs. Enter a value, which is a fraction (a dimensionless number between
0 and 1). The default is 0.25.

Residual Liquid Volume Fraction

If there is a residual volume of liquid that cannot move through the pore network, also
enter a Residual liquid volume fraction θr. Enter a value, which is a fraction (a
dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default is 0.

STORAGE MODEL
Select a Storage model S (SI unit: 1/Pa) — Linearized storage or User defined. For User
defined enter a Storage S (SI unit: 1/Pa) value or expression. Select Linearized storage
to use the following linear equation to define the storage:

S = θ s χ f + ( 1 – θ s )χ p

This expression is equivalent to the Reuss average of the fluid and solid
compressibilities. Enter the value or expression for these properties to define the linear
storage — Compressibility of fluid χf (SI unit: 1/Pa) and Effective compressibility of
matrix χp (SI unit: 1/Pa).

RETENTION MODEL
Select a Retention model — van Genuchten, Brooks and Corey, or User defined.

Select van Genuchten to use the retention model according to van Genuchten (see
Equation 4-27). Then enter the values for these Constitutive relation constants. The
constitutive parameter m is equal to 1 − 1/n.

• α (default is 1, and the SI unit is 1/m).

• n (default is 2)
• l (default is 0.5)

Select Brooks and Corey to use the retention model according to Brooks and Corey (see
Equation 4-28). The same parameters as for the van Genuchten model also define the
Brook and Corey model: α, n, and l.

Select User defined to specify a retention model in Equation 4-26, instead of van
Genuchten (Equation 4-27) or Brooks and Corey (Equation 4-28) models:

• Unsaturated condition un. The default is 0.

• Liquid volume fraction θ. The default is θs (the thetas variable).

132 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

• Effective saturation Se. The default is 0.
• Specific moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m). The default is 0 (1/m).
• Relative permeability kr. The default is 1.

• Theory for the Richards’ Equation Interface

• Retention and Permeability Relationships

Flownet Plot
The Flownet plot is available for 2D and 2D axisymmetric models. This plot is created
automatically when solving a model that includes a Richards’ equation interface, and
it is created by adding a Streamline plot for the velocity field and a contour plot for the
pressure.

THE RICHARDS’ EQUATION INTERFACE | 133

 Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s
Law Interface
Darcy’s Law
Darcy’s law states that the velocity field is determined by the pressure gradient, the
fluid viscosity, and the permeability of the porous medium. According to Darcy’s law,
the velocity field is given by

κ
u = – --- ∇p (4-29)
μ

In this equation:

• u (SI unit: m/s) is the Darcy velocity vector

• κ (SI unit: m2) is the permeability of the porous medium
• μ (SI unit: Pa·s) is the fluid’s dynamic viscosity, and
• p (SI unit: Pa) is the fluid’s pressure

The permeability, κ, represents the resistance to flow over a representative volume

consisting of solid grains and pores.

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface combines Darcy’s law (Equation 4-29) with the
continuity equation for the average density ρ

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (4-30)
∂t

here, εp is the porosity, defined as the fraction of the control volume that is occupied
by pores. Inserting Darcy’s law (Equation 4-29) into the continuity equation
(Equation 4-30) produces the governing equation

∂ ( ρε ) + ∇ ⋅ ρ – --κ- ∇p = 0 (4-31)
∂t p μ

In the presence of two miscible fluid phases, the average density ρ and average viscosity
μ depend on the composition of the mixture (Ref. 6). In the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
interface these dependencies are given by

1 = s1 + s2 (4-32)

134 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 ρ = s1 ρ1 + s2 ρ2 (4-33)

κ r1 κ r2
--1- = s 1 -------
- + s 2 -------
- (4-34)
μ μ1 μ2

here, s1 and s2 represent the saturation of each phase, ρ1 and ρ2 the densities, and κr1
and κr2 the relative permeabilities. When either of the fluids is compressible, its density
can be related to the pressure (for instance using the ideal gas law).

Capillary Pressure
Beside the continuity equation for the mixture (Equation 4-31), the Two-Phase
Darcy’s Law interface also solves the transport equation for the fluid content of one of
the phases, c1 = s1ρ1

∂ ε
( c ) + ∇ ⋅ ( c 1 u ) = ∇ ⋅ D c ∇c 1 (4-35)
∂t p 1

here, Dc (SI unit: m2/s) is the capillary diffusion coefficient, which can be directly
specified, or it can be derived from a capillary pressure expression. Normally, the fluid
content c1 will be the concentration of the wetting phase.

When capillary pressure is selected as capillary model, the capillary diffusion

coefficient is computed from the saturation of one of the phases and the capillary
pressure

κ r1 ∂p c
D c = -------- κ ( s 1 – 1 ) (4-36)
μ1 ∂ s1

The capillary pressure is defined as the pressure difference between the phases, and it
can be defined as a function of saturation, pc(s1). The capillary pressure can be a user
defined expression, or it can be derived from van Genuchten (Ref. 7) or Brooks and
Corey (Ref. 8) models.

For van Genuchten model, the expression for the capillary pressure as a function of
saturation follows the curve

 1 1 – m
p c = p ec  -----------
- – 1 (4-37)
 s 11 ⁄ m 

where pec is the entry capillary pressure and m is a constitutive exponent.

THEORY FOR THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 135

 For the Brooks and Corey model, the capillary pressure curve depends on saturation as

1-
p c = p ec ----------
1⁄λ
(4-38)
s1

where λ is the pore distribution index.

When capillary pressure is selected as capillary model, the relative permeabilities and
are also determined by the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey models. For the van
Genuchten model, the relative permeabilities are given by

l vG 1 ⁄ m vG m vG 2
κ r1 = s 1 ( 1 – ( 1 – s 1 ) )

l 1 ⁄ m vG 2m vG
κ r2 = ( 1 – s 1 ) vG ( 1 – s 1 )

where mvG and lvG are constitutive constants.

For the Brooks and Corey model, the relative permeabilities are given by

(3 + 2 ⁄ λ)
κ r1 = s 1

2 (1 + 2 ⁄ λ)
κ r2 = ( 1 – s 1 ) ( 1 – s 1 )

where λ is again the pore distribution index.

References for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface

6. Z. Chen, G. Huan, and Y. Ma, Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows in
Porous Media. Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2006.

7. M.Th. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic

Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

8. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

136 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law (tpdl) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate fluid
flow through interstices in a porous medium. It solves Darcy’s law for the total
pressure and the transport of the fluid content for one fluid phase. The physics
interface can be used to model low velocity flows or media where the permeability and
porosity are very small, for which the pressure gradient is the major driving force and
the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Fluids and Matrix Properties node, which provides an interface
for defining the two immiscible fluids properties along with the porous medium
properties. The physics interface is available in 2D, 2D axisymmetric, and 3D.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluids and Matrix Properties, No Flow (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also right-click Two-Phase
Darcy’s Law to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tpdl.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variables (field variables) are the Pressure and Fluid content 1. The name
can be changed but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within
a component.

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 137

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
from the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods available — Streamline diffusion and
Crosswind diffusion. Streamline diffusion is active by default. The Residual setting applies
to both the consistent stabilization methods. Approximate residual is the default setting
and it means that derivatives of the capillary diffusion tensor components are
neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and computationally faster. If
required, select Full residual instead.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure and fluid content
variables solved by the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law interface. The default shape functions
are P2+P1 Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options from the Show More Options dialog box.

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface
• Theory for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface

Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Two-Phase Darcy’s Law
Interface
The Two-Phase Darcy’s Law Interface has these domain, boundary, and pair nodes,
listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users),
Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu
(all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

138 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

 • Fluid and Matrix Properties • Mass Flux
• Inlet • No Flux
• Initial Values • Outlet
• Symmetry • Pressure and Saturation
• Interior Wall

For axisymmetric models, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial

symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Fluid and Matrix Properties

The Fluids and Matrix Properties node adds Equation 4-39 and Equation 4-40 and
defines properties including density, dynamic viscosity, relative permeability, and
porosity.

∂ ρε
( p ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = 0 (4-39)
∂t

∂ c
( ε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( c 1 u ) = ∇ ⋅ D c ∇c 1 (4-40)
∂t 1 p

CAPILLARY MODEL
The list defaults to Capillary diffusion or choose Capillary pressure.

For Capillary diffusion, choose Isotropic to define a scalar or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full
to enter a tensor, and then enter values or expressions in the Dc (SI unit: m2/s) field
or fields.

For Capillary pressure, select a Pressure model — van Genuchten (the default), Brooks
and Corey, or User defined.

• For van Genuchten, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa), the Constitutive
relations constant mvG (dimensionless), and Constitutive relations constant IvG
(dimensionless).
• For Brooks and Corey, enter an Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa) and the Pore
size distribution index λp (dimensionless).
• For User defined, enter a Capillary pressure pc (SI unit: Pa).

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 139

 FLUID 1 PROPERTIES
Select the material to use for Fluid 1. Select Domain material (the default value) to use
the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use that material’s
properties.

Define the properties for Fluid 1:

The default Density ρ1 (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid 1
selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is 0 kg/m3.

Select a Dynamic viscosity μ1 (SI unit: Pa·s). The default uses values From material as
defined by the Fluid 1 selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The
default is 0 Pa·s.

Select the Relative permeability κr1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) for
fluid 1. The default is 1.

FLUID 2 PROPERTIES
The settings to define the properties for Fluid 2 are similar as for Fluid 1.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix. Select Domain material (the default) from
the Porous material list to use the material defined for the porous domain. Select
another material to use that material’s properties.

The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selection. For User defined enter another value
or expression The default is 0.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material selection. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar or Diagonal,
Symmetric or Full to enter a tensor and enter other values or expressions in the field or
matrix.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the pressure and the saturation of fluid 1
(that is, the fraction of that fluid inside the pore space) that can serve as initial
conditions for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

140 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The
default value is 0 Pa. Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Saturation
fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default value is 0. The
saturation of Fluid 2 is then calculated as s2 = 1 − s1.

No Flux
The No Flux node is the default boundary condition stating that there is no flow across
impervious boundaries. The mathematical formulation is:

n ⋅ ρu = 0

where n is the vector normal to the boundary.

Also, the No Flux boundary enforces a zero gradient condition for the fluid content
across the selected boundary

n ⋅ ∇c 1 = 0

Pressure and Saturation

Use the Pressure and Saturation node to specify the pressure and fluid volume fractions
on a boundary. In many cases the distribution of pressure and saturation are known as
numbers, distributions, or expressions involving time, t, for example.

PRESSURE AND SATURATION

Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa), and for the Saturation
fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1). The default values are 0. The
saturation of Fluid 2 is then calculated as s2 = 1 − s1.

Mass Flux
Use the Mass Flux node to specify the mass flux into or out of the model domain
through some of its boundaries. It is often possible to determine the mass flux from
the pumping rate or from measurements. With this boundary condition, positive
values correspond to flow into the model domain

– n ⋅ ρu = N 0

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 141

 where N0 is a value or expression for the inward (or outward) Darcy’s flux that is
specified.

MASS FLUX AND SATURATION

Enter a value or expression for the Inward mass flux N0 (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)). A positive
value of N0 represents an inward mass flux, whereas a negative value represents an
outward mass flux.

Enter a value or expression for the Saturation fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number

between 0 and 1) in the mass flux. The default value is 0.

Inlet
The Inlet node adds a boundary condition for the inflow (or outflow) perpendicular
(normal) to the boundary:

– n ⋅ ρu = ( s 1 ρ 1 + s 2 ρ 1 )U 0

where U0 is a specified value or expression for the inward (or outward) Darcy’s velocity.
A positive value of the velocity U0 corresponds to flow into the model domain whereas
a negative value represents an outflow.

INLET
Enter a value or expression for the Normal inflow velocity U0 (SI unit: m/s). A positive
value of U0 represents an inflow velocity, whereas a negative value represents an
outward velocity.

Enter a value or expression for the Saturation fluid 1 s1 (a dimensionless number

between 0 and 1). The default value is 0.

Outlet
The Outlet node adds a boundary condition for the outflow perpendicular (normal) to
the boundary:

– n ⋅ D c ∇c 1 = 0

where Dc is the capillary diffusion (SI unit: m2/s) and c1 = s1ρ1 is the fluid 1 content
(SI unit: kg/m3). This means that the normal gradient of fluid saturation does not
change through this boundary.

142 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

PRESSURE
Enter a value or expression for the Pressure p. The default value is 0. If the reference
pressure pref, defined at the physics interface level is 0, enter the absolute pressure.
Otherwise, enter the relative pressure.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node describes a symmetry boundary where there is no tangential flow.
The following condition implements the symmetry condition on an axis or a flow
divide:

– n ⋅ ρu = 0

– n ⋅ D c ∇c 1 = 0

For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial symmetry

boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an Axial Symmetry node that
is valid on the axial symmetry boundaries only.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it

applies on both sides of an internal boundary. It allows discontinuities of velocity and
pressure across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures by applying no-flux condition on interior curves and
surfaces instead.

Thin Barrier
The Thin Barrier boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the Interior Wall boundary available on interior boundaries except that
it allows pressure and concentration gradients across the boundary. The Thin Barrier
boundary condition can be used to avoid meshing thin permeable structures by
applying flux condition on interior curves and surfaces instead.

THE TWO-PHASE DARCY’S LAW INTERFACE | 143

 Theory for the Phase Transport
Interface
The Phase Transport interface provides a predefined modeling environment for
studying the transport of multiple immiscible fluid, gas, or (dispersed) solid phases
either in free flow or in flow through a porous medium. This interface solves for the
averaged volume fractions (also called saturations in a porous medium) of the phases,
and does not track the interfaces between the different phases. The Phase Transport
interface is based on the macroscopic mass conservation equations of each phase. In a
porous medium the effects of the microscopic (or pore scale) interfaces between the
phases can be taken into account via the capillary pressure functions.

Phase Transport in Free Flow

Suppose the fluid consists of a mixture of i = 1, …, N immiscible phases. The
following mass conservation equation describes the transport for an individual phase:

∂
( ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi si ui ) = Qi (4-41)
∂t i i

where ρi denotes the density (SI unit: kg/m3), si denotes the volume fraction
(dimensionless), and ui denotes the velocity vector (SI unit: m/s) of phase i. In
addition, the term Qi denotes a mass source for phase i (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). It is
assumed that the sum of the volume fractions of the phases equals 1:

 si = 1 (4-42)
i=1

This means that N − 1 phase volume fractions are independent and are possible to solve
for using Equation 4-41. The volume constraint Equation 4-42 is used to reduce the
number of dependent variables: one volume fraction, let us say of phase ic (to be
specified in the main node of the Phase Transport interface), is expressed using the
other volume fractions:

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(4-43)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

144 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Turbulent Mixing
A flow field obtained using a turbulence model does not explicitly contain the small
eddies. These unresolved eddies still have a profound effect on the species transport,
an effect known as turbulent mixing.

The Phase Transport interface supports the inclusion of turbulent mixing via the
gradient-diffusion hypothesis. In this case it adds a diffusion term proportional to the
turbulent kinematic viscosity to the phase transport Equation 4-41, which then
becomes

∂ νT
( ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ i s i u i ) – ∇ ⋅  ρ i --------- ∇s i = Q i for i ≠ i c (4-44)
∂t i i  Sc T 

Phase Transport in Porous Media

In a porous domain, the mass conservation equation for each phase is given by:

∂
( ε ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi ui ) = Qi (4-45)
∂t p i i

Here εp (dimensionless) is the porosity, and the vector ui should now be interpreted
as the volumetric flux of phase i (SI unit m3/(m2·s) or m/s). The volumetric fluxes
are determined using the extended Darcy’s law (Ref. 8)

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ ( ∇p i – ρ i g ) (4-46)
μi

where κ denotes the permeability (SI unit: m2) of the porous medium, g the
gravitational acceleration vector (SI unit m/s2), and μi the dynamic viscosity (SI unit:
kg/(m·s)), pi the pressure field (SI unit: Pa), and κri the relative permeability
(dimensionless) of phase i, respectively.

One phase pressure can be chosen independently, which in the Phase Transport in
Porous Media interface is chosen to be the phase pressure, p i c , of the phase computed
from the volume constraint, and the other phase pressures are defined by the following
N − 1 capillary pressure relations:

p i = p ic + p c ( s 1, …, s N ) for i ≠ i c (4-47)
i

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACE | 145

 Substituting Equation 4-46 into Equation 4-45, and using the volume constraint in
Equation 4-42, we arrive at the following N − 1 equations for the phase volume
fractions si, (i ≠ ic) that are solved in the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface:

∂ κ
( ε ρ s ) – ∇ ⋅  ρ i κ ri ----- ( ∇ ( p i c + p ci ) – ρ i g ) = Q i for i ≠ i c (4-48)
∂t p i i  μi 

The remaining volume fraction is computed from

N
 
 s i
sic = 1–
  
(4-49)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

Predefined Capillary Pressure and Relative Permeability Models

The capillary pressure functions p ci can be supplied as user defined expressions, or, in
case there are only two phases present in the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface,
the capillary pressure function can be derived from van Genuchten (Ref. 7) or Brooks
and Corey (Ref. 8) models. When either of these predefined models is used, the user
has to specify which phase is the wetting phase. If the wetting phase is the same as the
phase computed from the volume constraint, then

pi = pic + pc for i ≠ i c (4-50)

otherwise

pi = p ic – pc for i ≠ i c (4-51)

For the van Genuchten model, the expression for the capillary pressure as a function
of saturation follows the curve

 1  1 – m vG
p c = p ec  ------------------------
1 ⁄ m vG
– 1 (4-52)
(s ) 
w

where pec is the entry capillary pressure and mvG is a constitutive constant, and where
s w denotes the effective saturation of the wetting phase. The effective saturation of
each phase is defined as

N
 
 s rj
s i = ( s i – s ri ) ⁄  1 –  (4-53)
 j=1 

146 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

where srj denotes the residual saturation of phase j. For the Brooks and Corey model,
the capillary pressure curve depends on saturation as

1 -
p c = p ec --------------------
1 ⁄ λp
(4-54)
( sw )

where λp is the pore distribution index.

When the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey capillary pressure model is selected, the
relative permeabilities are also determined by these predefined models. For the van
Genuchten model, the relative permeabilities are given by

1 ⁄ m vG m vG 2
κ rsw = ( s w )  1 – ( 1 – ( s w ) 
l vG
) (4-55)
 

l vG 1 ⁄ m vG 2m vG
κ rsn = ( s n ) ( 1 – ( 1 – s n ) ) (4-56)

where mvG and lvG are constitutive constants, and where sn denotes the volume
fraction of the nonwetting phase. For the Brooks and Corey model, the relative
permeabilities are given by

( 3 + 2 ⁄ λp )
κ rsw = ( s w ) (4-57)

2 ( 1 + 2 ⁄ λp )
κ rsn = s n ( 1 – ( 1 – s n ) ) (4-58)

where λp is again the pore distribution index.

Porous Medium Discontinuity Boundary Condition

Over a boundary between a more permeable and a less permeable porous domain the
macroscopic saturation of the different phases is often discontinuous. The Porous
Medium Discontinuity boundary condition implements the following condition on such
an interior boundary:

 l h h l
l l  p ec, i if p ci ( s i ) ≤ p ec, i
pci ( si ) =  for i ≠ i c (4-59)
 p hc ( s hi ) if
h h
p ci ( s i ) > p ec, i
l
 i

where the superscript l is used to indicate the saturation and capillary pressure on the
low permeable side of the boundary and the superscript h indicates the high permeable

THEORY FOR THE PHASE TRANSPORT INTERFACE | 147

 side. The first case implements the condition that if the capillary pressure on the more
permeable side is lower than the entry capillary pressure on the less permeable side,
then the saturation of phase i on the less permeable side equals 0 (or the residual
saturation), and the second case implements the condition that if the capillary pressure
on the more permeable side is higher than the entry capillary pressure on the less
permeable side, the phase i is present on both sides of the interface, and that in this
case the capillary pressure is continuous over the interface.

The additional conditions are continuity of the fluxes for all phases and continuity of
the pressure of the phase ic computed from the volume constraint. Note that this last
condition assumes that this phase is present on both sides of the porous medium
discontinuity boundary condition. In addition this boundary condition assumes that
the phase ic computed from the volume constraint is the wetting phase and it is
necessary that the settings for the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey capillary
pressure model match this assumption.

When the automatic settings are used for the Porous Medium Discontinuity boundary
condition and if in one or both of the adjacent domains none of the predefined
capillary pressure models is selected (van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey), the entry
capillary pressure in that domain is determined by substituting 0 for saturation of the
phase which is not computed from the volume constraint into the user defined
expression for the capillary pressure.

References
1. M.Th. van Genuchten, “A Closed-form Equation for Predicting the Hydraulic
Conductivity of Unsaturated Soils,” Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., vol. 44, 1980.

2. R.H. Brooks and A.T. Corey, “Properties of Porous Media Affecting Fluid Flow,”
J. Irrig. Drainage Div., ASCE Proc., vol. 72 (IR2), 1966.

148 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Phase Transport in Porous Media
Interface
The Phase Transport in Porous Media interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow >
Porous Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ), when adding a physics interface, is used
to simulate the transport of multiple immiscible phases either in flow through a porous
medium or in free flow. This interface solves for the averaged volume fractions (also
called saturations in a porous medium) of the phases, and does not track the interfaces
between the different phases, although microscopic interfacial effects are taken into
account in the macroscopic equations for phase transport in porous media through the
relative permeabilities and capillary pressure functions. The Phase Transport in Porous
Media interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties node, which
provides an interface for defining the phase materials along with the transporting
porous medium flow properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties, No Flux (the default
boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other
nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can
also right-click the Phase Transport in Porous Media node to select physics features from
the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is phtr.

PHASES
Select the volume fraction of the phase that this physics interface solves for using the
volume constraint in equation Equation 4-60 (that is, its value comes from the fact

THE PHASE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 149

 that the sum of all volume fractions must equal 1). In the From volume constraint list,
select the volume fraction of the preferred phase. By default, the first volume fraction
is used:

s1 = 1 –  si (4-60)
i=2

CONSISTENT AND INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION

To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Stabilization
in the Show More Options dialog box.

There are two consistent stabilization methods: Streamline diffusion and Crosswind
diffusion. Both check boxes for these methods are selected by default and should
remain selected for optimal performance. Consistent stabilization methods do not
perturb the original transport equation.

There is one inconsistent stabilization method: Isotropic diffusion. This method is

equivalent to adding a diffusion term to the equations in order to dampen the effect
of oscillations by making the system somewhat less dominated by convection. By
default, the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected because this type of
stabilization adds artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. If
required, select the Isotropic diffusion check box and enter a Tuning parameter as a scalar
positive value. The default value is 0.25. A higher value adds more isotropic diffusion.

GRAVITY EFFECTS
When the Include gravity check box is selected, a global Gravity feature is shown in the
interface model tree, and the gravitational force is added to the phase transport
equations in porous domains. For more information, see Gravity.

QUADRATURE SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

These settings affect the numerical integration, and you do not normally need to
change them. The Use automatic quadrature settings check box is selected by default,
meaning that the settings are taken from the main equation in the interface.

If the check box is cleared, the following setting become available:

150 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Integration Order
The Integration order specifies the desired accuracy of integration during
discretization. Polynomials of at most the given integration order are integrated
without systematic errors. For smooth constraints, a sufficient integration order is
typically twice the order of the shape function. For example, the default integration
order for linear elements is 2. The integration order is a positive integer.

The settings in this section currently only affect the integration order in the Phase and
Transport Properties and Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties domain features.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the volume fraction variables.
The default shape functions are Linear Lagrange.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show More Options button ( )
and select Advanced Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transport problems be set to Real which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
Add or remove volume fractions of different phases in the model and also change the
names of the dependent variables that represent the volume fractions.

Specify the Number of phases. There must be at least two phases. To add a single phase,
click the Add volume fraction button ( ) under the table. To remove a volume
fraction, select it in the list and click the Remove volume fraction button ( ) under
the table. Edit the names of the phases directly in the table.

The Phase Transport Interface

The Phase Transport (phtr) interface ( ), found under the Fluid Flow > Multiphase
Flow > Phase Transport branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to
simulate the transport of multiple immiscible phases either in free flow or in flow
through a porous medium. The interface is the same as the Phase Transport in Porous
Media interface but it uses other defaults: a Phase and Transport Properties node is
added by default, instead of a Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties node.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 151

 The Phase Transport interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main feature is the Phase and Transport Properties node, which provides an
interface for defining the phase materials along with the transporting properties.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Phase and Transport Properties, No Flux (the default boundary
condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that
implement, for example, boundary conditions and mass sources. You can also
right-click the Phase Transport node to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as for the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface.

Domain, Boundary, Edge, and Point Nodes for the Phase Transport
and Phase Transport in Porous Media Interfaces
The Phase Transport and Phase Transport in Porous Media interfaces have the following
domain, boundary, edge, and point nodes (listed in alphabetic order) available from
the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux
users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

• Gravity • Outflow
• Initial Values • Phase and Porous Media Transport
• Interior Wall Properties

• Mass Flux • Phase and Transport Properties

• Mass Source • Porous Medium Discontinuity

• No Flux • Volume Fraction

Phase and Transport Properties

For this node, the Turbulent Mixing subnode is available from the context menu as
well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

VELOCITY FIELD
Specify the velocity field for each phase that is not computed from the volume
constraint. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or

152 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a fluid flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the velocity
field list.

DENSITY
Enter the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) of each phase. The default value is 1000 kg/m3.

Turbulent Mixing
This subnode is available from the context menu (right-click the Phase and Transport
Properties parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. Use this
node to account for the turbulent mixing caused by the eddy diffusivity. An example
is when the specified velocity field corresponds to a RANS solution.

TURBULENT MIXING PARAMETERS

Some physics interfaces provide the turbulent kinematic viscosity, and these appear as
options in the Turbulent kinematic viscosity νT list. The list always contains the User
defined option where any value or expression can be entered.

The default Turbulent Schmidt number ScT is 0.71 (dimensionless).

FURTHER READING
See the section About Turbulent Mixing in the CFD Module User’s Guide (this link
is available online or if you have the CFD Module documentation installed).

Phase and Porous Media Transport Properties

Use this node to model the transport of multiple phases through a porous medium.
The node contains functionality to include the effects of the relative permeabilities and
capillary pressures.

MODEL INPUT
Enter the absolute pressure field (SI unit: Pa) for the phase that is computed from the
volume constraint. The volumetric flux of this phase is computed using Darcy’s law,
and in many cases that pressure field will be computed for in a Darcy’s Law interface,
coupled to the Phase Transport interface using a Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
multiphysics coupling node.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 153

 The volumetric fluxes of the other phases are also computed using Darcy’s law, taking
into account the relative permeabilities and capillary pressures.

CAPILLARY PRESSURE
Select a Capillary pressure model — User defined (the default), van Genuchten, or Brooks
and Corey. The latter two options are only available when there are not more than two
phases present in the model.

• For User defined, enter an expression for the Capillary pressure pc (SI unit: Pa) for
the phases that are not computed from the volume constraint. The pressure of the
corresponding phase is equal to the pressure of the phase computed from the
volume constraint (supplied in the Pressure input field) plus the capillary pressure
supplied for this phase.

• For van Genuchten, select the Wetting phase and enter an Entry capillary pressure pec
(SI unit: Pa), the Constitutive relations constant mvG (dimensionless), and
Constitutive relations constant lvG (dimensionless).
• For Brooks and Corey, select the Wetting phase and enter an Entry capillary pressure
pec (SI unit: Pa) and the Pore size distribution index λp (dimensionless).

PHASE PROPERTIES
Select the material to use for each phase. Select Domain material (the default) from the
Fluid list to use the material defined for the domain. Select another material to use that
material’s properties.

Enter the Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3), Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) and Relative
permeability κr (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) for each phase. The defaults
for the Density and Dynamic viscosity are From material, and User defined for the Relative
permeability. For User defined, the default values are 1000 kg/m3, 0.001 Pa·s. and s i2 ,
respectively.

The Relative permeability input fields are only available when the Capillary pressure
model is set to User defined. In the other cases (van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey) the
relative permeabilities are defined by the van Genuchten or Brooks and Corey model. For
the van Genuchten and Brooks and Corey model, specify the Residual saturation sri
(dimensionless, default value 0) for each phase.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Select the material to use as porous matrix. Select Domain material (the default) from
the Porous material list to use the material defined for the porous domain. Select
another material to use that material’s properties.

154 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The default Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses the value From
material, defined by the Porous material selected. For User defined the default is 0.5.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material selected. For User defined the default is the Isotropic scalar value of
1e-9 m2. To define a tensor value, select Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full, and enter values
or expressions in the matrix.

Gravity
The Gravity global feature is automatically added when Include gravity is selected at the
interface level in the Gravity Effects settings. It defines the gravity forces from the
Gravity vector value. Note that this feature only has an effect in porous domains.

GRAVITY
Enter the components of the Gravity vector g . The default value is g_const which is
the physical constant having the value 9.8066 m/s2.

• For 3D and 2D axisymmetric models, the default value is -g_const in the

z direction.
• For 2D models, the default value is -g_const in the y direction.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the volume fraction of each phase.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial condition for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression in the field for the volume fraction of each phase except for
the one computed from the volume constraint.

THE PHASE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 155

 Mass Source
In order to account for consumption or production of the different phases due to one
or more reactions or other physical processes, the Mass Source node adds source terms
to the right-hand side of the phase transport equations.

MASS SOURCE
Add an expression for the mass source for each individual phase present, except for the
one computed from the volume constraint. The net mass source of all phases together
is assumed to be zero, which means that the mass is transferred to or from the phase
that is computed from the volume constraint.

Select the Mass transfer to other phases check box if mass is transferred from or to
phases not accounted for in the phase transport interface, for instance when mass is
released or absorbed by the solid part of the porous matrix. In this case the mass source
for the phase calculated from the volume constraint should also be specified. The net
mass transfer corresponds to the sum of the mass sources for all phases and should be
accounted for in the computation of the flow field.

No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It represents
boundaries where no mass flows in or out of the boundaries. Hence, the total flux is
zero.

Volume Fraction
This node adds a boundary condition for the volume fractions of the different phases.
Set the volume fractions of all phases except the one computed from the volume
constraint. This ensures that the sum of the volume fractions is equal to one.

VOLUME FRACTION
Specify the volume fraction for each phase individually. Select the check box for the
phases to specify the volume fraction, and enter a value or expression in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific phase, click to
clear the check box for the volume fraction of that phase.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. You can find details about the

156 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

different constraint settings in the section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Mass Flux
The Mass Flux node can be used to specify the total mass flux of a phase across a
boundary. Set the mass flux for all phases except the one computed from the volume
constraint. This ensures that the sum of the volume fractions is equal to one.

For modeling mass flux from very thin objects add a Line Mass Source or a Point Mass
Source node.

The Line Mass Source node adds mass flow originating from a tube of infinitely small
radius. It is available for edges in 3D geometries or points in 2D and 2D axisymmetric
geometries.

The Point Mass Source node models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
sphere centered around a point. It is available for points in 3D geometries.

MASS FLUX
Specify the inward mass flux for each phase individually. Select the check box for the
phase to prescribe a mass flux and enter a value or expression for the flux in the
corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific phase, click to
clear the check box for the flux of that phase. Use a positive value for an inward flux.
The units are based on the geometric entity: Boundaries: (SI unit: kg/(m2·s)), Lines (SI
unit: kg/(m·s), and Points (SI unit: kg/s)).

Outflow
Set this condition at exterior boundaries where the phases are transported out of the
model domain by fluid motion. The outward mass flux for each phase is in this case set
to the normal outward phase velocity times the phase density.

Interior Wall
The Interior Wall boundary condition can only be applied on interior boundaries.

It is similar to the No Flux boundary available on exterior boundaries except that it

applies on both sides of an interior boundary. It allows discontinuities of the volume
fraction across the boundary. The Interior Wall boundary condition can be used to

THE PHASE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 157

 avoid meshing thin structures by applying a no-flux condition on interior curves and
surfaces instead.

Porous Medium Discontinuity

The Porous Medium Discontinuity boundary condition can only be applied on interior
boundaries, and only when on both sides of the boundary a Phase and Porous Media
Transport Properties domain condition is active. Set this condition at boundaries over
which the capillary pressure function is discontinuous in the phase saturations due to
the different properties of the porous matrix on both sides of the discontinuity.

POROUS MEDIUM DISCONTINUITY SETTINGS

This section is only available when only two phases are present in the physics interface.
Select the check box to use automatic settings in this case.

ENTRY CAPILLARY PRESSURE

This section is only available if the automatic settings are not used for the Porous
Medium Discontinuity Settings, or when the Porous Medium Discontinuity Settings section
is not available, which is the case if there are three or more phases present.

Specify on which side of the discontinuity the lower permeable medium is located
using the settings for the of the Location of lower permeable medium.

Specify the Entry capillary pressure pec (SI unit: Pa) for all phases, except the one
computed from the volume constraint. Make sure the values correspond to the settings
for the capillary pressure model in the adjacent domain conditions.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. You can find details about the
different constraint settings in the section Constraint Reaction Terms in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Continuity
The Continuity condition is suitable for pairs where the boundaries match; it prescribes
that the volume fraction for each phase is continuous across the pair.

A No Flux subnode is added by default and it applies to the parts of the pair boundaries
where a source boundary lacks a corresponding destination boundary and vice versa.

158 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The No Flux feature can be overridden by any other boundary condition that applies to
exterior boundaries. By right-clicking the Continuity node, additional Fallback feature
subnodes can be added.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. The Constraints settings can be set
to Use pointwise constraints (default) or to Use DG constraints. DG constraints should
not be used on pairs that are adjacent to a porous domain. DG constraints are
recommended on pairs adjacent to a Phase and Transport Properties feature, especially
when the mesh nodes do not match across the pair or when the mesh is sliding.

Depending on the constraint method selected, the following settings are available:

• Apply reaction terms on can be set to Individual dependent variables (default) or All
physics (symmetric). This setting is not available when Use DG constraints is selected.
• Select Elemental (default) or Nodal under Constraint method. This setting is available
for Use pointwise constraints.

LOCATION IN USER INTERFACE

Right click the physics interface and select Pairs>Continuity

Ribbon
Physics tab with the physics interface selected:

Pairs>Continuity

THE PHASE TRANSPORT IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 159

 Theory for the Fracture Flow
Interface
The Fracture Flow Interface theory is described in this section:

• About Fracture Flow

• Equations and Inputs

About Fracture Flow

The Fracture Flow interface uses tangential derivatives to define the flow along the
interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous (or solid) block. Use this
physics interface on boundaries in 3D, 2D, and axisymmetric geometries.

Fracture Flow is also available as a boundary condition in the Darcy’s Law

and Richards’ Equation interfaces.

The physics interface uses the tangential version of Darcy’s law:

κf
q f = – ----- d f ( ∇Tp + ρ g ∇TD ) (4-61)
μ

Here, qf is the volume flow rate per unit length in the fracture, κf is the fracture’s
permeability, μ is the fluid dynamic viscosity, df is the aperture or fracture thickness,
∇T denotes the gradient operator restricted to the fracture’s tangential plane, p is the
pressure, ρ is the fluid density, g is the acceleration of gravity, and D represents the
vertical coordinate.

Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include
gravity to activate the acceleration of gravity. Setting the elevation D to
zero also turns off gravity effects.

The variable qf gives the volume flow rate per unit length of the fracture. The mean
fluid velocity within the fracture is uf = qf/df.

160 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

It is also possible to use the hydraulic conductivity of the fracture, Kf (SI unit: m/s),
to define the capacity to transmit flow instead of using the fracture’s permeability κf
and fluid viscosity μ. These quantities are related by

κf K
----- = -------f
μ ρg

The hydraulic conductivity represents properties of both fluid and porous matrix. If
the model is defined using the hydraulic conductivity, Equation 4-61 changes to

Kf
q f = – ------ d f ( ∇Tp + ρ g ∇TD ) (4-62)
ρg

The Cubic law equation describes the permeability of the fracture from the aperture
or fracture’s thickness df and the roughness factor ff

d f2
κ f = ----------
12f f

If the model is defined using the Cubic law equation, the expression for flow rate per
unit length in the fracture in Equation 4-61 changes to

d f3
q f = – -------------- ( ∇Tp + ρ g ∇TD ) (4-63)
12μf f

Together with the material properties, Equation 4-61 above, in combination with the
continuity equation integrated over the fracture cross section, produces a single
equation for the pressure.

∂ ε
df ( ρ ) + ∇ T ⋅ ( ρq f ) = d f Q m (4-64)
∂t f

where εf is the fracture porosity, and Qm is the mass source term (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)).
The aperture or fracture thickness df can vary along the fracture and therefore appears
on both sides of the equation.

The physics interface solves for the same dependent variable as for the equation in the
porous medium, the pressure p.

Equations and Inputs

Two material models are supported: Fluid and Fracture Properties and the Storage
Model.

THEORY FOR THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 161

 FLUID AND FRACTURE PROPERTIES
This is the default setting of the Fracture Flow interface, and implements the fracture
flow as described in Equation 4-64. The values for the fluid properties (density and
dynamic viscosity) can be taken from the material node or be defined by an arbitrary
expression. The same can be done for the fracture’s properties, such as porosity and
permeability. Enter the fracture’s thickness in the corresponding field.

STORAGE MODEL
The governing equation takes the slightly different form, compared to Equation 4-64:

∂p
ρS f d f ------ – ∇ T ⋅ ( ρq f ) = d f Q m
∂t

where Sf is the fracture storage coefficient (SI unit: 1/Pa).

In contrast to the Darcy’s Law and Richards’ Equation interfaces, the storage
coefficient is always a user-defined expression in the Fracture Flow interface.

162 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Fracture Flow Interface
The Fracture Flow (esff) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and Subsurface
Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to simulate flow along
interior boundaries representing fractures within a porous or solid medium. The
physics interface uses a variant of Darcy’s law and can be used for stationary and
time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Fluid and Fracture Properties, No Flow (the default boundary condition), and
Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, mass sources and conditions on edges or points. You can also right-click
Fracture Flow to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is esff.

PHYSICAL MODEL
Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

GRAVITY EFFECTS
Gravity effects are not active by default. Select the check box Include gravity to activate
the acceleration of gravity.

Under Acceleration of gravity enter the value for the acceleration of gravity g
(SI unit: m/s2). The default value is the predefined constant g_const.

DISCRETIZATION
You can choose the order of the shape functions used for the pressure variable solved
by the Fracture Flow interface. The default shape functions are Quadratic Lagrange.

THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 163

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable (field variable) is for the Pressure. The name can be changed
but the names of fields and dependent variables must be unique within a model.

To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

• Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture Flow
Interface
• Theory for the Fracture Flow Interface
• Physical Constants in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual

Domain, Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Fracture
Flow Interface
The Fracture Flow Interface has the domain, boundary, edge, point, and pair nodes
available from the Physics ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac
or Linux users), or right-click to access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

DOMAIN
• Fluid and Fracture Properties
• Aperture
• Initial Values
• Mass Source
• Storage Model
• Gravity
• Thickness

Storage Model and Mass Source are described for the Darcy’s Law interface
and are applied to boundaries instead of domains.

164 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
The boundary conditions for this physics interface are similar to the boundary
conditions for The Darcy’s Law Interface but are applied to edges in 3D and points in
2D. Edges and points form the “boundaries” of the geometries where the Fracture
Flow interface is defined, which are faces in 3D and boundaries in 2D.

In the descriptions for these nodes, replace the Boundary Selection section
with the Edge Selection (3D) or Point Selection (2D) section when using
the Fracture Flow interface.

The following nodes are available on exterior boundaries (edges and points) and
described for The Darcy’s Law Interface:

• Pressure • Mass Flux

• Pressure Head • Symmetry
• Hydraulic Head • No Flow (the default)
• Inlet • Atmosphere/Gauge
• Outlet • Pervious Layer

Note that some of the boundary conditions mentioned above are only available for
certain modules. For detailed information see
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

The relevant physics interface condition at interior edges is continuity. In addition, the
following edge conditions are available on interior edges:

• Pressure
• Pervious Layer

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 165

 Fluid and Fracture Properties
The Fluid and Fracture Properties node adds Equation 4-3 (excluding any mass sources)
on the selected boundary for the pressure and provides an interface for defining the
fluid material and its properties, including the effective porosity.

All the nodes are the same as with the Darcy’s Law interface (see Fluid
and Matrix Properties) except where indicated.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on Fluid
material selected. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is 0
kg/m3.

The default Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the
Fluid material selected. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default
is 0 Pa·s.

If Hydraulic conductivity is selected as the Permeability model (see the

Matrix Properties section), dynamic viscosity is not available. The
hydraulic conductivity is defined using a combination of fluid and matrix
properties and replaces the need of defining the dynamic viscosity.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
The default Porous material uses the Boundary material (the material defined for the
fracture domain) for the fracture. Select another material as needed.

Porosity
The default Porosity in the fracture εf (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses
values From material based on the Porous material selected. For User defined enter
another value or expression. The default is 0.

Permeability Model
Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow: Permeability to define the permeability of the fracture, Hydraulic conductivity,

166 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

which is a combination of permeability and the dynamic viscosity of water, or Cubic law
to define the permeability as a function of the fracture’s aperture.

• For Permeability κf (SI unit: m2) the default uses values From material as defined by
the Porous material selected. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value
or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enter a tensor value.
• For Hydraulic conductivity K (SI unit: m/s) enter a value or expression and select
Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full to enter a tensor
value.
• For Cubic law enter a value or expression for the Roughness factor ff.

Aperture
The default node to specify the fracture’s aperture. Enter a value or expression for the
Aperture df (SI unit: m). The default is 1 mm.

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds an initial value for the pressure, pressure head, or hydraulic
head pressure that can serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an
initial guess for a nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
• Select the Pressure (the default) button to enter a value or expression for the initial
value of the pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default is 0 Pa.
• Select Pressure head to enter a value or expression for Hp (SI unit: m).
• Select Hydraulic head to enter a value or expression for H (SI unit: m).

THE FRACTURE FLOW INTERFACE | 167

 Theory for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface theory is described in this section:

• About the Brinkman Equations

• Brinkman Equations Theory
• References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

About the Brinkman Equations

The Brinkman equations describe fast-moving fluids in porous media with the kinetic
potential from fluid velocity, pressure, and gravity to drive the flow. These equations
extend Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the kinetic energy by viscous shear as
with the Navier-Stokes equations. Consequently, this physics interface well suits
transitions between slow flow in porous media governed by Darcy’s law and fast flow
in channels described by the Navier-Stokes equations. Interesting uses of a Brinkman
and Navier-Stokes coupling include modeling of the hyporheic zone near a river, the
flow of oil through a reservoir to a well perforation, and non-Newtonian flows.

In porous domains, the flow variables and fluid properties are defined at any point
inside the medium by means of averaging of the actual variables and properties over a
certain volume surrounding the point. This control volume must be small compared
to the typical macroscopic dimensions of the problem, but it must be large enough to
contain many pores and solid matrix elements.

Porosity is defined as the fraction of the control volume that is occupied by pores.
Thus, the porosity can vary from zero for pure solid regions to unity for domains of
free flow.

The physical properties of the fluid, such as density and viscosity, are defined as
intrinsic volume averages that correspond to a unit volume of the pores. Defined this
way, they present the relevant physical parameters that can be measured experimentally,
and they are assumed to be continuous with the corresponding parameters in the
adjacent free flow.

The flow velocity is defined as a superficial volume average, and it corresponds to a

unit volume of the medium including both the pores and the matrix. It is sometimes

168 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

called the Darcy velocity, defined as the volume flow rate per unit cross section of the
medium. Such a definition makes the velocity field continuous across the boundaries
between porous regions and regions of free flow.

Brinkman Equations Theory

The dependent variables in the Brinkman equations are the Darcy velocity and the
pressure. The flow in porous media is governed by a combination of the continuity
equation and the momentum equation, which together form the Brinkman equations:

∂ ε
( ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q m (4-65)
∂t p

-----  ∂u + ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----
ρ u-
=
εp  ∂ t ε p
(4-66)
1  T 2   –1 Q m
– ∇ p + ∇ ⋅ -----  μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ μ + --------u + F
εp  3   ε p2 

In these equations:

• μ (SI unit: kg/(m·s)) is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid

• u (SI unit: m/s) is the velocity vector
• ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) is the density of the fluid
• p (SI unit: Pa) is the pressure
• εp is the porosity
• κ (SI unit: m2) is the permeability of the porous medium, and
• Qm (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)) is a mass source or sink

Influence of gravity and other volume forces can be accounted for via the force term
F (SI unit: kg/(m2·s2)).

When the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box is selected, the term
(u · ∇)(u/εp) on the left-hand side of Equation 4-66 is disabled.

The mass source, Qm, accounts for mass deposit and mass creation within the domains.
The mass exchange is assumed to occur at zero velocity.

The Forchheimer and Ergun drag options add a viscous force proportional to the
square of the fluid velocity, F = −ρβ|u|u, on the right-hand side of Equation 4-66; see
Permeability Models and Non-Darcian Flow for details.

THEORY FOR THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 169

 In case of a flow with variable density, Equation 4-65 and Equation 4-66 must be
solved together with the equation of state that relates the density to the temperature
and pressure (for instance the ideal gas law).

For incompressible flow, the density stays constant in any fluid particle, which can be
expressed as

∂ ε
( ρ ) + u ⋅ ∇ρ = 0
∂t p

and the continuity equation (Equation 4-65) reduces to

ρ∇ ⋅ u = Q m

References for the Brinkman Equations Interface

1. D. Nield and A. Bejan, Convection in Porous Media, 3rd ed., Springer, 2006.

2. M. Le Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

170 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

The Brinkman Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations (br) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute fluid
velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow in porous media in the laminar flow
regime. The physics interface extends Darcy’s law to describe the dissipation of the
kinetic energy by viscous shear, similar to the Navier-Stokes equations. Fluids with
varying density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a
fluid can vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids. To simplify the
equations, select the Stokes-Brinkman flow feature to reduce the dependence on
inertial effects when the Reynolds number is significantly less than 1. The physics
interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

The main node is the Fluid and Matrix Properties feature, which adds the Brinkman
equations and provides an interface for defining the fluid material and the porous
matrix.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid and Matrix Properties, Wall (the default boundary type, using No
slip as the default boundary condition), and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for example, boundary conditions and
volume forces. You can also right-click Brinkman Equations to select physics features
from the context menu.

The boundary conditions are essentially the same as for the Laminar Flow interface.
Differences exist for the following boundary types: Outlet, Symmetry, Open
Boundary, and Boundary Stress where the viscous part of the stress is divided by the
porosity to appear as

1-  T 2 
---- μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – --- μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I 
ε p  3 

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links to common
sections such as Discretization, Consistent Stabilization, and Inconsistent Stabilization,
and Advanced Settings sections, all accessed by clicking the Show button ( ) and
choosing the applicable option. You can also search for information: press F1 to open
the Help window or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 171

 SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is br.

PHYSICAL MODEL
This node specifies the properties of the Brinkman Equations interface, which describe
the overall type of fluid flow model.

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the
Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. Alternatively, select Compressible
flow (Ma<0.3) from the Compressibility list if there are small variations in the density,
typically dependent on the temperature (nonisothermal flow). For compressible flow
modeled with the Brinkman Equations interface, the Mach number must be below
0.3.

Neglect Inertial Term (Stokes-Brinkman Flow)

The Neglect inertial term (Stokes-Brinkman) check box is selected by default to model
flow at low Reynolds numbers for which the inertial term can be neglected. This results
in the linear Stokes-Brinkman equations.

Enable porous media domains

The Enable porous media domains check box is selected by default to solve Brinkman
equations in porous domains.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

172 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show More Options button ( ) and select Advanced
Physics Options in the Show More Options dialog box. Normally these settings do not
need to be changed.

The Use pseudo time stepping for stationary equation form option adds pseudo time
derivatives to the equation when the Stationary equation form is used in order to speed
up convergence. When selected, a CFL number expression should also be defined. For
the default Automatic option, the local CFL number (from the Courant–Friedrichs–
Lewy condition) is determined by a PID regulator.

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman Equations
Interface
• Theory for the Brinkman Equations Interface

• Pseudo Time Stepping for Laminar Flow Models and Pseudo Time
Stepping in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
• Numerical Stability — Stabilization Techniques for Fluid Flow
• Discontinuous Galerkin Formulation

Free Convection in a Porous Medium: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Heat_Transfer/convection_porous_medium

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Brinkman

Equations Interface
The Brinkman Equations Interface has the following domain, boundary, point, and
pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to access
the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 173

 These nodes are described in this section:

• Fluid and Matrix Properties • Volume Force

• Initial Values • Fluid Properties
• Mass Source

The following nodes(listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface :

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition

• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Boundary Stress • Symmetry
• Outlet • Wall
• Open Boundary

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid and Matrix Properties

The Fluid and Matrix Properties node adds the Brinkman equations: Equation 4-65 and
Equation 4-66 (excluding any mass sources), and provides an interface for defining the
properties of the fluid material and the porous matrix.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material. Select another material as needed.

Both the default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) and Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) use
values From material based on the Fluid material selection. For User defined enter
another value or expression. In this case, the default is 0 kg/m3 for the density and
0 Pa·s for the dynamic viscosity. The dynamic viscosity describes the relationship
between the shear stresses and the shear rate in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have

174 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

a low viscosity, and substances often described as thick, such as oil, have a higher
viscosity. Non-Newtonian fluids have a viscosity that is shear-rate dependent. Examples
of non-Newtonian fluids include yogurt, paper pulp, and polymer suspensions.

POROUS MATRIX PROPERTIES

The default Porous material uses the Domain material for the porous matrix. Select
another material as needed.

The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material as defined by the Porous material selection. For User defined the default
is 0.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow — Permeability to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix,
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter, or Non-Darcian in cases when Darcy’s linear relation between pressure drop
and velocity is no longer valid due to turbulence or inertial effects. The Non-Darcian
Flow option includes different models, some of them are only available for certain
modules. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product, visit
http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the
field or matrix.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

For Non-Darcian, choose a Non-Darcian flow model from the selection list. The available
options, depending on the modules licensed, are Forchheimer or Ergun.

For Forchheimer, the default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material,
as defined by the Porous material list. Furthermore, the dimensionless Forchheimer
parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 4-10.

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 175

 Mass Source
The Mass Source node adds a mass source (or mass sink) Qm to the right-hand side of
the continuity equation: Equation 4-65. This term accounts for mass deposit and/or
mass creation in porous domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass
exchange occurs at zero velocity.

∂ ( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρu ) = Q
(4-67)
∂t p m

DOMAIN SELECTION
Only Porous Matrix domains are available.

MASS SOURCE
Enter a value or expression for the Source term Qbr (SI unit: kg/(m3·s)). The default
is 0 kg/(m3·s).

Volume Force
Use the Volume Force node to specify the force F on the right-hand side of
Equation 4-66. It then acts on each fluid element in the specified domains. A common
application is to include gravity effects.

ρ-  ∂u
+ ( u ⋅ ∇ ) ----- =
u
----
εp  ∂ t εp
(4-68)
1 T 2   –1 Q m
–∇ p + ∇ ⋅ ----
- --
- --------
μ ( ∇u + ( ∇u ) ) – μ ( ∇ ⋅ u )I  –  κ μ + 2  u + F
ε p  3   εp 

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

176 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and the Pressure
p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Fluid Properties
The Fluid Properties node adds the momentum and continuity equations to solve for
free flow in nonporous domains. The node also provides an interface for defining the
material properties of the fluid.

MODEL INPUTS
Fluid properties, such as density and viscosity, can be defined through user inputs,
variables or by selecting a material. For the latter option, additional inputs — for
example, temperature or pressure — may be required to define these properties.

Temperature
By default, the single-phase flow interfaces are set to model isothermal flow. Hence,
the Temperature is User defined and defaults to 293.15 K. If a Heat Transfer interface
is included in the component, the temperature may alternatively be selected from this
physics interface. All physics interfaces have their own tags (Name). For example, if a
Heat Transfer in Fluids interface is included in the component, the Temperature (ht)
option is available.

Absolute Pressure
This input appears when a material requires the absolute pressure as a model input.
The absolute pressure is used to evaluate material properties, but it also relates to the
value of the calculated pressure field. There are generally two ways to calculate the
pressure when describing fluid flow: either to solve for the absolute pressure or for a
pressure (often denoted gauge pressure) that relates to the absolute pressure through
a reference pressure.

The choice of pressure variable depends on the system of equations being solved. For
example, in a unidirectional incompressible flow problem, the pressure drop over the
modeled domain is probably many orders of magnitude smaller than the atmospheric
pressure, which, when included, may reduce the stability and convergence properties
of the solver. In other cases, such as when the pressure is part of an expression for the
gas volume or the diffusion coefficients, it may be more convenient to solve for the
absolute pressure.

The default Absolute pressure pA is p+pref where p is the dependent pressure variable
from the Navier-Stokes equations, and pref is from the user input defined at the physics

THE BRINKMAN EQUATIONS INTERFACE | 177

 interface level. When pref is nonzero, the physics interface solves for a gauge pressure.
If the pressure field instead is an absolute pressure field, pref should be set to 0.

The Absolute pressure field can be edited by clicking Make All Model Inputs Editable
( ) and entering the desired value in the input field.

FLUID PROPERTIES
If density variations with respect to pressure are to be included in the computations,
the flow must be set to compressible.

The Dynamic viscosity μ describes the relationship between the shear rate and the shear
stresses in a fluid. Intuitively, water and air have low viscosities, and substances often
described as thick (such as oil) have higher viscosities.

178 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Theory for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface uses the Navier-Stokes equations to
describe the flow in open regions, and the Brinkman equations to describe the flow in
porous regions.

The same fields, u and p, are solved for in both the free flow domains and in the porous
domains. This means that the pressure in the free fluid and the pressure in the pores is
continuous over the interface between a free flow domain and a porous domain. It also
means that continuity is enforced between the fluid velocity in the free flow and the
Darcy velocity in the porous domain. This treatment is one of several possible models
for the physics at the interface. Examples of other models can be found in Ref. 1.

The continuity in u and p implies a stress discontinuity at the interface between a

free-flow domain and a porous domain. The difference corresponds to the stress
absorbed by the rigid porous matrix, which is a consequence implicit in the
formulations of the Navier-Stokes and Brinkman equations.

Reference for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

1. M.L. Bars and M.G. Worster, “Interfacial Conditions Between a Pure Fluid and a
Porous Medium: Implications for Binary Alloy Solidification,” J. Fluid Mech.,
vol. 550, pp. 149–173, 2006.

THEORY FOR THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 179
 The Free and Porous Media Flow
Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow (fp) interface ( ), found under the Porous Media and
Subsurface Flow branch ( ) when adding a physics interface, is used to compute fluid
velocity and pressure fields of single-phase flow where free flow is connected to porous
media. The Free and Porous Media Flow interface is used over at least two different
domains: a free channel and a porous medium. The physics interface is well suited for
transitions between slow flow in porous media, governed by the Brinkman equations,
and fast flow in channels described by the Navier-Stokes equations. Fluids with varying
density can be included at Mach numbers below 0.3. Also the viscosity of a fluid can
vary, for example, to describe non-Newtonian fluids. The physics interface can be used
for stationary and time-dependent analyses.

When this physics interface is added, the following default nodes are also added in the
Model Builder — Fluid Properties, Wall, and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics
toolbar, add a Fluid and Matrix Properties node to be used on the domain selection
corresponding to the porous media, or add other nodes that implement, for example,
boundary conditions and volume forces. You can also right-click Free and Porous Media
Flow to select physics features from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is fp.

PHYSICAL MODEL

Compressibility
By default the physics interface uses the Incompressible flow formulation of the
Navier-Stokes and Brinkman equations to model constant density flow. If required,
select Compressible flow (Ma<0.3) from the Compressibility list, to account for small

180 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

variations in the density, typically dependent on the temperature (nonisothermal flow).
For compressible flow modeled with this physics interface, the Mach number must be
below 0.3.

Neglect Inertial Term

Select the Neglect inertial term (Stokes flow) check box if the inertial forces are small
compared to the viscous forces.

Reference Pressure Level

Enter a Reference pressure level pref (SI unit: Pa). The default value is 1[atm].

Reference Temperature
Enter a Reference temperature Tref (SI unit: K). The default value is 293.15[K].

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The following dependent variables (fields) are defined for this physics interface — the
Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and its components, and the Pressure p (SI unit: Pa).

• Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface
• Theory for the Free and Porous Media Flow Interface

Forchheimer Flow: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Fluid_Flow/forchheimer_flow

Domain, Boundary, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Free and Porous
Media Flow Interface
The Free and Porous Media Flow Interface has the following domain, boundary,
point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon
toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or right-click to
access the context menu (all users).

In general, to add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what

operating system you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the
parent node and selecting it from the Attributes menu.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 181

 • Fluid Properties • Fluid and Matrix Properties
• Initial Values • Mass Source
• Mass Source • Volume Force
• Wall

The following nodes (listed in alphabetical order) are described for the Laminar Flow
interface:

• No Viscous Stress • Open Boundary

• Flow Continuity • Periodic Flow Condition
• Inlet • Point Mass Source
• Line Mass Source • Pressure Point Constraint
• Outlet • Symmetry

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 to common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Fluid Properties
Use the Fluid Properties node to define the fluid material, density, and dynamic
viscosity.

FLUID PROPERTIES
The default Fluid material uses the Domain material (the material defined for the
domain). Select another material as needed.

The default Density ρ (SI unit: kg/m3) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 kg/m3.

The Dynamic viscosity μ (SI unit: Pa·s) uses values From material based on the Fluid
material selection. For User defined enter another value or expression. The default is
0 Pa·s.

182 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

Fluid and Matrix Properties
Use the Fluid and Matrix Properties node to define which domains contain porous
material and to define the porous matrix properties, such as the porosity and
permeability in these domains.

DOMAIN SELECTION
Choose domains from the Selection list, to solve for porous media flow governed by
the Brinkman equations. In the domains not selected, the Free and Porous Media Flow
interface solves for laminar flow governed by the Navier-Stokes (or Stokes) equations.

POROUS MATRIX PROPERTIES

The default Porous material uses the Domain material for the porous matrix. Select
another material as needed.

The Porosity εp (a dimensionless number between 0 and 1) uses by default the value
From material as defined by the Porous material selection. For User defined the default
is 0.

In this node you specify the porosity εp, whereas in other nodes the
volume fraction of solid material θp = 1 − εp is required instead. See
Porous Medium in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide for an
example.

Select a Permeability model to specify the capacity of the porous material to transmit
flow — Permeability to directly enter the permeability of the porous matrix,
Kozeny-Carman to define the permeability from the porosity and mean particle
diameter, or Non-Darcian in cases when Darcy’s linear relation between pressure drop
and velocity is no longer valid due to turbulence or inertial effects. The Non-Darcian
Flow option is only available for the Subsurface Flow Module and the Porous Media
Flow Module. For a detailed overview of the functionality available in each product,
visit http://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

The default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material, as defined by the
Porous material list. For User defined select Isotropic to define a scalar value or Diagonal,
Symmetric, or Full to define a tensor value and enter another value or expression in the
field or matrix.

For Kozeny-Carman, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (SI unit: m), the default value
is 0.5 mm.

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 183

 For Non-Darcian, choose a Non-Darcian flow model from the selection list. The available
options, depend on the modules licensed, are Forchheimer or Ergun.

For Forchheimer, the default Permeability κ (SI unit: m2) uses the value From material,
as defined by the Porous material list. Furthermore, the dimensionless Forchheimer
parameter cF can be defined. The default value is 0.55.

If Ergun is selected, enter the mean Particle diameter dp (default value: 0.5 mm). The
permeability κ is then calculated using Equation 4-10.

Mass Source
Enter a value or expression for an optional mass source (or sink) Source term Qm (SI
unit: kg/(m3·s)). This term accounts for mass deposit or mass creation within porous
domains. The physics interface assumes that the mass exchange occurs at zero velocity.

Volume Force
The Volume Force node specifies the force F on the right-hand side of the
Navier-Stokes or Brinkman equations, depending on whether the Porous Matrix
Properties node is active for the domain. Use it, for example, to incorporate the effects
of gravity in a model.

VOLUME FORCE
Enter the components of the Volume force F (SI unit: N/m3).

Initial Values
The Initial Values node adds initial values for the velocity field and the pressure that can
serve as an initial condition for a transient simulation or as an initial guess for a
nonlinear solver.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter initial values or expressions for the Velocity field u (SI unit: m/s) and for the
Pressure p (SI unit: Pa). The default values are 0 m/s and 0 Pa, respectively.

Wall
The Wall node includes a set of boundary conditions describing fluid-flow conditions
at stationary, moving, and leaking walls.

184 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITION
Select a Boundary condition for the wall.

• No Slip1 • Leaking Wall

• Slip

No Slip
No slip is the default boundary condition for a stationary solid wall for laminar flow
(and SST, Low Re k-ε, Algebraic yPlus, L-VEL, and Spalart-Allmaras turbulence
models). The condition prescribes u = 0; that is, the fluid at the wall is not moving.

Slip
The Slip option prescribes a no-penetration condition, u·n=0. It is implicitly assumed
that there are no viscous effects at the slip wall and hence, no boundary layer develops.
From a modeling point of view, this can be a reasonable approximation if the main
effect of the wall is to prevent fluid from leaving the domain.

Leaking Wall
This boundary condition may be used to simulate a wall where fluid is leaking into or
leaving the domain with the velocity u = ul through a perforated wall. The
components of the Fluid velocity ul on the leaking wall should be specified.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
This section is displayed by clicking the Show button ( ) and selecting Advanced
Physics Options.

• Theory for the Wall Boundary Condition

• The Moving Mesh Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual

THE FREE AND POROUS MEDIA FLOW INTERFACE | 185

186 | CHAPTER 4: POROUS MEDIA AND SUBSURFACE FLOW INTERFACES
 5

Chemical Species Transport Interfaces

This chapter describes the physics interfaces found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ). It summarizes the physics interfaces including the different
fields, material properties, and boundary conditions associated with them, and
suggests how and when to apply the conditions.

In this chapter:

• The Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface
• The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface
• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface is also available under the Chemical
Species Transport branch. It is described in the chapter Multiphysics Interfaces and
Couplings.

187
 T he T r a ns po r t of D i l u t ed Sp eci es
Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species (tds) interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species
Transport branch ( ), is used to calculate the concentration field of a dilute solute in
a solvent. Transport and reactions of the species dissolved in a gas, liquid, or solid can
be handled with this interface. The driving forces for transport can be diffusion by
Fick’s law, convection when coupled to a flow field, and migration, when coupled to
an electric field.

The interface supports simulation of transport by convection and diffusion in 1D, 2D,
and 3D as well as for axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D. The dependent variable
is the molar concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby
the physics interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is tds.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If any part of the model geometry should not partake in the mass transfer model,
remove that part from the selection list.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Mass transport due to diffusion is always included. Use the check boxes available under
Additional transport mechanisms to control other transport mechanisms.

188 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Note: Some of the additional transport mechanisms listed below are only available in
certain products. For details see https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

• By default, the Convection check box is selected. Clear the check box to disable
convective transport.
• Select the Migration in electric field check box to activate transport of ionic species in
an electric field. See further the theory section Adding Transport Through
Migration.

Transport of ionic species in an electric field is available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Mass Transport in Porous Media

The Mass transport in porous media check box activates functionality specific to species
transport in porous media. When selected, the following transport mechanisms are
available:

• Select the Dispersion in porous media check box to activate the dispersion mechanism
in porous media. See further Dispersion in the theory chapter.
• Select the Volatilization in partially saturated porous media check box to model
volatilization in partially saturated domains. For more information see Theory for
the Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

The following features are also enabled when selecting the Mass transport in porous
media check box:

• Adsorption
• Fracture
• Partially Saturated Porous Media
• Porous Electrode Coupling
• Porous Media Transport Properties

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 189

 • Reactive Pellet Bed
• Species Source

Note: Mass transport in porous media is only available in a limited set of

add-on products. See
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina. This option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. It defaults to 0.1[mol/m^3)/tds.helem, where tds.helem
is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods, select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

ADVANCED SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
Normally these settings do not need to be changed. Select a Convective term —
Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The conservative formulation

190 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

should be used for compressible flow. See Convective Term Formulation for more
information.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

The Compute boundary fluxes check box is activated by default so that COMSOL
Multiphysics computes predefined accurate boundary flux variables. When this option
is checked, the solver computes variables storing accurate boundary fluxes from each
boundary into the adjacent domain.

If the check box is cleared, the COMSOL Multiphysics software instead computes the
flux variables from the dependent variables using extrapolation, which is less accurate
in postprocessing results but does not create extra dependent variables on the
boundaries for the fluxes.

The flux variables affected in the interface are:

• ndflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal diffusive flux and corresponds to the boundary flux when diffusion is the
only contribution to the flux term.
• ntflux_c (where c is the dependent variable for the concentration). This is the
normal total flux and corresponds to the boundary flux plus additional transport
terms, for example, the convective flux when you use the nonconservative form.

Also the Apply smoothing to boundary fluxes check box is available if the previous check
box is checked. The smoothing can provide a more well-behaved flux value close to
singularities.

For details about the boundary fluxes settings, see Computing Accurate Fluxes in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 191

 DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is the Concentration c by default. The names must be
unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

FURTHER READING

• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

• Effective Diffusivity in Porous Materials: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Diffusion/effective_diffusivity
• Micromixer: Application Library path
COMSOL_Multiphysics/Fluid_Dynamics/micromixer

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media Interface

This interface ( ), found under the Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used
to calculate the species concentration and transport in free and porous media. The
interface is the same as the Transport of Diluted Species interface but it uses other
defaults: The Mass Transport in Porous Media property is selected, and a Porous
Media Transport Properties node is added by default. The interface includes reaction
rate expressions and solute sources for modeling of species transport and reaction in
porous media.

This interface is dedicated to modeling transport in porous media, including immobile

and mobile phases, where the chemical species may be subjected to diffusion,
convection, migration, dispersion, adsorption, and volatilization in porous media. It

192 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

supports cases where either the solid phase substrate is exclusively immobile, or when
a gas-filling medium is also assumed to be immobile.

It applies to one or more diluted species or solutes that move primarily within a fluid
that fills (saturated) or partially fills (unsaturated) the voids in a solid porous medium.
The pore space not filled with fluid contains an immobile gas phase. Models including
a combination of porous media types can be studied.

The main feature nodes are the Porous Media Transport Properties and Partially
Saturated Porous Media nodes, which add the equations for the species concentrations
and provide an interface for defining the properties of the porous media, as well as
additional properties governing adsorption, volatilization, dispersion and diffusion,
migration, and the velocity field to model convection.

The physics interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis.

When this physics interface is added, these default nodes are also added to the Model
Builder — Porous Media Transport Properties, No Flux (the default boundary condition),
and Initial Values. Then, from the Physics toolbar, add other nodes that implement, for
example, boundary conditions, reaction rate expressions, and species sources. You can
also right-click Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media to select physics features
from the context menu.

SETTINGS
The rest of the settings are the same as The Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

FURTHER READING

• Theory for the Transport of Diluted Species Interface

• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface

• Variably Saturated Flow and Transport — Sorbing Solute:

Application Library path
Subsurface_Flow_Module/Solute_Transport/sorbing_solute
Web link:
https://www.comsol.com/model/variably-saturated-flow-and-transp
ort-sorbing-solute-490

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 193

 Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface has the following domain, boundary, and
pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics ribbon toolbar
(Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by right-clicking to
access the context menu (all users).

To add a node, go to the Physics toolbar, no matter what operating system

you are using. Subnodes are available by clicking the parent node and
selecting it from the Attributes menu.

• Adsorption • Periodic Condition

• Concentration • Point Mass Source
• Electrode Surface Coupling • Porous Electrode Coupling
• Equilibrium Reaction • Porous Media Transport Properties
• Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction • Reaction Coefficients
• Flux • Reactions
• Flux Discontinuity • Reactive Pellet Bed
• Fracture • Species Source
• Inflow • Surface Reactions
• Initial Values • Surface Equilibrium Reaction
• Line Mass Source • Symmetry
• Mass-Based Concentrations • Thin Diffusion Barrier
• No Flux • Thin Impermeable Barrier
• Open Boundary • Transport Properties
• Outflow • Turbulent Mixing
• Partially Saturated Porous Media • Volatilization
• Partition Condition

Some features require certain add-on modules. For details see

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

194 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 For axisymmetric components, COMSOL Multiphysics takes the axial
symmetry boundaries (at r = 0) into account and automatically adds an
Axial Symmetry node that is valid on boundaries representing the
symmetry axis.

In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for links
to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes. You can
also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window or Ctrl+F1
to open the Documentation window.

Transport Properties
The settings in this node are dependent on the check boxes selected under Transport
Mechanisms on the Settings window for the Transport of Diluted Species interface. It
includes only the sections required by the activated transport mechanisms. It has all the
equations defining transport of diluted species as well as inputs for the material
properties.

When the Convection check box is selected, the Turbulent Mixing subnode is available
from the context menu as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 195

 DIFFUSION
Select an option from the Material list. This selection list can only be used if a material
has been added in the Materials node and if that material has a diffusion coefficient
defined. Else, you need to type in the diffusivity in the User Defined edit field.

Enter the Diffusion coefficient Dc for each species. This can be a scalar value for isotropic
diffusion or a tensor describing anisotropic diffusion. Select the appropriate tensor
type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full that describes the diffusion transport, and
then enter the values in the corresponding element (one value for each species).

Note that multiple species, as well as Migration in Electric fields (described below) is
only available for certain COMSOL Multiphysics add-on products. See details:
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• Enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V, which is User defined; this
input option is always available.
• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has also been
added to the model.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved by Electrochemistry interface that has
been added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species diffusivity and the
temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, and under Mobility,
select the appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full —
and type in the value of expression of the mobility um,c.

Enter the Charge number zc (dimensionless, but requires a plus or minus sign) for each
species.

The temperature (if you are using mobilities based on the Nernst-Einstein relation) is
taken from Model Inputs section.

Note that the migration in electric fields feature is only available in some COMSOL
products. See details: https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

196 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

EXAMPLE MODELS

• Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis
Web link:
https://www.comsol.com/model/separation-through-dialysis-258

• Transport in an Electrokinetic Valve: Application Library path

Microfluidics_Module/Fluid_Flow/electrokinetic_valve
Web link: https://www.comsol.com/model/electrokinetic-valve-603

Turbulent Mixing
Use this node to account for the turbulent mixing of the chemical species caused by
the eddy diffusivity. This node should typically be used when the specified velocity field
corresponds to a RANS solution.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

The subnode can added from the context menu (right-click the Transport Properties
parent node), as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu, provided that
Convection is selected as a transport mechanism.

TURBULENT MIXING PARAMETERS

Some physics interfaces provide the turbulent kinematic viscosity, and these appear as
options in the Turbulent kinematic viscosity νT list. The list always contains the User
defined option where any value or expression can be entered.

The default Turbulent Schmidt number ScT is 0.71 (dimensionless).

FURTHER READING
See the section About Turbulent Mixing in the CFD Module User’s Guide (this link
is available online or if you have the CFD Module documentation installed).

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 197

 Initial Values
The Initial Values node specifies the initial values for the concentration of each species.
These serve as an initial guess for a stationary solver or as initial conditions for a
transient simulation.

DOMAIN SELECTION
If there are several types of domains with different initial values defined, it might be
necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These are then defined in an
additional Initial Values node.

INITIAL VALUES
Enter a value or expression for the initial value of the Concentration or concentrations,
ci. This also serves as a starting guess for stationary problems.

Mass-Based Concentrations
Use the Mass-Based Concentrations node to add postprocessing variables for mass-based
concentrations (SI unit: kg/m3) and mass fractions (dimensionless) for all species.

MIXTURE PROPERTIES
The default Solvent density ρsolvent is taken From material. For User defined, enter a
value or expression manually. Define the Molar mass of each species, which is needed
to calculate the mass-based concentration.

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions. Define the rate expressions as required.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
for the modeling geometry.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for species i. Enter a value or expression
in the field. Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the

198 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Chemical Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be
automatically generated and picked up using the drop-down menu. For an example,
see the application Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor as linked below.

REACTING VOLUME
This section is only available when the Mass Transport in Porous Media property is
available and selected. See https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for
more details on availability.

When specifying reaction rates for a species in porous media, the specified reaction rate
may have the basis of the total volume, the pore volume, or the volume of a particular
phase.

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of the model domain (multiplied by unity).
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of total pore space. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the
domain porosity, εp. (εp equals unity for nonporous domains.)
• For Liquid phase, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of liquid in the pore space. The expressions will be multiplied by the liquid
volume fraction θ. (θ equals εp for Saturated Porous Media domains).
• For Gas phase, the expressions are multiplied by the gas volume fraction av = εp − θ.
av equals 0 for Saturated Porous Media domains.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter on chemical species transport, starting with the section Mass
Balance Equation.

• Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor: Application Library

path
Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_T
ransfer/plate_reactor
Web link:
https://www.comsol.com/model/fine-chemical-production-in-a-pla
te-reactor-8589

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 199

 No Flux
This node is the default boundary condition on exterior boundaries. It should be used
on boundaries across which there is no mass flux, typically solid walls where no surface
reactions occur. The condition applied for each species corresponds to

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the no flux condition is:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = 0

CONVECTION
By default, the feature prescribes a vanishing flux due to diffusion and migration in an
electric field. This is the appropriate no flux condition when the relative convective
velocity at the boundary is zero. When the fluid velocity at the boundary is not equal
to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to prescribe the total flux including the
convection. To do this select Include in the Convection section.

When including the convection, the no flux condition prescribed is:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = 0

or

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at an inlet boundary.

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

For the Electroanalysis interface, this node is available when you select the Convection
check box on the physics interface Settings window.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

200 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE
The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the
boundary by the use of pointwise constraints.

The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can be used when the concentration at the
boundary is not known, or when it varies in a non-trivial manner. This may, for
example, be useful when reactions with high reaction rates occur in the vicinity of the
inlet. In this case the concentration far upstream of the boundary is instead prescribed.
The Flux (Danckwerts) condition prescribes the total flux defined by the upstream
concentration and the fluid velocity at the boundary.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition.

Outflow
Apply this condition at outlets boundaries where species should be transported out of
the model domain by fluid motion or by an electric field (in the case of ions). It is
assumed that convection and migration in an electric are the dominating transport
mechanisms across the boundary, and therefore that the diffusive transport can be
ignored, that is:

n ⋅ ( – D ∇c ) = 0

Note that the Convection or the Migration in electric field transport mechanisms needs
to be included for this node to be available.

Concentration
This condition node adds a boundary condition for the species concentration. For
example, a c = c0 condition specifies the concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 201

 corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species molar flux across a boundary. The flux can
for example occur due to chemical reactions or a phase change at the boundary. The
flux can also represent the transport to or from a surrounding environment currently
not included model.

The prescribed flux of a species c is by default defined as

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c ) = J 0

where n denotes the outward pointing normal of the boundary. When the mass
transport includes migration of ionic species, the flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ ) = J 0

The flux prescribed, J0, can include any arbitrary user-specified expression. It can be
constant or a function of a dependent variable or independent variable. Common
examples are a flux dependent of the concentration, temperature, pressure or the
electric potential φ .

CONVECTION
By default, the flux due to diffusion and migration in an electric field is prescribed. This
is the appropriate flux condition when the relative velocity at the boundary is zero.
When the fluid velocity is not equal to that of the boundary, it is often convenient to
prescribe the total flux, including the convection. To do this select Include in the
Convection section.

When including the convection, the prescribed flux is defined as:

– n ⋅ ( – D∇c + uc ) = J 0

or

202 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 – n ⋅ ( – D∇c – zu m Fc∇φ + uc ) = J 0

when migration of ionic species is included.

INWARD FLUX
Select the Species check box for the species for which to specify the flux, and enter a
value or expression for the inward flux in the corresponding field. Use a minus sign
when specifying a flux directed out of the system. To use another boundary condition
for a specific species, click to clear the check box for that species.

External convection
Set Flux type to External convection to prescribe a flux to or from an exterior domain
(not modeled) assumed to include convection. The exterior can for example include a
forced convection to control the temperature or to increase the mass transport. In this
case the prescribed mass flux corresponds to

J0 = kc ( cb – c )

where kc is a mass transfer coefficient and cb is the bulk concentration, the typical
concentration far into the surrounding exterior domain.

Symmetry
The Symmetry node can be used to represent boundaries where the species
concentration is symmetric, that is, where there is no mass flux across the boundary.

This boundary condition is identical to that of the No Flux node.

Flux Discontinuity
This node represents a discontinuity in the mass flux across an interior boundary:

– n ⋅ [ ( J + uc ) u – ( J + uc ) d ] = N 0 J = – D∇c

where the value N0 (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) specifies the jump in total flux at the
boundary. This can be used to model a boundary source, for example a surface
reaction, adsorption or desorption.

FLUX DISCONTINUITY
In this section the jump in species flux (or surface source) is specified.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 203

 Select the Species check box for the species to specify and enter a value or expression
for the material flux jump in the corresponding field. To use a different boundary
condition for a specific species, click to clear the check box for the flux discontinuity
of that species.

Partition Condition
The Partition Condition node can be used to prescribe the ratio between the
concentration of a solute species in two different immiscible phases. It can for example
be used on interior boundaries separating two liquid phases, a gas-liquid interface, or
on a boundary separating a liquid phase and a solid or porous media. For a species
concentration ci, the ratio between the concentration on the up side and on the down
side of the boundary (ci,u and ci,d respectively) is defined as

c i, u
K i = ---------
c i, d

in terms of a partition coefficient Ki. The up and down side of the selected boundary
is indicated in the Graphics window. The arrows point from the down side into the up
side.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

PARTITION COEFFICIENT
Select the Reverse direction check box to reverse the direction of the arrows on the
selected boundaries, and the corresponding definition of the up and down side
concentration.

Use the associated input fields to prescribe the partition coefficient Ki.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a partition condition, see this application example:

Separation Through Dialysis: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Mixing_and_Separation/dialysis

204 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Periodic Condition
The Periodic Condition node can be used to define periodicity for the mass transport
between two sets of boundaries. The node prescribes continuity in the concentration
and the mass flux between the “source” and the “destination” side respectively. Note
that these names are arbitrary and does not influence the direction in which mass is
transported. It is dictated by mass transfer equations in the adjacent domains.

The node can be activated on more than two boundaries, in which case the feature tries
to identify two separate surfaces that each consist of one or several connected
boundaries.

For more complex geometries, it might be necessary to add the Destination Selection
subnode, which is available from the context menu (right-click the parent node) as well
as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu. With this subnode, the boundaries that
constitute the source and destination surfaces can be manually specified.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using a periodic condition, see this application example:

The KdV Equation and Solitons: Application Library path

COMSOL_Multiphysics/Equation_Based/kdv_equation

Line Mass Source

The Line Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from a tube or line region
with an infinitely small radius.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 205

 SELECTION
The Line Mass Source feature is available for all dimensions, but the applicable selection
differs between the dimensions.

MODEL DIMENSION APPLICABLE GEOMETRICAL ENTITY

2D Points
2D Axisymmetry Points not on the symmetry axis and the symmetry axis
3D Edges

SPECIES SOURCE
·
Enter the source strength, q l,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/(m·s)). A positive value
results in species injection from the line into the computational domain, and a negative
value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Line sources located on a boundary affect the adjacent computational domains. This
effect makes the physical strength of a line source located in a symmetry plane twice
the given strength.

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

Point Mass Source

The Point Mass Source feature models mass flow originating from an infinitely small
domain around a point.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

SPECIES SOURCE
·
Enter the source strength, q p,c , for each species (SI unit: mol/s). A positive value
results in species injection from the point into the computational domain, and a
negative value means that the species is removed from the computational domain.

Point sources located on a boundary or on an edge affect the adjacent computational

domains. This has the effect, for example, that the physical strength of a point source
located in a symmetry plane is twice the given strength.

206 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

FURTHER READING
See the section Mass Sources for Species Transport.

Open Boundary
Use this node to set up mass transport across boundaries where both convective inflow
and outflow can occur. On the parts of the boundary where fluid flows into the
domain, an exterior species concentration is prescribed. On the remaining parts, where
fluid flows out of the domain, a condition equivalent to the Outflow node is instead
prescribed.

The direction of the flow across the boundary is typically calculated by a fluid flow
interface and is provided as a model input to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

EXTERIOR CONCENTRATION
Enter a value or expression for the Exterior concentration.

Thin Diffusion Barrier

Use this boundary condition to model a thin layer through which mass is transported
by diffusion only. The node is applicable on interior boundaries and can be used to
avoid meshing thin structures.

THIN DIFFUSION BARRIER

Specify the Layer thickness, ds, and input a Diffusion coefficient, Ds,c, for each of the
species included.

Thin Impermeable Barrier

This feature models a thin mass transfer barrier. It is available on interior boundaries
and introduces a discontinuity in the concentration across the boundary. On each side,
a no-flux condition is prescribed for the mass transport implying that it acts as a barrier.
The feature can be used to avoid meshing thin structures.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 207

 Solving a model involving coupled fluid flow and mass transfer, the Thin Impermeable
Barrier feature can be combined with an Interior Wall feature in order to model a thin
solid wall.

Equilibrium Reaction
Use this node to model a reaction where the kinetics is assumed so fast that the
equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all times. The node solves for an additional degree
of freedom (the reaction rate Req) to fulfill the equilibrium condition at all times in all
space coordinates.

If the Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected, the
specified inflow concentration values in all active Inflow boundary nodes for the physics
interface are modified to comply with the equilibrium condition.

• A necessary requirement for this is feature to be available is that two or

more species are solved for by the interface.
• This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details
on availability.

EQUILIBRIUM CONDITION
The list defaults to Equilibrium constant or select User defined. For either option, the
Apply equilibrium condition on inflow boundaries check box is selected by default.

For Equilibrium constant, enter an Equilibrium constant Keq (dimensionless). Also enter
a value or expression for the Unit activity concentration Ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3).
Selecting Equilibrium constant defines an equilibrium condition based on the
stoichiometric coefficients, the species activities, and the law of mass action.

For User defined, enter an Equilibrium expression Eeq (dimensionless).

STOICHIOMETRIC COEFFICIENTS
Enter a value for the stoichiometric coefficientνc (dimensionless). The default is 0. Use
negative values for reactants and positive values for products in the modeled reaction.

Species with a stoichiometric coefficient value of 0 are not affected by the Equilibrium
Reaction node.

208 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Surface Reactions
The Surface Reactions node can be used to account for the species boundary flux due
to chemical reactions occurring on a surface (heterogeneous reactions). For a domain
species participating in a surface reaction, the boundary flux corresponds to the
reaction rate at the surface.

SURFACE REACTION RATE

Specify the surface reaction rate J0 of each species resulting from the reactions. Note
that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down menu.

FURTHER READING
For an example of using the Surface Reactions node, see this application example:

Chemical Vapor Deposition of GaAs: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Mass_and_Heat_Tran
sfer/gaas_cvd

Surface Equilibrium Reaction

Use this node to model an equilibrium reaction on a boundary (surface). The settings
for this node are similar to Equilibrium Reaction. Note that a necessary requirement
for this is feature to be available is that two or more species are solved for by the
interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Fast Irreversible Surface Reaction

This boundary node defines an irreversible reaction where the kinetics is so fast that
the only factor limiting the reaction rate is the transport of a species to the reacting
surface.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 209

 The node will set the Rate limiting species concentration to zero at the boundary, and
balance the fluxes of the species participating in the reaction and the current densities
according to the Stoichiometric Coefficients settings.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Porous Electrode Coupling

Use this node to add a molar source in a domain that is coupled to one or multiple
Porous Electrode Reaction nodes of an Electrochemistry Interface.

The molar source is calculated from the number of electrons, stoichiometric

coefficients, and volumetric current densities of the coupled porous electrode reactions
specified in the Reaction Coefficients subnodes.

In the Transport of Concentrated Species interface, the molar sources (or sinks) are
multiplied by the species molar masses to obtain the corresponding mass sources.

Additional Reaction Coefficients subnodes are available from the context menu
(right-click the parent node) as well as from the Physics toolbar, Attributes menu.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass source or sink, which is often the case in gas diffusion
electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Porous Electrode Coupling node in
the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Reaction Coefficients
Add this node to the Electrode Surface Coupling and Porous Electrode Coupling
features to define molar fluxes and sources based on electrode current densities in an
Electrochemistry interface.

The molar flux or source is proportional to the stoichiometric coefficients and the
current density according to Faraday’s law.

210 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Current densities from Electrode Reaction (iloc, SI unit: A/m2) or Porous Electrode
Reaction nodes (iv, SI unit: A/m3) of any Electrochemistry interface in the model are
available for selection as the Coupled reaction, and user-defined expressions are also
supported.

Enter the Number of participating electrons nm (dimensionless) and the Stoichiometric

coefficient vc (dimensionless) as explained in the theory section linked below.

Use multiple subnodes to couple to multiple reactions.

Electrode Surface Coupling

Use this node to define a flux boundary condition based on current densities of one or
multiple Electrode Reaction nodes in an Electrochemistry interface.

The flux is proportional to the current densities and the stoichiometric coefficients
according to Faraday’s law as defined by summation over the Reaction Coefficients
subnodes.

Note that if you are also modeling the momentum transport and expect a
nonnegligible total mass flux over the boundary, which is often the case for gas
diffusion electrodes, you need to also add a corresponding Electrode Surface Coupling
node in the Fluid Flow interface.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

Porous Media Transport Properties

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported through
interstices in porous media. A part form convection and diffusion, the node contains
functionality to include species evolution through adsorption, dispersion, and reaction.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 211

 MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Domain material is used.

Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select User defined to instead enter a different value.

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

DIFFUSION
Select a Fluid material (when available and applicable).

Specify the Fluid diffusion coefficient DF,i (SI unit: m2/s). Enter a value or expression
for each of the species in the corresponding input field. The default is 1·10-9 m2/s.

Select the Effective diffusivity model: Millington and Quirk model (the default),
Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or User defined. For Tortuosity model, enter a value
for the tortuosity τF,i (dimensionless). The default is 1.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. From
the Electric potential list, select the source of the electric field.

• Enter a value or expression for the Electric potential V, which is User defined; this
input option is always available.

212 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

• Select the electric potential solved by an AC/DC-based interface that has also been
added to the model.
• Select the electric potential defined or solved by Electrochemistry interface that has
been added to the component.

By default the Mobility is set to be calculated based on the species effective diffusivity
and the temperature using the Nernst-Einstein relation. For User defined, and under
Mobility, select the appropriate scalar or tensor type — Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric,
or Full — and type in the value of expression of the effective mobility ume,c.

Enter the Charge number zc for each species.

DISPERSION
This section is available when the Dispersion in porous media check box is selected on
the Settings window for the physics interface.

Select the Specify dispersion for each species individually check box to specify the
dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s) for each species separately. The default is to use
the same dispersion tensor DD for all species.

Select an option from the Dispersion tensor list — User defined (the default) or
Dispersivity. For User defined, use it to specify the dispersion components as
user-defined constants or expressions. Select Isotropic, Diagonal, Symmetric, or Full
based on the properties of the dispersion tensor.

Select Dispersivity when Convection has been added as the transport mechanism. Specify
the dispersivities (SI unit: m) to define the dispersion tensor DD (SI unit: m2/s)
together with the velocity field u. Select an option from the Dispersivity model list:
Isotropic (the default) or Transverse isotropic based on the properties of the porous
media. For isotropic porous media, specify the longitudinal and transverse
dispersivities. For transverse isotropic porous media, specify the longitudinal,
horizontal transverse, and vertical transverse dispersivities.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 213

 Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the fluid phase species onto the porous media
surface. It is available as a subnode to the Porous Media Transport Properties and the
Partially Saturated Porous Media nodes.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Domain material is used.

The density of the porous media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface
of the porous matrix. By default Density ρ is defined from the domain material.

ADSORPTION
Select a Sorption type — Langmuir (the default), Freundlich, Toth, BET,or User defined to
specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase (moles per
unit dry weight of the solid):

• For Langmuir:

KL c ∂c P K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax -------------------- , K P = -------- = ---------------------------2-
1 + KL c ∂c ( 1 + KL c )

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

• For Freundlich:

c N ∂c P cP
c P = K F  -------- , K P = -------- = N ------
c ref ∂c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For Toth:

214 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )

and

–  1 + -------
1
∂c P  N T
N
KP = -------- = c Pmax b T ( 1 + ( b T c ) T )
∂c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = --------------------------------------------------------------
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
cS

and

2 2
∂c P K B c 0 c S ( ( K B – 1 )c + c S )
K P = -------- = -----------------------------------------------------------------
-
∂c 2
( c – c S ) ( c S + ( K B – 1 )c )
2

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and an Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined:

cP = f ( c )

Enter an Adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

For more information, see Adsorption in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted
Species in Porous Media.

Partially Saturated Porous Media

Use this node to model the concentration of diluted species transported by a liquid
through in partially filled porous media. The interstices of the porous media contains
the liquid carrier phase and gas pockets. A part from convection and diffusion, the

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 215

 node contains functionality to include species evolution through adsorption,
dispersion, reaction, and volatilization.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

MODEL INPUTS
The temperature model input is always available. Select the source of the Temperature.
For User defined, enter a value or expression for the temperature in the input field. This
input option is always available.

You can also select the temperature solved for by a Heat Transfer interface added to
the model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the
Temperature list.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Domain material is used.

Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select User defined to instead enter a different value.

SATURATION
Select Saturation or Liquid volume fraction from the list.

For Saturation, enter a value for s (dimensionless) between 0 and 1. The liquid volume
fraction is then computed from the saturation and porosity as θ = sεp.

For Liquid volume fraction, enter a value for θ (dimensionless) between 0 and the value
of porosity. The saturation is then computed from the porosity and the liquid volume
fraction as s = θεp.

Select a Fluid fraction time change: Fluid fraction constant in time (the default), Time
change in fluid fraction, or Time change in pressure head.

• For Time change in fluid fraction, enter dθ/dt (SI unit: 1/s).
• For Time change in pressure head, enter dHp/dt (SI unit: m/s) and a Specific
moisture capacity Cm (SI unit: 1/m).

216 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

CONVECTION
If transport by convection is active, the velocity field of the solvent needs to be
specified. Select the source of the Velocity field. For User defined, enter values or
expressions for the velocity components in the input fields. This input option is always
available.

You can also select the velocity field solved for by a Fluid Flow interface added to the
model component. These physics interfaces are available for selection in the Velocity
field list.

DIFFUSION
Select a Liquid material from the list.

Specify the Liquid diffusion coefficient DL,c (SI unit: m2/s). Enter a value or expression
for each of the species in the corresponding input field. The default is 1·10-9 m2/s.

Select the Effective diffusivity model, liquid: Millington and Quirk model (the default),
Bruggeman model, Tortuosity model, or User defined. For Tortuosity model, enter a value
for τL,c (dimensionless). The default is 1.

When the Volatilization in partially saturated porous media check box is selected on the
Settings window for the physics interface, also define the Gas material, Gas diffusion
coefficient, and Effective diffusivity model, gas.

MIGRATION IN ELECTRIC FIELD

This section is available when the Migration in electric field check box is selected. It is
similar to that in Porous Media Transport Properties feature. Select the source of electric
field from the Electric potential list. The default selection to Mobility is the
Nernst-Einstein relation.

DISPERSION
This section is available when the Dispersion in porous media check box is selected on
the Settings window for the physics interface. The settings are the same as for Porous
Media Transport Properties.

VOLATILIZATION
This section is available when the Volatilization in partially saturated porous media check
box is selected on the Settings window for the physics interface.

Enter a value for the Volatilization kG,c (dimensionless) for each species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 217

 Volatilization
This feature is available when the Volatilization in partially saturated porous media check
box is selected on the Settings window for the physics interface.

Use this feature to model mass transfer at the boundary due to volatilization. The
feature can be added on boundaries of a Partially Saturated Porous Media domain. In
this case the porous media contains a liquid phase and a gas phase. The species
dissolved in the liquid are assumed to be vaporized at the boundary, and transported
into the surrounding bulk region due to convection and diffusion. The mass transfer
at the boundary is defined as

– n ⋅ J c = – h c ( k G,c c – c Gatm,c )

where hc is the mass transfer coefficient, kG,c the volatilization coefficient, and cGatm,c
the concentration in the surrounding atmosphere.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

VOLATILIZATION
Enter a Mass transfer coefficient hc defining the transfer into the surrounding media.
This can be given by boundary layer theory. When assuming that no convective flow
is present in the surrounding, the mass transfer coefficient can be defined from the gas
diffusion coefficient DGc and the thickness of the diffusion layer ds in the manner of

D Gc
h c = ----------
ds

Also give the atmospheric concentration for each species, cGatm,c. The Volatilization
coefficient kG,c for each species are taken from the adjacent Partially Saturated Porous
Media domain.

218 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Reactive Pellet Bed
Use this feature to model packed bed reactors with catalytic pellets. For details, see the
section Theory for the Reactive Pellet Bed. By default, subnodes for Reactions and are
added.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

BED PARAMETERS
Here you can specify the bed porosity, which is the void fraction in the packed bed
structure. Select From densities to calculate the porosity from the bed density and the
individual pellet density. Select User defined to specify the porosity directly.

PELLET SHAPE AND SIZE

The default shape is spherical. Cylinders, flakes, and user-defined shapes can also be
selected. A uniform pellet size or a discrete size distribution can be selected. Select a
Pellet size distribution — Uniform size (the default), Two sizes, Three sizes, Four sizes, or
Five sizes to select up to five different particle sizes.

Depending on the shape selection, equivalent radii or volumes and surface areas will
be required as input. If a size distribution is selected, the volume percentage of each
size is required as input.

Note that different chemical reactions can be specified for each pellet size if a
distribution is specified.

SURFACE SPECIES
In order to add surface species, click the Add button and enter the species name in the
Surface species table. Added surface species are be available inside all pellet types
defined in the Pellet Shape and Size section, but not in the bulk fluid.

For each pellet type, specify the Reactive specific surface area, Sb,reac (SI unit: 1/m),
corresponding to the surface area, per volume, available for surface reactions.

PELLET PARAMETERS
Enter a Pellet porosity εpe (dimensionless) to specify the porosity of the pellet internals.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 219

 Select Diffusion model — Millington and Quirk model (the default), Bruggeman model,
Tortuosity model, or User defined to describe the effective correction of the diffusion
coefficient in the pellet. In the case of the Tortuosity model, a value for the tortuosity
τpe within the pellet is required.
Enter also the Diffusion coefficient Dpe,c (SI unit: m2/s). If a User defined diffusion
model is selected, an Effective diffusion coefficient Dpeff,c (SI unit: m2/s) is entered. The
default value is 1·10-9 m2/s in both cases.

PELLET-FLUID SURFACE
For the coupling of concentration between the pellet internals and the surrounding
fluid, two Coupling type options are available:

• Continuous concentration, assuming that all resistance to mass transfer to/from the
pellet is within the pellet and no resistance to pellet-fluid mass transfer is on the bulk
fluid side. The concentration in the fluid will thus be equal to that in the pellet pore
just at the pellet surface: cpe,i = ci. This constraint also automatically ensures flux
continuity between the internal pellet domain and the free fluid domain through
so-called reaction forces in the finite element formulation.
• Film resistance (mass flux): The flux of mass across the pellet-fluid interface into the
pellet is possibly rate determined on the bulk fluid side, by film resistance. The
resistance is expressed in terms of a film mass transfer coefficient, hDi, such that:
N i,inward = h D, i ( c i – c pe, i ) .

The Film resistance (mass flux) option computes the inward surface flux,
Ni,inward = hD,i(ci − cpe,i). hDi is the mass transfer coefficient (SI unit: m/s) and is
calculated with the default Automatic setting from a dimensionless Sherwood number
expression or with User defined mass transfer coefficients.

The Active specific surface area (SI unit: m-1) is required to couple the mass transfer
between the pellets and the bed fluid. Select either the Automatic setting that calculates
the specific surface area from the shape information given above. User defined is also
available for explicit surface area specification.

The Sherwood number expression can be computed from three available expressions:
Frössling, Rosner, and Garner and Keey. The Frössling equation is the default and
probably the most commonly used for packed spheres. All of these are based on the
dimensionless Reynolds, Re, and Schmidt, Sc, numbers, which are computed from
Density and Dynamic viscosity. Select these to be taken either From material or choose
the User defined alternative.

220 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

PELLET DISCRETIZATION
The extra dimension in the pellet needs to be discretized into elements. Select a
Distribution — Cubic root sequence (the default), Linear, or Square root sequence. Enter
the Number of elements Nelem.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
See the details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

FURTHER READING
Theory for the Reactive Pellet Bed in the Theory section of this manual.

For an application using the Reactive Pellet Bed feature, see

• A Multiscale 3D Packed Bed Reactor: Application Library path

Chemical_Reaction_Engineering_Module/Reactors_with_Porous_Catalysts/
packed_bed_reactor_3d
Web link:
https://www.comsol.com/model/a-multiscale-3d-packed-bed-react
or-17019

Reactions (Reactive Pellet Bed)

The Reactions subfeature to the Reactive Pellet Bed is used to define reaction terms to
the transport within the reactive pellets. The feature also defines the corresponding
averaged heat sources to be applied to heat transport in the bulk fluid.

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern source terms in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
for the modeling geometry.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for species i using a value or an
expression. One reaction rate per species and pellet type can be entered.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 221

 Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down menu. For an example, see the
application Fine Chemical Production in a Plate Reactor.

SURFACE REACTION RATES

The section is available when one or more surface species have been added in the
Surface Species section of the Reactive Pellet Bed feature.

Specify the rate expression R (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) corresponding to the surface
reaction rate of each volumetric species i participating in the surface reaction.
Furthermore, specify the surface reaction rates for the participating surface species in
the corresponding table.

If several pellet types have been defined, one set of surface reaction rates per pellet type
can be defined.

Note that if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical
Reaction Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically
generated and picked up using the drop-down menu.

HEAT SOURCE
Specify the heat source originating from the heat of reaction of the chemical reactions
inside the pellet can be specified. Both heat sources from reactions in the fluid, and
heat sources resulting from surface reactions can be defined. When using several pellet
types, heat sources for each type can be added.

The heat sources are most conveniently picked up from a Chemistry feature that
defines the reaction rate and the heat of reactions. In that case, the Rate expression can
be selected from the drop-down menu. Else it can be set to User Defined.

The defined heat source can be used by a Heat Source feature in any of the heat
transfer interfaces.

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in porous domains, the
Species Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the
species transport equations.

222 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

DOMAIN SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the domains on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several types of domains, with subsequent and different reactions occurring
within them, it might be necessary to remove some domains from the selection. These
are then defined in an additional Species Source node.

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) for each of the species solved for. Enter a
value or expression in the field of the corresponding species.

Hygroscopic Swelling
The Hygroscopic Swelling multiphysics coupling node ( ) is used for moisture
concentration coupling between the Solid Mechanics interface and either the
Transport of Diluted Species or Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces.

Hygroscopic swelling is an effect of internal strain caused by changes in moisture

content. This volumetric strain can be written as

ε hs = β h M m ( c mo – c mo,ref )

where βh is the coefficient of hygroscopic swelling, Mm is the molar mass, cmo is the
moisture concentration, and cmo,ref is the strain-free reference concentration.

This feature requires a license of either the MEMS Module or the Structural Mechanics
Module. The multiphysics feature will appear automatically if both the Transport of
Diluted Species and the Solid Mechanics interfaces are added to the same component.
For the most current information about licensing, please see See
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/.

FURTHER READING
More information about how to use hygroscopic swelling can be found in Hygroscopic
Swelling Coupling section in the Structural Mechanics Module User’s Guide.

More information about multiphysics coupling nodes can be found in the section The
Multiphysics Branch in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 223

 Fracture
Use this node to model mass transport along thin fractures in porous media. The node
assumes that the transport in the tangential direction along the fracture is dominant,
as a result of lower flow resistance.

This feature is only available in a limited set of add-on products. See

https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

FRACTURE PROPERTIES
Specify a value for the Fracture thickness dfr.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Boundary material is used.

Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select User defined to instead enter a different value.

CONVECTION
Select an option from the Velocity field list to specify the convective velocity along the
fracture. For a consistent model, use a Fracture Flow feature in a Darcy’s Law interface
to compute the fluid flow velocity in the fracture.

For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the table
shown.

The settings for the Diffusion, and Dispersion sections are the same as for
Porous Media Transport Properties.

224 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

T he T r a ns po r t of D i l u t ed S p ec i es i n
Fractures Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures (dsf) interface ( ), found under the
Chemical Species Transport branch ( ), is used to model the transport of a solute
species along thin porous fractures, taking into account diffusion, dispersion,
convection, and chemical reactions. The fractures are defined by boundaries and the
solute species is assumed to be present in a solvent.

The interface supports simulation of species transport along boundaries in 2D and 3D,
and axisymmetric components in 2D. The dependent variable is the molar
concentration, c. Modeling multiple species transport is possible, whereby the physics
interface solves for the molar concentration, ci, of each species i.

This interface is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a

detailed overview of which interfaces are available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

SETTINGS
The Label is the default physics interface name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the physics
interface. Refer to such physics interface variables in expressions using the pattern
<name>.<variable_name>. In order to distinguish between variables belonging to
different physics interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and
underscores (_) are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first physics interface in the model) is dsf.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
If model geometry includes boundaries that should not be included in the mass
transfer simulation, remove those from the selection list.

TRANSPORT MECHANISMS
Mass transport due to diffusion is always included. Use the Convection check box,
available under Additional transport mechanisms, to control whether to also include
convective transport.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 225

 CONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this sections, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. Use this
section to control the application of the available consistent stabilization methods;
Streamline diffusion and Crosswind diffusion.

• When the Crosswind diffusion check box is selected, a weak term that reduces
spurious oscillations is added to the transport equation. The resulting equation
system is always nonlinear. There are two options for the Crosswind diffusion type:
- Do Carmo and Galeão — the default option. This type of crosswind diffusion
reduces undershoots and overshoots to a minimum but can in rare cases give
equation systems that are difficult to fully converge.
- Codina. This option is less diffusive compared to the Do Carmo and Galeão
option but can result in more undershoots and overshoots. It is also less effective
for anisotropic meshes. The Codina option activates a text field for the Lower
gradient limit glim. It defaults to 0.1[mol/m^3)/tds.helem, where tds.helem
is the local element size.
• For both consistent stabilization methods select an Equation residual. Approximate
residual is the default and means that derivatives of the diffusion tensor components
are neglected. This setting is usually accurate enough and is computationally faster.
If required, select Full residual instead.

INCONSISTENT STABILIZATION
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Stabilization. By default,
the Isotropic diffusion check box is not selected, because this type of stabilization adds
artificial diffusion and affects the accuracy of the original problem. However, this
option can be used to get a good initial guess for underresolved problems.

DISCRETIZATION
To display all settings available in this section, click the Show button ( ) and select
Advanced Physics Options.

The Value type when using splitting of complex variables setting should in most pure
mass transfer problems be set to Real, which is the default. It makes sure that the
dependent variable does not get affected by small imaginary contributions, which can
occur, for example, when combining a Time Dependent or Stationary study with a
frequency-domain study. For more information, see Splitting Complex-Valued
Variables in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

226 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable name is Concentration c by default. A dependent variable name
must be unique with respect to all other dependent variables in the component.

Add or remove species variables in the model and also change the names of the
dependent variables that represent the species concentrations.

Enter the Number of species. Use the Add concentration ( ) and Remove
concentration ( ) buttons as needed.

FURTHER READING

• Mass Transport in Fractures in the theory section.

• Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference
Manual.
• Domain, Boundary, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
• In the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual, see Table 2-4 for
links to common sections and Table 2-5 for common feature nodes.
You can also search for information: press F1 to open the Help window
or Ctrl+F1 to open the Documentation window.

Boundary, Edge, Point, and Pair Nodes for the Transport of Diluted
Species in Fractures Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface has the following boundary,
edge, point, and pair nodes, listed in alphabetical order, available from the Physics
ribbon toolbar (Windows users), Physics context menu (Mac or Linux users), or by
right-clicking to access the context menu (all users).

• Adsorption • Initial Values

• Concentration • No Flux
• Flux • Outflow
• Fracture • Reactions
• Inflow • Species Source

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 227

 Adsorption
Use this node to model adsorption of the fluid phase species in onto the porous media
surface of the fracture.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Domain material is used. The density of the porous
media is needed when modeling adsorption to the surface of the porous matrix. By
default Density ρ is set to from domain material.

ADSORPTION
Select an Adsorption isotherm — Langmuir (the default), Freundlich, Toth, BET, or User
defined to specify how to compute cP, the amount of species sorbed to the solid phase
(moles per unit dry weight of the solid):

• For Langmuir:

KL c ∂c P K L c Pmax
c P = c Pmax -------------------- -------- = ---------------------------
-
1 + KL c ∂c ( 1 + KL c )
2

Enter a Langmuir constant kL,c (SI unit: m3/mol) and an Adsorption maximum
cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg):

• For Freundlich:

c N ∂c P cP
c P = K F  -------- -------- = N -----
- Freundlich
c ref ∂c c

Enter a Freundlich constant kF,c (SI unit: mol/kg), a Freundlich exponent NF,c
(dimensionless), and a Reference concentration cref,c (SI unit: mol/m3).

• For Toth:
bT c
c P = c Pmax ----------------------------------------------
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )

and

228 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

 –  1 + -------
1
∂c P  N T
N
-------- = c Pmax b T ( 1 + ( b T c ) T )
∂c

Enter a Toth constant bT,c (SI unit: m3/mol), a Toth exponent NT,c (dimensionless),
and an Adsorption maximum cp,max,c (SI unit: mol/kg).
• For BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller):
KB c0 c
c P = --------------------------------------------------------------
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
 c S

and

2 2
K B c 0 c S ( ( K B – 1 )c + c S )
-----------------------------------------------------------------
-
2 2
( c – c S ) ( c S + ( K B – 1 )c )

Enter a BET constant KB,c (dimensionless), a Monolayer adsorption capacity c0,c

(SI unit: mol/kg), and an Saturation concentration cS,c (SI unit: mol/m3).
• For User defined:

cP = f ( c )

Enter an adsorption isotherm cP,c (SI unit: mol/kg).

For more information, see Adsorption in the theory section.

FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted
Species in Porous Media.

Concentration
Use this node to specify the species concentration on a fracture boundary (applied in
points in 2D and along edges in 3D). For example, a c = c0 condition specifies the
concentration of species c.

CONCENTRATION
Individually specify the concentration for each species. Select the check box for the
Species to specify the concentration, and then enter a value or expression in the

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 229

 corresponding field. To use another boundary condition for a specific species, click to
clear the check box for the concentration of that species.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

Flux
This node can be used to specify the species flux across a boundary of a porous fracture
(applied in points in 2D and along edges in 3D). The flux of species c is defined as

n ⋅ ( D e ∇c ) = N 0

where N0 is an arbitrary user-specified flux expression. For example, N0 can represent

a flux due to chemical reactions, or a phase change. A positive N0 implies that the
concentration inside the fracture increases.

INWARD FLUX
Specify the flux of each species individually. To use another boundary condition for a
specific species, click to clear the check box for the mass fraction of that species.

Fracture
Use this node to model mass transport along thin fracture surfaces situated inside
porous or solid material. The node assumes that the transport in the tangential
direction of the fracture is dominant, as a result of lower flow resistance. Note that the
fracture it self is modeled as porous.

MATRIX PROPERTIES
Use the Porous material list to define a material specifying the matrix properties on the
current selection. By default the Boundary material is used.

Specify the Porosity, εp (dimensionless) of the porous matrix. This is by default taken
From material. Select User defined to instead enter a different value.

230 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

CONVECTION
Select an option from the Velocity field list to specify the convective velocity along the
fracture. For a consistent model, use The Fracture Flow Interface to compute the fluid
flow velocity.

For User defined, enter values or expressions for the velocity components in the table
shown.

The settings for the Diffusion, and Dispersion sections are the same as for Porous Media
Transport Properties.

Inflow
Use this node to specify all species concentrations at a fracture inlet. The condition is
applied in points in 2D and along edges in 3D

If you want to specify the concentration of a subset of the partaking species, this can
be done by using the Concentration node instead.

CONCENTRATION
For the concentration of each species c0,c (SI unit: mol/m3), enter a value or
expression.

BOUNDARY CONDITION TYPE

This section in the settings is only available for some products. Search for “Inflow” on
the page: https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/ for more details on
availability.

The option Concentration constraint constrains the concentration values on the

boundary by the use of pointwise constraints. The other option, Flux (Danckwerts) can
be more stable and fast to solve when high reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity
of the inlet. Oscillations on the solutions can also be avoided in such cases. The latter
condition uses a flux boundary condition based on the velocity across the boundary
and the concentration values. See further details in the theory section.

CONSTRAINT SETTINGS
To display this section, click the Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.
You can find details about the different constraint settings in the section Constraint
Reaction Terms in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 231

 FURTHER READING
See the theory chapter in the section Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition.

No Flux
This node can be used to specify that the species flux across a boundary of a porous
fracture is zero. The condition is applied in points in 2D and along edges in 3D.

Outflow
Set this condition at fracture outlets where species are transported out of the model
domain by fluid motion. The condition is applied in points in 2D and along edges in
3D. It is assumed that convection is the dominating transport mechanism across
outflow boundaries, and therefore that diffusive transport can be ignored, that is:

n ⋅ ( – D e ∇c ) = 0

Reactions
Use the Reactions node to account for the consumption or production of species
through chemical reactions in the fracture. Define the rate expressions as required.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on which to define rate expression or
expressions that govern the source term in the transport equations.

Several reaction nodes can be used to account for different reactions in different parts
of the fracture.

REACTION RATES
Add a rate expression Ri for species i. Enter a value or expression in the field. Note that
if you have the Chemistry interface available, provided with the Chemical Reaction
Engineering Module, the reaction rate expressions can be automatically generated and
picked up using the drop-down menu.

232 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

REACTING VOLUME
When specifying reaction rates for a species in a fracture, the specified reaction rate may
have the basis of the pore volume of the fracture, or the total volume.

• For Total volume, the reaction expressions in are specified per unit volume of the
fracture. The reaction expressions will be multiplied by the fracture thickness dfr.
• For Pore volume, the reaction expressions in mol/(m3·s) are specified per unit
volume of total pore space in the fracture. The reaction expressions will be
multiplied by the fracture thickness dfr and the fracture porosity, εp.

Species Source
In order to account for consumption or production of species in a fracture, the Species
Source node adds source terms expressions Si to the right-hand side of the species
transport equations.

BOUNDARY SELECTION
From the Selection list, choose the boundaries on which to define expressions that
govern the source term in the transport equations.

If there are several different parts of the fracture, with subsequent and different sources
occurring within them, it might be necessary to remove some boundaries from the
selection. The sources in these can then be defined using an additional Species Source
node.

SPECIES SOURCE
Add a source term Si for each of the species solved for. Enter a value or expression in
the field of the corresponding species.

THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES IN FRACTURES INTERFACE | 233

 Theory for the Transport of Diluted
Species Interface
The Transport of Diluted Species Interface provides a predefined modeling
environment for studying the evolution of chemical species transported by diffusion
and convection. The physics interface assumes that all species present are dilute; that
is, that their concentration is small compared to a solvent fluid or solid. As a rule of
thumb, a mixture containing several species can be considered dilute when the
concentration of the solvent is more than 90 mol%. Due to the dilution, mixture
properties such as density and viscosity can be assumed to correspond to those of the
solvent.

When studying mixtures that are not dilute, the mixture and transport properties
depend on the composition, and a different physics interface is recommended. See The
Transport of Concentrated Species Interface for more information.

Fick’s law governs the diffusion of the solutes, dilute mixtures, or solutions, while the
phenomenon of ionic migration is sometimes referred to as electrokinetic flow. The
Transport of Diluted Species interface supports the simulations of chemical species
transport by convection, migration, and diffusion in 1D, 2D, and 3D as well as for
axisymmetric components in 1D and 2D.

In this section:

• Adding Transport Through • Mass Balance Equation

Migration • Mass Sources for Species Transport
• Convective Term Formulation • Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
• Crosswind Diffusion • Supporting Electrolytes
• Danckwerts Inflow Boundary • References
Condition
• Equilibrium Reaction Theory

Note: Some features explained in this section require certain add-on modules. For
details see https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

234 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The section also includes the theory for The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media Interface:

• Adsorption • Mass Balance Equation for

• Convection in Porous Media Transport of Diluted Species in
Porous Media
• Diffusion in Porous Media
• Mass Transport in Fractures
• Dispersion
• Reactions

Mass Balance Equation

The default node attributed to the Transport of Diluted Species interface models
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection and solves the mass
conservation equation for one or more chemical species i:

∂c i
------- + ∇ ⋅ J i + u ⋅ ∇c i = R i (5-1)
∂t

Equation 5-1 in its form above includes the transport mechanisms diffusion and
convection. If Migration in Electric Field is activated (only available in some add-on
products), the migration mechanism will be added to the equation as well. See more
details in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

• ci is the concentration of the species (SI unit: mol/m3)

• Di denotes the diffusion coefficient (SI unit: m2/s)
• Ri is a reaction rate expression for the species (SI unit: mol/(m3·s))
• u is the mass averaged velocity vector (SI unit: m/s)
• Ji is the mass flux diffusive flux vector (SI unit: mol/(m2·s))

The mass flux relative to the mass averaged velocity, Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)), is
associated with the mass balance equation above and used in boundary conditions and
flux computations. The Transport of Diluted Species interface always includes mass
transport due to molecular diffusion. In this case the mass flux Ji defines the diffusive
flux vector

J i = – D ∇c (5-2)

An input field for the diffusion coefficient is available.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 235

 When Migration in Electric Fields is activated, the migration term is also added to
the diffusive flux vector as shown in the section Adding Transport Through Migration.

The third term on the left side of Equation 5-1 describes the convective transport due
to a velocity field u. This field can be expressed analytically or obtained from coupling
the physics interface to one that solves for fluid flow, such as Laminar Flow. Note that
all fluid flow interfaces solve for the mass averaged velocity.

On the right-hand side of the mass balance equation (Equation 5-1), Ri represents a
source or sink term, typically due to a chemical reaction or desorption on a porous
matrix. To specify Ri, another node must be added to the Transport of Diluted Species
interface — the Reaction node for example, which includes an input field for specifying
a reaction expression using the variable names of all participating species.

Equilibrium Reaction Theory

The feature Equilibrium Reaction is described in this section. A chemical equilibrium
reaction system is defined by the stoichiometry of the reaction and the relation
between the chemical activities of the chemical species participating in the reaction (the
equilibrium condition).

The kinetics of the reaction is so fast that the equilibrium condition is fulfilled at all
times in all space coordinates.

The equilibrium condition is commonly based on the stoichiometric coefficients,

νi (dimensionless), of the reaction; the species activities of the reacting species
ai (dimensionless); and an equilibrium constant, Keq (1) according to:

ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ products
K eq = ----------------------------------
–ν
∏ ai i
i ∈ reactants

where the species activities are defined as

ci
a i = γ c, i -------
c a0

where ca0 (SI unit: mol/m3) is the standard molarity, and γc,i (dimensionless) an
activity coefficient.

236 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Defining the stoichiometric coefficients positive for products and negative for
reactants, the above equilibrium condition can also be written:

νi
K eq = ∏ ai
i

The Equilibrium Reaction node solves for a reaction rate so that the equilibrium
condition is always fulfilled in the domain. It is available for the Modules Chemical
Engineering, Corrosion, Electrochemistry, Electrodeposition, and Batteries and Fuel
Cells

γc,i is set to unity when the Equilibrium constant is selected on the

Settings window. For nonunity activity coefficients, a user defined
equilibrium condition can be used.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND INFLOW BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

Contradictory constraints arise if the boundary conditions for concentrations or
activities are set so that the domain equilibrium condition is not fulfilled. Special
treatment is therefore needed at Inflow boundaries, where the concentrations are set
for all species in the mass transport interfaces.

One way of avoiding competing constraints on an inflow boundary is to add an

additional reaction coordinate degree of freedom, solved for to create a set of modified
inflow concentrations that fulfill the domain equilibrium condition. The reaction
coordinate gives rise to a concentration shift, which is the offset to the inflow
concentrations provided by the user. The shift for each species obeys the stoichiometry
of the reaction and the equilibrium expression. The modified inflow concentrations are
then used in the boundary conditions for the domain mass transport equations. The
resulting modified inflow concentrations can be seen as the stationary solution for a
batch reactor with the user inflow concentrations as initial concentrations. In addition,
the domain reaction rate degree of freedom of the equilibrium reaction is constrained
to zero on all Inflow boundaries.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND CONCENTRATION BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
No special treatment is made with regards to input concentration values of the
Concentration boundary node. Using this feature, you can explicitly set one or a set of
concentrations, and the equilibrium condition acts on the rest of the concentrations.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 237

 However, there is no solution to the problem if more concentrations than the number
of species minus the number of equilibrium reactions are set using this feature.

EQUILIBRIUM REACTIONS AND TIME-DEPENDENT SIMULATIONS

Spurious oscillations may occur in a time-dependent problem if the initial conditions
do not fulfill the equilibrium condition. Since equilibrium reactions are assumed to be
infinitely fast, the solution is to initialize the problem using an additional study step,
solving for a stationary problem with all nonequilibrium reaction rates set to zero.
Manual scaling of the reaction rate dependent variables is needed in this study step.

Convective Term Formulation

The default node attributed to The Transport of Diluted Species Interface assumes
chemical species transport through diffusion and convection (depending on the
modules licensed, a check box to activate migration is available) and implements the
mass balance equation in Equation 5-1.

There are two ways to present a mass balance where chemical species transport occurs
through diffusion and convection. These are the nonconservative and conservative
formulations of the convective term:

∂c
nonconservative: ----- + u ⋅ ∇c = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (5-3)
∂t

∂c
conservative: ----- + ∇ ⋅ ( cu ) = ∇ ⋅ J i + R (5-4)
∂t

and each is treated slightly differently by the solver algorithms. In these equations
Ji (SI unit: mol/(m2·s)) is the diffusive flux vector, R (SI unit: mol/(m3·s)) is a
production or consumption rate expression, and u (SI unit: m/s) is the solvent velocity
field. The diffusion process can be anisotropic, in which case D is a tensor.

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, c∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation above. This is in fact the default
formulation in this physics interface. To switch between the two formulations, click the
Show button ( ) and select Advanced Physics Options.

238 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Solving a Diffusion Equation Only
Remove the convection term from Equation 5-3 and Equation 5-4 by clearing the
Convection check box in the Transport Mechanisms section for The Transport of
Diluted Species Interface. The equation then becomes

∂----c-
= ∇ ⋅ Ji + R
∂t

Mass Sources for Species Transport

Note: The features below are only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a
detailed overview of which features are available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

There are two types of mass sources in the Transport of Diluted Species interface: point
sources and line sources.

POINT SOURCE
·
A point source is theoretically formed by assuming a mass injection/ejection, Q c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), in a small volume δV and then letting the size of the volume tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux constant. Given a point source strength, q· p,c
(SI unit: mol/s), this can be expressed as

· ·
lim
δV → 0  Qc = qp,c (5-5)
δV

An alternative way to form a point source is to assume that mass is injected/extracted

through the surface of a small object. Letting the object surface area tend to zero while
keeping the mass flux constant results in the same point source. For this alternative
approach, effects resulting from the physical object’s volume need to be neglected.

The weak contribution

q· p,c test ( c )
·
is added at a point in the geometry. As can be seen from Equation 5-5, Q c must tend
to plus or minus infinity as δV tends to zero. This means that in theory the
concentration also tends to plus or minus infinity.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 239

 Observe that “point” refers to the physical representation of the source. A point source
can therefore only be added to points in 3D components and to points on the
symmetry axis in 2D axisymmetry components. Other geometrical points in 2D
components represent physical lines.

The finite element representation of Equation 5-5 corresponds to a finite

concentration at a point with the effect of the point source spread out over a region
around the point. The size of the region depends on the mesh and on the strength of
the source. A finer mesh gives a smaller affected region but also a more extreme
concentration value. It is important not to mesh too finely around a point source since
this can result in unphysical concentration values. It can also have a negative effect on
the condition number for the equation system.

LINE SOURCE
·
A line source can theoretically be formed by assuming a source of strength Q l,c (SI
unit: mol/(m3·s)), located within a tube with cross section δS and then letting δS tend
to zero while keeping the total mass flux per unit length constant. Given a line source
strength, q· l,c (SI unit: mol/(m·s)), this can be expressed as

·
lim  Ql,c = q· l,c (5-6)
δS → 0
δS

As in the point source case, an alternative approach is to assume that mass is

injected/extracted through the surface of a small object. This results in the same mass
source, but requires that effects resulting from the physical object’s volume are
neglected.

The weak contribution

q· l,c test ( c )

is added on lines in 3D or at points in 2D (which represent cut-through views of lines).

Line sources can also be added on the axisymmetry line in 2D axisymmetry
components. It cannot, however, be added on geometrical lines in 2D since those
represent physical planes.

As with a point source, it is important not to mesh too finely around the line source.

For feature node information, see Line Mass Source and Point Mass
Source.

240 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Adding Transport Through Migration

Note: Migration is only available in a limited set of add-on products. For a detailed
overview of which features are available in each product, visit
https://www.comsol.com/products/specifications/

In addition to transport due to convection and diffusion, the Transport of Diluted

Species interface supports ionic species transport by migration. This is done by
selecting the Migration in Electric Field check box under the Transport Mechanisms
section for the physics interface. The mass balance then becomes:

∂c i
+ ∇ ⋅ ( – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i F c i ∇V + c i u ) = R i (5-7)
∂t

where

• ci (SI unit: mol/ m3) denotes the concentration of species i

• Di (SI unit: m2/s) is the diffusion coefficient of species i
• u (SI unit: m/s) is the fluid velocity
• F (SI unit: A·s/mol) refers to Faraday’s constant
• V (SI unit: V) denotes the electric potential
• zi (dimensionless) is the charge number of the ionic species, and
• um,i (SI unit: mol·s/kg) is its ionic mobility

In this case the diffusive flux vector is

J i = – D i ∇c i – z i u m, i Fc i ∇V

The velocity, u, can be a computed fluid velocity field from a Fluid Flow interface or
a specified function of the spatial variables x, y, and z. The potential can be provided
by an expression or by coupling the system of equations to a current balance, such as
the Electrostatics interface. Sometimes it is assumed to be a supporting electrolyte
present, which simplifies the transport equations. In that case, the modeled charged
species concentration is very low compared to other ions dissolved in the solution.
Thus, the species concentration does not influence the solution’s conductivity and the
net charge within the fluid.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 241

 The Nernst-Einstein relation can in many cases be used for relating the species mobility
to the species diffusivity according to

Di
u m, i = --------
RT

where R (SI unit: J/(mol·K)) is the molar gas constant and T (SI unit: K) is the
temperature.

Note: In the Nernst-Planck Equations interface, the ionic species contribute to the
charge transfer in the solution. It includes an electroneutrality condition and also
computes the electric potential field in the electrolyte. For more information, see
Theory for the Nernst-Planck Equations Interface. This interface is included in the
Chemical Reaction Engineering Module.

Supporting Electrolytes
In electrolyte solutions, a salt can be added to provide a high electrolyte conductivity
and decrease the ohmic losses in a cell. These solutions are often called supporting
electrolytes, buffer solutions, or carrier electrolytes. The added species, a negative and
a positive ion pair, predominates over all other species. Therefore, the supporting
electrolyte species can be assumed to dominate the current transport in the solution.
In addition, the predominant supporting ions are usually selected so that they do not
react at the electrode surfaces since the high conductivity should be kept through the
process, that is, they should not be electro-active species. This also means that the
concentration gradients of the predominant species in a supporting electrolyte are
usually negligible.

Modeling and solving for a supporting electrolyte in the Electrostatics or Secondary

Current Distribution interfaces will give a potential distribution that drives the
migration in the Transport of Diluted Species Interface.

The current density vector is proportional to the sum of all species fluxes as expressed
by Faraday’s law:

i = F  zi Ni
i

242 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The electroneutrality condition ensures that there is always a zero net charge at any
position in a dilute solution. Intuitively, this means that it is impossible to create a
current by manually pumping positive ions in one direction and negative ions in the
other. Therefore, the convective term is canceled out to yield the following expression
for the electrolyte current density, where j denotes the supporting species:

 –zj um, j F cj ∇φ
2
i = F (5-8)
j

Equation 5-8 is simply Ohm’s law for ionic current transport and can be simplified to

i = – κ ∇φ (5-9)

where κ is the conductivity of the supporting electrolyte. A current balance gives the
current and potential density in the cell

∇⋅i = 0

which, in combination with Equation 5-9, yields:

∇ ⋅ ( – κ ∇φ ) = 0 (5-10)

Equation 5-10 can be easily solved using the Electrostatics or Secondary Current
Distribution interface and, when coupled to the Transport in Diluted Species interface,
the potential distribution shows up in the migration term.

Crosswind Diffusion
Transport of diluted species applications can often result in models with a very high
cell Péclèt number — that is, systems where convection or migration dominates over
diffusion. Streamline diffusion and crosswind diffusion are of paramount importance
to obtain physically reasonable results. The Transport of Diluted Species interface
provides two crosswind diffusion options using different formulations. Observe that
crosswind diffusion makes the equation system nonlinear even if the transport
equation is linear.

DO CARMO AND GALEÃO

This is the formulation described in Numerical Stabilization in the COMSOL
Multiphysics Reference Manual. The method reduces over- and undershoots to a
minimum, even for anisotropic meshes.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 243

 In some cases, the resulting nonlinear equation system can be difficult to converge.
This can happen when the cell Péclèt number is very high and the model contains
many thin layers, such as contact discontinuities. You then have three options:

• Refine the mesh, especially in regions with thin layers.

• Use a nonlinear solver with a constant damping factor less than one.
• Switch to the Codina crosswind formulation.

CODINA
The Codina formulation is described in Ref. 1. It adds diffusion strictly in the direction
orthogonal to the streamline direction. Compared to the do Carmo and Galeão
formulation, the Codina formulation adds less diffusion but is not as efficient at
reducing over- and undershoots. It also does not work as well for anisotropic meshes.
The advantage is that the resulting nonlinear system is easier to converge and that
underresolved gradients are less smeared out.

Danckwerts Inflow Boundary Condition

Constraining the composition to fixed values at an inlet to a reactor may sometimes
result in issues with unreasonably high reaction rates or singularities at the inlet
boundary. These problems may many times be mitigated by using a flux boundary
condition instead, based on the upstream concentrations and the fluid velocity at the
boundary. In chemical engineering, this type of flux boundary condition is also known
as a Danckwerts condition.

Use the Danckwerts condition to specify inlet conditions for domains where high
reaction rates are anticipated in the vicinity to the inlet (Ref. 2).

Given an upstream concentration ci,0, the Danckwerts inflow boundary condition

prescribed the total flux as

n ⋅ ( J i + uc i ) = n ⋅ ( uc i, 0 ) (5-11)

244 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Mass Balance Equation for Transport of Diluted Species in Porous
Media

VARIABLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

The following equations for the molar concentrations, ci, describe the transport of
solutes in a variably saturated porous medium for the most general case, when the pore
space is primarily filled with liquid but also contain pockets or immobile gas:

∂ ( θc ) + ∂ ( ρc ) + ∂ (a c ) + u ⋅ ∇c =
i P, i ∂ t v G, i i
∂t ∂t (5-12)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S
i

On the left-hand side of Equation 5-12, the first three terms correspond to the
accumulation of species within the liquid, solid, and gas phases, while the last term
describes the convection due to the velocity field u (SI unit: m/s).

In Equation 5-12 ci denotes the concentration of species i in the liquid (SI unit:
mol/m3), cP, i the amount adsorbed to solid particles (moles per unit dry weight of
the solid), and cG, i the concentration of species i in the gas phase.

The equation balances the mass transport throughout the porous medium using the
porosity εp, the liquid volume fraction θ; the matrix (drained) density, ρ = (1 − εp)ρp,
and the solid phase density ρp.

For saturated porous media, the liquid volume fraction θ is equal to the porosity εp,
but for partially saturated porous media, they are related by the saturation s as θ = sεp.
The resulting gas volume fraction is av = εp − θ = (1-s)εp.

On the right-hand side of Equation 5-12, the first term introduces the spreading of
species due to mechanical mixing resulting from the porous media (dispersion), as well
as from diffusion and volatilization to the gas phase. The dispersion tensor is denoted
DD (SI unit: m2/s) and the effective diffusion by De (SI unit: m2/s).

The last two terms on the right-hand side of Equation 5-12 describe production or
consumption of the species; Ri is a reaction rate expression which can account for
reactions in the liquid, solid, or gas phase, and Si is an arbitrary source term, for
example due to a fluid flow source or sink.

Adsorption
The time evolution of the adsorption, the solute transport to or from the solid phase,
is defined by assuming that the amount of solute adsorbed to the solid, cP,i, is a
function of the concentration in the fluid ci. This implies that the solute concentration

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 245

 in the liquid and solid phase are in instant equilibrium. The adsorption term can be
expanded to give

∂c P, i ∂c i ∂ε P ∂c i ∂ε P
∂ ρc = ρK P,i – ρc P, i (5-13)
( P, i ) = ρ – ρc P, i ∂ t ∂t
∂t ∂ ci ∂ t ∂t

where kP,i = ∂cP,i/∂ci is the adsorption isotherm.

Volatilization
Volatilization is the process where a solute species in the liquid is transported to the
gas phase due to vaporization. Assuming that the amount of solute in the gas phase,
cG,i, is a linear function of the liquid phase concentration, the volatilization term is
defined as

∂c G, i ∂c i ∂a v ∂c i ∂a v
∂a = av + k G, i c i = a v k G, i + k G, i c i (5-14)
v c G, i ∂ ∂ ∂ ∂ t ∂t
∂t c i t t

where kG,i = ∂cG,i/∂ci is the linear volatilization.

SATURATED POROUS MEDIA

In the case of transport in a saturated porous medium, θ = εp, and the governing
equations are

∂ ε
( c ) + ∂ ( ρc P, i ) + u ⋅ ∇c i = ∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i (5-15)
∂t p i ∂t

Convection in Porous Media

Convection (also called advection) describes the movement of a species, such as a
pollutant, with the bulk fluid velocity. The velocity field u corresponds to a superficial
volume average over a unit volume of the porous medium, including both pores and
matrix. This velocity is sometimes called Darcy velocity, and defined as volume flow
rates per unit cross section of the medium. This definition makes the velocity field
continuous across the boundaries between porous regions and regions with free flow.

The velocity field to be used in the Model Inputs section on the physics
interface can, for example, be prescribed using the velocity field from a
Darcy’s Law or a Brinkman Equations interface.

246 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

The average linear fluid velocities ua, provides an estimate of the fluid velocity within
the pores:

u
u a = ----- Saturated
εp
u
u a = ---- Partially saturated
θ

where εp is the porosity and θ = sεp the liquid volume fraction, and s the saturation, a
dimensionless number between 0 and 1.

Figure 5-1: A block of a porous medium consisting of solids and the pore space between the
solid grains. The average linear velocity describes how fast the fluid moves within the pores.
The Darcy velocity attributes this flow over the entire fluid-solid face.

CONVECTIVE TERM FORMULATION

The Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media interface includes two formulations
of the convective term. The conservative formulation of the species equations in
Equation 5-12 is written as:

∂ θc ∂
( i ) + ∂ ( ρ b c P, i ) + (a v c G, i) + ∇ ⋅ uc i =
∂t ∂t ∂t (5-16)
∇ ⋅ [ ( D D, i + D e, i ) ∇c i ] + R i + S i

If the conservative formulation is expanded using the chain rule, then one of the terms
from the convection part, ci∇·u, would equal zero for an incompressible fluid and
would result in the nonconservative formulation described in Equation 5-12.

When using the nonconservative formulation, which is the default, the fluid is assumed
incompressible and divergence free: ∇ ⋅ u = 0. The nonconservative formulation

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 247

 improves the stability of systems coupled to a momentum equation (fluid flow
equation).

To switch between the two formulations, click the Show button ( ) and
select Advanced Physics Options. In the section Advanced Settings select
either Nonconservative form (the default) or Conservative form. The
conservative formulation should be used for compressible flow.

Diffusion in Porous Media

The effective diffusion in porous media, De, depends on the structure of the porous
material and the phases involved. Depending on the transport of diluted species occurs
in free flow, saturated or partially saturated porous media, the effective diffusivity is
defined as:

De = DF Free Flow
εp
D e = ----- D L Saturated Porous Media
τL
θ
D e = ----- D L Partially Saturated Porous Media
τL
θ av
D e = ----- D L + ------ k G D G Partially Saturated with Volatilization
τL τG

Here DF, DL, and DG are the single-phase diffusion coefficients for the species diluted
in fluid, pure liquid, and gas phases, respectively (SI unit: m2/s), and τF, τL, and τG
are the corresponding tortuosity factors (dimensionless).

The tortuosity factor accounts for the reduced diffusivity due to the fact that the solid
grains impede Brownian motion. The interface provides predefined expressions to
compute the tortuosity factors in partially saturated porous media according to the
Millington and Quirk model (Ref. 12):

–7 ⁄ 3 2 –7 ⁄ 3 2
τL = θ ε , τG = av ε

and Bruggeman model

–5 ⁄ 2 2 –5 ⁄ 2 2
τL = θ ε , τG = av ε

248 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

For saturated porous media θ = εp. The fluid tortuosity for the Millington and Quirk
model is

–1 ⁄ 3
τL = εp

and for the Bruggeman model the tortuosity is defined as

–1 ⁄ 2
τL = εp

User defined expressions for the tortuosity factor can also be applied.

Dispersion
The contribution of dispersion to the mixing of species typically overshadows the
contribution from molecular diffusion, except when the fluid velocity is very small.

The spreading of mass, as species travel through a porous medium is caused by several
contributing effects. Local variations in fluid velocity lead to mechanical mixing
referred to as dispersion occurs because the fluid in the pore space flows around solid
particles, so the velocity field varies within pore channels. The spreading in the
direction parallel to the flow, or longitudinal dispersivity, typically exceeds the
transverse dispersivity from up to an order of magnitude. Being driven by the
concentration gradient alone, molecular diffusion is small relative to the mechanical
dispersion, except at very low fluid velocities.

Figure 5-2: Spreading of fluid around solid particles in a porous medium.

is controlled through the dispersion tensor DD. The tensor components can either be
given by user-defined values or expressions, or derived from the directional
dispersivities.

Using the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities in 2D, the dispersivity tensor
components are (Ref. 9):

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 249

 2 2
ui uj
D Dii = α L ------- + α T -------
u u

ui uj
D Dij = D Dji = ( α L – α T ) -----------
u

In these equations, DDii (SI unit: m2/s) are the principal components of the
dispersivity tensor, and DDji and DDji are the cross terms. The parameters αL and αT
(SI unit: m) specify the longitudinal and transverse dispersivities; and ui (SI unit: m/s)
stands for the velocity field components.

In order to facilitate modeling of stratified porous media in 3D, the tensor formulation
by Burnett and Frind (Ref. 10) can be used. Consider a transverse isotropic media,
where the strata are piled up in the z direction, the dispersivity tensor components are:

2 2 2
u v w
D Lxx = α 1 ------- + α 2 ------- + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
v u w
D Lyy = α 1 ------- + α 2 ------- + α 3 -------
u u u
2 2 2
w u v
D Lzz = α 1 ------- + α 3 ------- + α 3 -------
u u u (5-17)
uv
D Lxy = D Lyx = ( α 1 – α 2 ) -------
u
uw
D Lxz = D Lzx = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u
vw
D Lyz = D Lzy = ( α 1 – α 3 ) --------
u

In Equation 5-17 the fluid velocities u, v, and w correspond to the components of the
velocity field u in the x, y, and z directions, respectively, and α1 (SI unit: m) is the
longitudinal dispersivity. If z is the vertical axis, α2 and α3 are the dispersivities in the
transverse horizontal and transverse vertical directions, respectively (SI unit: m).
Setting α2 = α3 gives the expressions for isotropic media shown in Bear (Ref. 9 and
Ref. 11).

Adsorption
As species travel through a porous medium they typically attach to (adsorb), and
detach (desorb) from the solid phase, which slows chemical transport through the
porous medium. Adsorption and desorption respectively reduces or increases species

250 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

concentrations in the fluid. The adsorption properties vary between chemicals, so a
plume containing multiple species can separate into components (Ref. 6). The
Adsorption feature includes four predefined and one user defined relationships to
predict the solid concentrations, cPi from the concentration in the liquid phase, ci:

KL c
c P = c Pmax -------------------- Langmuir
1 + KL c
c N
c P = K F  -------- Freundlich
 c ref
bT c (5-18)
c P = c Pmax ---------------------------------------------- Toth
N 1 ⁄ NT
( 1 + ( bT c ) T )
KB c0 c
c P = -------------------------------------------------------------- BET
( c S – c )  1 + ( K B – 1 ) -----
c
 c S

The above equations contains the following parameters:

• Freundlich: Freundlich constant KF (SI unit:·mol/kg), Freundlich exponent NF

(dimensionless), and reference concentration cref (SI unit: mol/m3).
• Langmuir: Langmuir constant KL (SI unit: m3/mol), and adsorption maximum
cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• Toth: Toth constant bT (SI unit: m3/mol), Toth exponent NT (dimensionless), and
adsorption maximum cPmax (SI unit: mol/kg).
• BET (Braunauer-Emmett-Teller): BET constant KB (dimensionless), and a
monolayer adsorption capacity c0 (SI unit: mol/kg) and a Saturation concentration,
cS(SI unit: mol/m3).

These predefined expressions are adsorption isotherms that describe the amount of
species sorbed to the solid. Defined at equilibrium, the switch between liquid and solid
phases is instantaneous.

Using a Species Source feature, arbitrary expressions can be entered to define, for
example, nonequilibrium and temperature-dependent adsorption laws, including
those set out by Fetter (Ref. 7) and Bear and Verruijt (Ref. 8).

The retardation factor, RF, describes how adsorption slows the solute velocity, uc,
relative to the average linear velocity of the fluid, ua, as in

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 251

 ρ b ∂c P ua
RF = 1 + ------ -------- = ------
θ ∂c uc

If the contaminant moves at the average linear velocity of the fluid for RF = 1. For
RF > 1, the contaminant velocity is smaller than the fluid velocity owing to residence
time on solids.

Reactions
Chemical reactions of all types influence species transport in porous media. Examples
include biodegradation, radioactive decay, transformation to tracked products,
temperature- and pressure-dependent functions, exothermic reactions, and
endothermic reactions. The reactions represent change in species concentration per
unit volume porous medium per time. Reaction terms are used on the right-hand side
of the governing equation to represent these processes. For reactions in a fluid phase,
multiply the expression by the fluid volume fraction θ. Similarly, solid phase reaction
expressions include the bulk density, ρb, and gas phase reactions include the gas
volume fraction, av.

The following expressions define some common types of reactions:

ln 2
R Li = – θ --------- c i Radioactive decay — liquid
λ Li
ln 2 ∂c Pi
R Pi = – ρ b ---------  ---------- c i Radioactive decay — solid
λ Pi ∂c i
∂c Gi
R Gi = – --------- a v  ----------- c i Radioactive decay — gas
ln 2
λ Gi  ∂c 
R Lk = θζ Li c i Creation from parent c Li — liquid
∂c Pi
R Pk = ρ b ζ Pi  ---------- c i Creation from sorbed parent c Pi — solid
∂c i
∂c Gi
R Gk = – ζa v  ----------- c i Reaction — gas
 ∂c 

where λ is the chemical half life, ζ is a reaction rate, and the subscripts L, P, and G
denote liquid, solid, and gas phases, respectively. In the equations, the reactions either
depend on liquid concentration ci or solid phase concentrations cPi obtained using the
sorption derivative with ci or gas phase concentration cGi depending on the gas volume
fraction, the volatilization, and the liquid concentration.

252 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

Reaction rates can vary with results from other equations in your model, such as
temperature. For example, enter the Arrhenius rate law given in Ref. 13:

Ea ( T – TR )
ζ T = ζ R exp ------------------------------ (5-19)
R u TT R

In Equation 5-19, T denotes the current absolute temperature, TR denotes the

reference absolute temperature, Ea is the activation energy, and Ru is the universal gas
constant.

Mass Transport in Fractures

When thin fractures occur in porous media, fluid flow tends to move faster along the
fracture than in the surrounding media. The transport of chemical species therefore
also occur also faster in the direction of the fractures.

The fluid flow in a fracture can be modeled using Darcy’s law formulated in a thin
sheet of porous medium (a fracture):

κ
u = --- ∇ t p
μ

Here u is the tangential Darcy velocity, κ is the fracture permeability, μ the fluid’s
dynamic viscosity, and ∇tp is the tangential gradient of the fluid pressure.

The equation to solve for mass transport of species ci in a thin fracture, embedded in
a porous media, is derived from Equation 5-12. The resulting equation is:

∂ρ b c P, i ∂ε p c i
d fr  ------------------- + ------------- + ∇ t ⋅ ( D e, i ∇ t c i ) + u ⋅ ∇ t c i = d fr R i + d fr S i + n 0 (5-20)
 ∂t ∂t 

Here dfr is the fracture thickness, cP, i the amount of species adsorbed to (or desorbed
from) the porous matrix (moles per unit dry weight of the solid), εp is the fracture
porosity, and De is the effective diffusivity. The first two terms on the right hand side
represent source terms from reactions, and n0 corresponds to out-of plane flux from
the adjacent porous domain.

In order to arrive at the tangential differential equation, the gradient is split into the
contributions normal and tangential to the fracture:

∇c i = ∇ n c i + ∇ t c i

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 253

 The normal gradient is defined in the direction normal to the boundary representing
the fracture and the tangential gradient is defined along the boundary. Assuming that
the variations in the normal (thin) direction of the fracture are negligible compared to
those in the tangential direction, the gradient is simplified as:

∇c i = ∇ t c i

Using The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures Interface, the transport along
fracture boundaries alone is solved for. In this case the transport in the surrounding
porous media neglected and the out-of plane flux n0 vanishes.

See Fracture for more information about the boundary feature solving
Equation 5-20. See The Transport of Diluted Species in Fractures
Interface for more information about the physics interface solving the
equation on boundaries only.

References
1. R. Codina, “A discontinuity-capturing crosswind-dissipation for the finite element
solution of the convection-diffusion equation”, Computer Methods in Applied
Mechanics and Engineering, vol. 110, pp. 325–342, 1993.

2. P.V. Danckwerts, “Continuous flow systems: Distribution of residence times”,

Chem. Eng. Sci., vol. 2, no. 1, 1953.

3. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 2, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

4. J.M. Coulson and J.F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, vol. 1, 4th ed.,
Pergamon Press, Oxford, U.K., 1991.

5. D.E Rosner, Transport Processes in Chemically Reacting Flow Systems, ISBN-13:

978-1483130262, Butterworth-Heinemann, 1986

6. D.M. Mackay, D.L. Freyberg, P.V. Roberts, and J.A. Cherry, “A Natural Gradient
Experiment on Solute Transport in a Sand Aquifer: 1. Approach and Overview of
Plume Movement”, Water Resourc. Res., vol. 22, no. 13, pp. 2017–2030, 1986.

7. C.W. Fetter, Contaminant Hydrogeology, Prentice Hall, 1999.

8. J. Bear and A. Verruijt, Modeling Groundwater Flow and Pollution, D. Reidel

Publishing, 1994.

254 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES

9. J. Bear, Hydraulics of Groundwater, McGraw-Hill, 1979.

10. R.D. Burnett and E.O. Frind, “An Alternating Direction Galerkin Technique for
Simulation of Groundwater Contaminant Transport in Three Dimensions: 2.
Dimensionality Effects”, Water Resour. Res., vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 695–705, 1987.

11. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

12. R.J. Millington and J.M. Quirk, “Permeability of Porous Solids”, Trans. Faraday
Soc., vol. 57, pp. 1200–1207, 1961.

13. I. Langmuir, “Chemical Reactions at Low Temperatures”, J. Amer. Chem. Soc.,

vol. 37, 1915.

14. R.B. Bird, W.E. Stewart, and E.N. Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 2nd ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2007.

THEORY FOR THE TRANSPORT OF DILUTED SPECIES INTERFACE | 255

256 | CHAPTER 5: CHEMICAL SPECIES TRANSPORT INTERFACES
 6

Heat Transfer Interfaces

This chapter has information about the heat transfer interfaces used for modeling,
particularly in porous media. As with all other physical descriptions simulated by
COMSOL Multiphysics®, any description of heat transfer can be directly coupled
to any other physical process. This is particularly relevant for systems based on
chemical reactions and mass transfer along with fluid flow. These physics interfaces
are found under the Heat Transfer branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

In this chapter:

• The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer

The documentation of all features in the Heat Transfer and Heat Transfer in Porous
Media interfaces are available in the Heat Transfer Module User’s Guide,
specifically in these sections:

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

257
 The Mechanisms for Heat Transfer
This section includes these topics:

• Selecting the Right Heat Transfer Interface

• Heat Conduction
• Heat Convection and Conduction

• The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces

• Theory for the Heat Transfer Module
• The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Porous Media
• The Heat Transfer in Fractures Interface
• Theory for Heat Transfer in Thin Structures

Selecting the Right Heat Transfer Interface

The Heat Transfer branch included with the Subsurface Flow Module license includes
a number of subbranches to describe energy transport.

Heat transfer through conduction and convection (both nonisothermal flow and
conjugate heat transfer) in solid and free media is supported by physics interfaces
shipped with the basic COMSOL Multiphysics license.

If you are using this module with enhanced Heat Transfer interface features, see also
the Heat Transfer Module documentation for additional information. See Where Do
I Access the Documentation and Application Libraries?

This module also includes The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface. The physics
interface itself supports heat transfer in porous media where the thermal conductivity
and heat capacity are affected by the extent of porosity. As a porous media is made up
of a solid matrix filled with a fluid, heat is transported at different rates through the
two types of media. The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface provides tools and
support for defining an appropriate matrix model.

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media interface characterizes temperature distributions

for geological phenomena and freely couple to other features in a model. The physics

258 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

interface applies to systems consisting of porous media, solids and fluids. Included are
physics interfaces to calculate effective properties for porous media consisting of fluids
and solid components, or a rock formation with different mineral proportions. The
physics interface also features predefined expressions to represent the geotherm as a
radiogenic heat source.

The Heat Transfer in Fractures (htlsh) interface ( ), found in the Thin Structures
physics area under the Heat Transfer branch ( ), is used to model heat transfer by
conduction and convection in layered materials represented by boundaries. The
interface is active on all boundaries where a layered material is defined, with a Porous
Medium model active by default. All functionalities for including other boundary
contributions, such as surface-to-ambient radiation, are also available.

Heat Conduction
The Heat Transfer interface in this module provides tools for analyzing heat transfer
that is proportional to a temperature gradient, or conduction. It accounts explicitly for
the geotherm as a heat source. This physics interface provides options to calculate
thermal properties for multicomponent media. It incorporates boundary and source
options to represent transversal fluxes such as convection and radiation at adjacent
domains that you do not explicitly model.

The physics interface describes heat flow with negligible impacts of moving fluids. Just
a few targets for conduction modeling include resistive heating in cores, estimating a
surface heat flux, describing a temperature profile with depth, phase changes,
exothermic reactions, and cooling earth analyses. The physics interface provides tools
to consider radiative and convection heat transfers at boundaries so that you can focus
on the physics in the domain of interest. With the COMSOL Multiphysics
“just-type-it-in” modeling flexibility, it is straightforward to create nonlinear
expressions where, for example, thermal conductivity varies with temperature as well
as other physics.

Heat conduction figures into radiogenic decay, pressure-temperature phase changes,

cooling-earth models, radiation, exothermic and endothermic reactions of solutes,
microbial processes, diurnal heating, and many other earth processes. Conductive heat
transfer can be long-term steady or exquisitely sensitive over tiny time increments. It
can involve molten materials, mineral grains, fluids trapped within interstices,
human-made structures, and molten rock. The heat conduction can operate within
closed systems, but the geometry of interest often interacts at edges and surfaces with
adjacent domains through moving fluids, conduction across a semi-insulating layer,

THE MECHANISMS FOR HEAT TRANSFER | 259

 and radiation. The models can cover such large distances that the tiny amount of heat
given off by the spontaneous decay of the radiogenic particles present in most rocks
produces the discernible temperature gradient with depth known to many as the
geotherm.

Heat Convection and Conduction

The Heat Transfer in Porous Media Interface can also set up analyses for heat
transferred by convection and conduction for subsurface flow applications. Use this
physics interface to describe heat carried by moving oil, water, or magma that you
describe with a velocity field. Presumably the fluid velocity is nonzero but not
necessarily so. You can couple the Heat Transfer interface to a Fluid Flow interface if
you want to model, for example, rising magma, hot springs, liquid-steam transfers,
conduction in a solid rock, buoyancy flow in streams, magma convection, and hot oil
moving through a pipe. For models involving large depth changes, this physics
interface provides a number of options to characterize the geothermal gradient.

The physics interface assumes that the model domain includes a single fluid moving
through a domain with a number of immobile constituents, including several different
solids and trapped fluids. Such is the case in many porous media.

The physics interface can also describe heat transferred with a moving fluid, which can
be a surface flow or one confined to interstices in a porous medium. Analyses can cover
thermal pollution migrating in a stream, transfer of hot oil into and up a well, steam
injection, and diurnal heating in variably saturated soil.

This physics interface easily combines with others for an unlimited number of
interesting analyses. Consider, for example, that it is straightforward to include the
impacts of temperature change on hydraulic conductivity, biodegradation and
chemical reaction rates, electric and magnetic potential fields, and rock strength.
Likewise, you can feed back results of other physics, including reactions that consume
heat, to a heat transfer model.

Phase Change
When modeling heat transfer in solids, fluids, and porous media, the properties of a
phase changing material are specified according to the apparent heat capacity
formulation. This formulation gets its name from the fact that the latent heat is
included as an additional term in the heat capacity.

260 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES

The subnode Phase Change Material is available under the Solid, Fluid, or Porous
Medium node.

With phase transitions in porous media, there is often a remaining phase that does not
participate in the phase transition. For example, water in the soil, which does not freeze
even at values far lower than 0 degrees, or water in food, which does not evaporate
completely during cooking. To consider such residual phases Immobile Fluids or
Immobile Solids can be used.

Frozen Inclusion: Application Library path Subsurface_Flow_Module/

Heat_Transfer/frozen_inclusion

A variety of modeling techniques are discussed in the following sections of the Heat
Transfer Module User’s Guide:

• Heat Transfer Variables

• Using the Boundary Conditions for the Heat Transfer Interfaces
• Handling Frames in Heat Transfer
• Heat Transfer Consistent and Inconsistent Stabilization Methods
• Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow Coupling
• Solver Settings
See also The Heat Transfer Module Interfaces and Theory for the Heat Transfer
Module.

THE MECHANISMS FOR HEAT TRANSFER | 261

262 | CHAPTER 6: HEAT TRANSFER INTERFACES
 7

Multiphysics Interfaces and Couplings

The Subsurface Flow Module contains predefined multiphysics interfaces for

poroelasticity and multiphase flow in porous media. When a predefined
multiphysics interface is added from the Model Wizard or Add Physics window, it
adds the constituent interfaces and the Multiphysics node which automatically
includes one or more multiphysics couplings.

In this chapter:

• Theory for the Poroelasticity Interface

• The Poroelasticity Interface
• Theory for the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface
• The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media Interface
• The Reacting Flow in Porous Media Interface

263
 Theory for the Poroelasticity
Interface
The Poroelasticity Interface theory is described in this section:

• Background and Theory: Constitutive Relations

• Fluid Flow — Darcy’s Law
• Solids Deformation
• Reference for the Poroelasticity Interface

Background and Theory: Constitutive Relations

Poroelasticity typically describes the linked interaction between fluid flow and
deformation in elastic porous media.

Of the two constitutive relations governing poroelastic behavior, one relates the stress,
strain, and pore pressure:

σ = Cε – α B p f I (7-1)

Here, σ is the Cauchy stress tensor, ε is the strain tensor, αB is the Biot-Willis
coefficient, and pf is the fluid pore pressure. The elasticity matrix C must in this
formulation be measured under “drained” conditions, by measuring the strain induced
by a change in stress under constant pore pressure.

By splitting the above relation in a volumetric and a deviatoric part, it can be seen that
the deviatoric part (shear stress) is independent of the pore pressure coupling. For an
isotropic linear elastic material this means

dev ( σ ) = 2G d dev ( ε )

where Gd is the shear modulus of the drained porous matrix.

The coupling in the volumetric part is written as

p m = – K d ε vol + α B p f

here, Kd is the bulk modulus of the drained porous matrix and

264 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

 p m = – trace ( σ )/3

is the mean pressure (positive in compression) calculated from the stress tensor σ. The
trace of the strain tensor, the volumetric strain εvol, is a measurement of the porous
matrix dilation or contraction.

Note that the Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling adds the load from the
pore pressure, αB pf, to the Solid Mechanics interface. In this setting, the
stress tensor components and mean pressure are effective stress measures.

The mean pressure is available from the Solid Mechanics interface in the
variable solid.pm and the volumetric strain in the variable solid.evol.
The fluid pore pressure is available from the Darcy’s Law interface in the
dependent variable p.

In Biot’s theory (Ref. 1), the other constitutive relation relates the increment in fluid
content ζ to volumetric strain and incremental pore pressure. The fluid pore pressure
is proportional to the dilation of the porous matrix and the variation of fluid content:

p f = M ( ζ – α B ε vol ) (7-2)

Biot and Willis (Ref. 1) measured the coefficients αB and M with the unjacketed
compressibility test and derived expressions for these coefficients in terms of solid and
fluid bulk moduli (or compressibilities).

The variable M, sometimes called the Biot modulus, is the inverse of the storage
coefficient S in Darcy’s Law. It is defined through Equation 7-2 as the change in fluid
content due to pore pressure changes under constant volumetric strain:

S = ----- = ∂ζ
1
M ∂ pf ε ii

Using this definition, it is possible to measure the storage coefficient S directly in the
lab, but at least in the case of an ideal porous material it can be calculated from basic
material properties as

εp αB – εp
S = ------ + ------------------ (7-3)
Kf Ks

THEORY FOR THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACE | 265

 Here, εp is the porosity, Kf the fluid bulk modulus (the inverse of the fluid
compressibility χf); and Ks the solid bulk modulus, that is, the would-be bulk modulus
of a homogeneous block of the solid material making up the porous matrix.

The parameter αB is the Biot-Willis coefficient, which relates the volume of fluid
expelled (or sucked into) a porous material element due to the volumetric change of
the same element.

The Biot-Willis coefficient can be measured experimentally as the change of mean

pressure due to changes in the pore pressure, or defined in terms of the drained and
solid bulk moduli as

∂p m Kd
αB = = 1 – -------
∂ pf ε ii
Ks

The drained bulk modulus Kd is always smaller than the solid bulk modulus Ks (a solid
block is stiffer than a porous block made of the same material), and therefore the
Biot-Willis coefficient is always bounded to ε p ≤ α B ≤ 1 .

The parameter αB does not depend on the properties of the fluid, but on the properties
of the porous matrix. A soft porous matrix has a Biot-Willis coefficient close to 1 (since
K d <<K s ), while for a stiff matrix, it is proportional to the solid volume,
K d ≈ ( 1 – ε p )K s .

Using the expression for the parameter αB, the storage coefficient S in Equation 7-3
is calculated in terms of the porosity εp, Biot-Willis coefficient αB, and the bulk moduli
of the fluid Kf and drained porous matrix Kd

εp 1 – αB
S = ------ + ( α B – ε p ) ---------------- (7-4)
Kf Kd

sFor a soft porous matrix, α B ≈ 1 , and S ≈ ε p ⁄ K f ; and for a stiff porous matrix
α B ≈ ε p , and S ≈ ε p ⁄ K f are the lower bounds for the storage S. The maximum value
2
for the storage is attained when α B = ( 1 + ε p ) ⁄ 2 , so S = ε p ⁄ K f + ( 1 – ε p ) ⁄ 4 K d .

Fluid Flow — Darcy’s Law

Darcy’s law describes the flow field in the poroelastic medium. The fluid equation
comes from the mass conservation

∂ ρ
( ε ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρf u ) = Qm (7-5)
∂t f p

266 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Darcy’s velocity including gravity reads

κ
u = – --- ( ∇p f + ρ f g ∇D )
μ

and the storage model

∂ ρ ∂p f
( ε ) = ρf S
∂t f p ∂t

which translates the mass conservation equation to

∂p f ∂
ρf S + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ f u ) = – ρ f α B ----- ε vol (7-6)
∂t ∂t

here, ∂εvol/∂t is the rate of change in volumetric strain of the porous matrix, ρf is the
fluid density, and αB is the Biot-Willis coefficient. The poroelastic storage term S is
calculated from Equation 7-4.

You can interpret the right-hand term as the rate of expansion of the pore space. As
∂εvol/∂t increases, the volume fraction available for the fluid also increases and thereby
gives rise to liquid sink, therefore the negative sign in the source term
Qm = −ρfαB∂εvol/∂t.

Solids Deformation
Navier’s equations for a solid in equilibrium under a purely gravitational load is

– ∇ ⋅ σ = ρ av g = ( ρ f ε p + ρ d )g (7-7)

where σ is the stress tensor, εp is the porosity, and ρav, ρf, and ρd represent average,
fluid, and drained densities. The fluid-to-structure coupling enters as an additional
volumetric term in the stress tensor as described in Equation 7-1, which, in analogy
with general External Stress, can be identified as an external pore pressure.

Equation 7-7, which describes an equilibrium state (inertial effects are neglected), also
applies to the case of a time-dependent flow model. This is a valid assumption because
the time scale of the structural response is generally many orders of magnitude faster
than the time scale of the flow. When you study the coupled process on the time scale
of the flow, you can therefore assume that the solid reaches a new equilibrium
immediately in response to a change in the flow conditions. This means that the

THEORY FOR THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACE | 267

 stresses and strains change in time — even if Equation 7-7 appears to be stationary —
and that the structure-to-fluid coupling term, involving the rate of strain, is nonzero.

Reference for the Poroelasticity Interface

1. M.A. Biot, “Mechanics of Deformation and Acoustic Propagation in Porous
Media”, J. Appl. Phys., vol. 33, pp. 1482–1498, 1962.

268 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Poroelasticity Interface
This section describes the Poroelasticity multiphysics interface found under the
Structural Mechanics branch ( ) when adding a physics interface.

See The Solid Mechanics Interface in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual
for details about this physics interface and feature node settings.

The Poroelasticity interface ( ) combines a transient formulation of Darcy’s law with

a quasi-static formulation of Solid Mechanics. The coupling occurs on the domain
level, where the pore pressure from the Darcy’s Law interface acts as a load for the
Solid Mechanics interface, causing swelling or shrinking. Changes in volumetric strain
affect the pore space, acting as a mass source or sink in Darcy’s Law.

When a predefined Poroelasticity interface is added from the Structural Mechanics

branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics windows, Solid Mechanics and Darcy’s
Law interfaces are added to the Model Builder.

In addition, the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the

Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Solid Mechanics interface is intended for general structural analysis of 3D, 2D, or
axisymmetric bodies. In 2D, plane stress or plane strain assumptions can be used. The
Solid Mechanics interface is based on solving Navier’s equations, and results such as
displacements, stresses, and strains are computed.

The Darcy’s Law interface is used to simulate fluid flow through interstices in a porous
medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media where the permeability
and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient is the major driving
force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores.

In previous versions of COMSOL Multiphysics, a specific physics

interface called Poroelasticity was added to the Model Builder. Now, a
predefined multiphysics coupling approach is used, improving the
flexibility and design options for your modeling. For specific details, see
The Multiphysics Branch and Multiphysics Modeling Workflow in the
COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACE | 269

 To model orthotropic or anisotropic porous materials requires the
Structural Mechanics Module. For information about the constitutive
equations and theory background, see Structural Mechanics Theory.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Poroelasticity, specific settings are included with the physics interfaces and the coupling
features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Solid Mechanics and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added, an empty
Multiphysics node appears in the model tree. You can choose from the available
coupling features but the settings in the constituent interfaces are nor modified.

Coupling features are available from the context menu (right-click the
Multiphysics node) or from the Physics toolbar, Multiphysics menu.

TABLE 7-1: MODIFIED SETTINGS FOR A POROELASTICITY INTERFACE

PHYSICS INTERFACE OR MODIFIED SETTINGS

COUPLING FEATURE

Solid Mechanics For the Solid Mechanics interface, under Structural

Transient Behavior the Structural transient behavior is
set to Quasi-static.
Darcy’s Law For the Darcy’s Law interface, under Discretization, the
shape function order for the temperature is set to
Linear. Also, a Poroelastic Storage model is added by
default.
Poroelasticity The Domain Selection is the same as that of the
participating physics interfaces.
The corresponding Solid Mechanics and Darcy’s Law
interfaces are preselected in the Coupled Interfaces
section.

Failure of a Multilateral Well: Application Library path

Subsurface_Flow_Module/Flow_and_Solid_Deformation/multilateral_well

270 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Poroelasticity (Multiphysics Coupling)
The Poroelasticity multiphysics coupling node ( ) links bidirectionally the Solid
Mechanics and Darcy’s Law interfaces to account for poroelastic deformation.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is poro1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the poroelasticity coupling,
or select All domains as needed.

When Poroelasticity is added as an effect of adding a Poroelasticity interface, the

selection is the same as for the participating physics interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the physics interfaces selected in the Coupled
Interfaces section can be selected.

POROELASTIC COUPLING PROPERTIES

In the Reference pressure level field, enter a reference pressure pref (SI unit: Pa) at
which the pore pressure does not affect the porous matrix deformation. The default
value is 1 atm.

For the Biot-Willis coefficient list, the default is to take its value From material. Choose
User defined to enter a Biot-Willis coefficient αB (dimensionless) in the text field.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Solid
mechanics and Flow in porous media lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

THE POROELASTICITY INTERFACE | 271

 The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Poroelasticity node from a
physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model Builder, for
example Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Flow in porous media list defaults to None as
there is nothing to couple to.

If a physics interface is deleted and then added to the model again, then
in order to reestablish the coupling, you need to choose the physics
interface again from the Solid mechanics or Flow in porous media lists. This
is applicable to all multiphysics coupling nodes that would normally
default to the once present interface. See Multiphysics Modeling
Workflow in the COMSOL Multiphysics Reference Manual.

272 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Theory for the Multiphase Flow in
Porous Media Interface
The model equations that are solved in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface
are based on the mass conservation of each phase and on an extended Darcy’s law. The
mass conservation equation for each phase is given by

∂
( ε ρ s ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρi ui ) = Qi (7-8)
∂t p i i

where εp (dimensionless) is the porosity, and the vector ui should be interpreted as the
volumetric flux of phase i (SI unit m3/(m2·s) or m/s). The volumetric fluxes are
determined using the extended Darcy’s law (Ref. 2)

κ ri
u i = – ------- κ ( ∇p i – ρ i g ) (7-9)
μi

where κ denotes the permeability (SI unit: m2) of the porous medium, g the
gravitational acceleration vector (SI unit m/s2), and μi the dynamic viscosity (SI unit:
kg/(m·s)), pi the pressure field (SI unit: Pa), and κri the relative permeability
(dimensionless) of phase i, respectively. The phase pressures pi are related through the
capillary pressure functions p cij :

p i – p j = p cij ( s 1, …, s N ) i≠j (7-10)

One phase pressure can be chosen independently so that N − 1 capillary pressure

relations are needed to define the other phase pressures. In addition it is assume that
all phases together fill the pore space completely, so that we have

 si = 1 (7-11)
i=1

Pressure-Saturation Formulation
The algebraic relations in Equation 7-10 and Equation 7-11 allow for a reduction of
the number of dependent variables. An often used way is to eliminate N − 1 phase
pressures and one of the saturations. This results in a so-called pressure-saturation

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 273

 formulation (Ref. 3). The procedure in the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface is
to pick one of the phases, let us say phase i c , then express the volume fraction, s ic , of
this phase in terms of the volume fractions of the other phases and in addition to use
the pressure, p i c , of this phase to define the other phase pressures:

N
 
s i c = 1 –   s i (7-12)
 i = 1, i ≠ i c 

p i = p ic + p c ( s 1, …, s N ) for i ≠ i c (7-13)
ij

The equations for the volume fractions si, (i ≠ ic) are given by Equation 7-8 and
Equation 7-9. To arrive at an equation for pi, the conservation equations of all phases
are summed. This results in

N
   N 
∂
εp ρi si + ∇ ⋅ 
 ρ i u i = Q tot
 (7-14)
∂t   
 i=1  i = 1 

where the total mass source Qtot is given by

Q tot =  Qi (7-15)
i=1

The equations for the volume fractions si are solved in the Phase Transport in Porous
Media interface (see Equation 4-45 and Equation 4-46). The Equation 7-14 for the
pressure field p ic , needed as an input to the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface,
is solved for in the Darcy’s Law interface: the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
multiphysics coupling interface replaces the equation

∂ 1
( ε ρ ) + ∇ ⋅ ( ρ ic u d ) = Q m where u d = – ------ κ ( ∇p i c – ρ ic g ) (7-16)
∂ t p ic μic

which is originally implemented in the Darcy’s Law interface, with Equation 7-14 by
adding the following terms to the left-hand side of Equation 7-16:

N
   N 
∂
εp ρ i s i – ε p ρ tot + ∇ ⋅ 
 ρ i u i – ( ρ tot u d )
 (7-17)
∂t   
 i=1  i = 1 

and by setting the right-hand side Qm to be equal to Qtot.

274 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

Furthermore, the Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics coupling interface
couples the user inputs for the porosity and permeability of the porous matrix in the
Darcy’s Law interface to the corresponding user input fields in the Phase and Porous
Media Transport Properties feature, and couples the pressure field computed for in the
Darcy’s Law interface to the user input field for the pressure of the phase computed
from the volume constraint.

Note that when the hydraulic conductivity of a domain is specified in the Darcy’s Law
interface (instead of the permeability), the coupled Phase and Porous Media Transport
Properties feature is supplied with a permeability that is computed using a reference
kinematic viscosity of 1.004*10-6 m2s-1 (kinematic viscosity of water at 293.15 K).

In the other direction, the multiphysics coupling node provides the averaged density
(denoted by ρtot in Equation 7-17 above) and effective viscosity to the Darcy’s Law
interface.

Mass Source
When adding a Mass Source node in the coupled Phase Transport interface, it is by
default assumed that the net mass source of all phases, Qtot, equals zero. This implies

Qic = –  Qi (7-18)
i = 1, i ≠ i c

However, when mass is transfered from or to phases not accounted for in the phase
transport interface, for instance when mass is released or absorbed by the solid part of
the porous matrix, select the Mass transfer to other phases check box. In this case the
mass source for the phase calculated from the volume constraint should also be
specified, and the net total mass source Qtot is supplied as a right-hand side to the
Darcy Equation 7-14 for p ic .

Boundary Conditions
When supplying boundary conditions for the coupled Phase Transport in Porous Media
and Darcy’s Law interfaces, bear in mind that the Pressure boundary condition in the
Darcy’s Law interface affects the pressure of the phase from the volume constraint, p i c .
If the pressure of another phase needs to supplied, take into account the capillary
pressure.

THEORY FOR THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 275

 Since the coupled Darcy’s Law interface uses the conservation equation for the total
mass (Equation 7-14) to solve for p ic , the Mass Flux boundary condition in the Darcy’s
Law interface should be used to prescribe the mass flux of all phases together.

If the mass flux of the phase computed from the volume constraint needs to be
prescribed at a boundary, and the total mass flux is not known a priori, it might be
necessary to compute for the total mass flux in the form of a Lagrange multiplier by
using the weak constraint formulation for the pressure boundary condition in the
Darcy’s Law interface.

References
1. J. Bear, Dynamics of Fluids in Porous Media, Elsevier Scientific Publishing, 1972.

2. Z. Chen, G. Huan, and Y. Ma, Computational Methods for Multiphase Flows in

Porous Media, Philadelphia: Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics, 2006.

3. R. Helmig, Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface – A

Contribution to the Modeling of Hydrosystems, Springer–Verlag, 1997.

276 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media
Interface
The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface ( ) combines the Darcy’s Law interface
with the Phase Transport in Porous Media interface to model the flow and transport of
multiple immiscible phases in a porous medium.

When a predefined Multiphase Flow in Porous Media interface is added from Porous
Media and Subsurface Flow branch ( ) of the Model Wizard or Add Physics window,
Phase Transport and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added to the Model Builder. In addition,
the Multiphysics node is added, which automatically includes the Multiphase Flow in
Porous Media multiphysics coupling.

On the Constituent Physics Interfaces

The Phase Transport in Porous Media interface is used to simulate the transport of
immiscible multiple species in a porous medium and solves for their averaged volume
fractions (also called saturations). The interfaces between the different phases are not
tracked explicitly, although microscopic interfacial effects are taken into account in the
macroscopic equations through the capillary pressure functions.

The Darcy’s Law interface is used to simulate fluid flow through interstices in a porous
medium. It can be used to model low-velocity flows or media where the permeability
and porosity are very small, and for which the pressure gradient is the major driving
force and the flow is mostly influenced by the frictional resistance within the pores.

SETTINGS FOR PHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLING FEATURES

When physics interfaces are added using the predefined couplings, for example
Multiphase Flow in Porous Media, specific settings are included with the physics
interfaces and the coupling features.

However, if physics interfaces are added one at a time, followed by the coupling
features, these modified settings are not automatically included.

For example, if single Phase Transport and Darcy’s Law interfaces are added, an empty
Multiphysics node appears in the model tree. You can choose from the available
coupling features but the settings in the constituent interfaces are not modified.

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 277

 Multiphase Flow in Porous Media (Multiphysics Coupling)
The Multiphase Flow in Porous Media multiphysics coupling node ( ) links
bidirectionally the Phase Transport in Porous Media and Darcy’s Law interfaces.

SETTINGS
The Label is the default multiphysics coupling feature name.

The Name is used primarily as a scope prefix for variables defined by the coupling node.
Refer to such variables in expressions using the pattern <name>.<variable_name>. In
order to distinguish between variables belonging to different coupling nodes or physics
interfaces, the name string must be unique. Only letters, numbers, and underscores (_)
are permitted in the Name field. The first character must be a letter.

The default Name (for the first multiphysics coupling feature in the model) is mfpm1.

DOMAIN SELECTION
When nodes are added from the context menu, you can select Manual (the default)
from the Selection list to choose specific domains to define the multiphase flow
coupling, or select All domains as needed.

When Multiphase Flow in Porous Media is added as an effect of adding a Multiphase Flow
in Porous Media interface, the selection is the same as for the participating physics
interfaces.

Only domains that are active in the participating physics interfaces (which are chosen
from the Coupled Interfaces selection list) can be selected.

COUPLED INTERFACES
This section defines the physics involved in the multiphysics coupling. The Phase
transport and Flow in porous media lists include all applicable physics interfaces.

The default values depend on how the coupling node is created.

• If it is added from the Physics ribbon (Windows users), Physics contextual toolbar
(Mac and Linux users), or context menu (all users), then the first physics interface
of each type in the component is selected as the default.
• If it is added automatically when a multiphysics interface is selected in the Model
Wizard or Add Physics window, then the two participating physics interfaces are
selected.

278 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

You can also select None from either list to uncouple the Multiphase Flow in Porous
Media node from a physics interface. If the physics interface is removed from the Model
Builder, for example Darcy’s Law is deleted, then the Flow in porous media list defaults
to None as there is nothing to couple to.

THE MULTIPHASE FLOW IN POROUS MEDIA INTERFACE | 279

 The Reacting Flow in Porous Media
Interface
The Reacting Flow in Porous Media, Transport of Diluted Species interface ( ) is used
to study the flow and chemical composition of a gas or liquid moving through the
interstices of a porous medium.

It combines the Brinkman Equations, and Transport of Diluted Species in Porous Media
interfaces. The Reacting Flow, Diluted Species multiphysics coupling feature, which is
added automatically, couples the fluid flow and mass transport.

The interface can be used for stationary and time-dependent analysis in 2D, 2Daxi and
3D.

Detailed information are available in Section The Reacting Flow in Porous Media
Multiphysics Interface of the Chemical Reaction Engineering User’s Guide.

280 | CHAPTER 7: MULTIPHYSICS INTERFACES AND COUPLINGS

I n d e x
A absolute pressure 43, 177
adsorption 214, 228
Application Libraries window 21
application library examples
Brinkman equations 173
convection and diffusion 197
creeping flow 37
Darcy’s law 104
fluid model 262
free and porous media flow 181
laminar flow 42
migration in electric field 197
poroelasticity 270
Richards’ equation 130
storage model 110
transport of diluted species 192
atmosphere/gauge (node) 120
average linear velocity 96, 125

B Bernoulli’s equation 91
Biot-Willis coefficient 264, 271
boundary nodes
Brinkman equations 173
Darcy’s law interface 104
fracture flow 164
free and porous media flow 181
tpdl interface 138
transport of diluted species 194
boundary stress (node) 52
Brinkman equations 168
Brinkman equations interface 171
theory 168
Brooks and Corey retention model 126

C CFL number
settings 41, 173
common settings 18

| 281
 concentration (node)
transport of diluted species 201
constitutive relations, poroelasticity 264
continuity (node) 158
convection 246
convective terms, diluted species 238
creeping flow (spf) interface 36

D Darcy velocity 115, 246

Darcy’s law interface 102
theory 92
Darcy’s law material model 162
Darcy’s law, poroelasticity and 266
documentation 19
domain nodes
Brinkman equations 173
Darcy’s law 104
free and porous media flow 181
tpdl interface 138
transport of diluted species 194

E edge nodes
Darcy’s law interface 104
electrode-electrolyte interface coupling (node)
free and porous media flow 113
transport of diluted species 211
elevation 112
emailing COMSOL 22
Equilibrium Reaction
theory for 236
equilibrium reaction (node) 208

F Faraday’s law 242

flow continuity (node) 54
fluid and matrix properties (node)
Brinkman equations 174
Darcy’s law 106
fracture flow 166
fluid flow
Brinkman equations theory 168

282 | CHAPTER :
 fracture flow theory 160
porous media and subsurface flow 129, 163
Richards’ equation theory 124
fluid properties (node)
free and porous media flow 182
single-phase, laminar flow 42
fluids and matrix properties (node) 139
flux (node) 230
transport of diluted species 202, 230
flux discontinuity (node) 203
Darcy’s law 117
transport of diluted species 203
fracture flow (node) 123
fracture flow interface 163
theory 160
free and porous matrix properties (node) 183
free and porous media flow interface 180
theory 179
Freundlich exponent 251
fully developed flow 48

G general stress (boundary stress condition) 52

gravity 56

H hydraulic head (node) 120

Hygroscopic Swelling 223
hyporheic zones 168

I inflow (node) 200

initial values (node)
Brinkman equations 176
Darcy’s law 109
fracture flow 167
free and porous media flow 184
single-phase, laminar flow 45
tpdl interface 140
transport of diluted species 198
inlet (node) 47
tpdl interface 142
internet resources 19

| 283
 intrinsic volume averages 168

K knowledge base, COMSOL 22

L laminar flow interface 37

Langmuir constant 251
leaking wall, wall boundary condition 45, 185
line mass source (node)
fluid flow 55
species transport 205
line source
species transport 240
linearized storage, porous media 132
local
CFL number 41, 173

M magnetostriction (node) 271

mass based concentrations (node) 198
mass flux (node)
tpdl interface 141
mass source (node)
Brinkman equations 176
Darcy’s law 109
material models, fracture flow 161
MPH-files 21
multiphysics
magnetostriction 271
poroelasticity 269

N Nernst-Einstein relation 196, 213, 217, 242

no flow (node) 117
no flux (node) 200
tpdl interface 141
no slip, wall boundary condition 45, 185
no viscous stress (open boundary) 51
nodes, common settings 18
nonconservative formulations 238
normal stress, normal flow (boundary stress condition) 52

O Ohm’s law 243

open boundary (node)
single-phase flow 51

284 | CHAPTER :
 transport of diluted species 207
outflow (node)
transport of diluted species 201
outlet (node) 49
tpdl interface 142

P pair nodes
Brinkman equations 173
Darcy’s law interface 104
free and porous media flow 181
transport of diluted species 194
partially saturated porous media (node) 215
periodic condition (node)
transport of diluted species 205
periodic flow condition (node) 53
permeability models 108
pervious layer (node) 121
physics interfaces, common settings 18
point mass source (node)
fluid flow 55
species transport 206
point nodes
Brinkman equations 173
Darcy’s law interface 104
free and porous media flow 181
point source
species transport 239
poroelastic storage (node)
Darcy’s law 111
poroelasticity interface
theory 264
poroelasticity multiphysics interface 269
porosity in fracture 166
porous electrode coupling (node) 210
free and porous media flow 112
porous media and subsurface flow
Brinkman equations interface 171
Darcy’s law interface 102
fracture flow interface 163

| 285
 free and porous media flow interface 180
Richards’ equation interface 129
theory, Brinkman equations 168
theory, free and porous media flow 179
porous media and subsurface flow theory 160
porous media transport properties (node) 211
porous media, variably saturated 124
pressure (node) 113, 116, 118
pressure and saturation (node) 141
pressure head (node) 120
pressure point constraint (node) 54
pseudo time stepping
settings 41, 173

R Reacting Volume 199, 233

reaction coefficients (node) 210
Reactions
in porous catalyst pellets 221
reactions (node)
transport of diluted species 198
reactive pellet bed (node) 219
retardation factor 251
retention models 126, 132
Reuss average 110, 132
Richards’ equation interface 129
theory 124
Richards’ equation model (node) 130

S saturated porous media 124

single-phase flow interface
laminar flow 37
sliding wall 46
slip, wall boundary condition 45, 185
solids deformation, poroelasticity and 267
standard settings 18
Stokes equations 36
Stokes flow 36
storage model 162
storage model (node)
Darcy’s law 110

286 | CHAPTER :
 storage models 132
stratified porous media 250
superficial volume average, porous media 168
superficial volume averages, porous media 246
Supporting Electrolytes 242
surface equilibrium reaction (node) 209
symmetry (node) 50
Darcy’s law 116
transport of diluted species 203

T technical support, COMSOL 22

theory
Brinkman equations 168
Darcy’s law 92
fracture flow 160
free and porous media flow 179
poroelasticity 264
Richards’ equation 124
transport of diluted species in porous media interface 235
transport of diluted species interface 234
thickness
fracture 224
out-of-plane 119
thin diffusion barrier (node) 207
Thin Impermeable Barrier 207
tortuosity factors 248
traction boundary conditions 52
transport of diluted species in porous media interface 192
theory 235
transport of diluted species interface 188, 225
theory 234
turbulent mixing (node)
transport of diluted species 197
two-phase Darcy’s law (tpdl) interface 137

V van Genuchten retention model 126

volume averages 168
volume force (node) 44
Brinkman equations 176
free and porous media flow 184

| 287
 volume fractions 132

W wall (node)
free and porous media flow 184
single-phase flow 45
websites, COMSOL 22

288 | CHAPTER :