ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

LOW COST HOUSING

RINKU TAUR 1 and VIDYA DEVI T 2

1
TCE Consulting Engineers Ltd, New Delhi, India.e-mail:[email protected]
2
TCE Consulting Engineers Ltd, New Delhi, India.e-mail:[email protected]

Abstract:
This paper aims to point out the various aspects of prefabricated building methodologies
for low cost housing by highlighting the different prefabrication techniques, and the
economical advantages achieved by its adoption. In a building the foundation, walls,
doors and windows, floors and roofs are the most important components, which can be
analyzed individually based on the needs thus, improving the speed of construction and
reducing the construction cost. The major current methods of construction systems
considered here are namely, structural block walls, mortar less block walls, prefabricated
roofing components like precast RC planks, precast hollow concrete panels, precast
concrete/Ferro cement panels are considered.

Keywords: Prefabrication; Precast RCC „kular‟, precast joist, Ferro cement products

2. Economy should be considered in

Introduction design of individual buildings,
layouts, clusters etc.
Affordable housing is a term used to 3. While preparing the specifications it
describe dwelling units whose total should be kept in mind that, cost
housing cost are deemed “Affordable” to a effective construction systems are
group of people within a specified income adopted.
range. (www.wikipedia.com) 4. Energy efficiency has gained
considerable importance due to
energy crisis especially in
In India, the technology to be adopted for
developing countries. Orientation,
housing components should be such that
built–form, openings & materials
the production and erection technology be
play a vital role besides landscaping
adjusted to suite the level of skills and
/ outdoor environment.
handling facilities available under
5. To develop an effective mechanism
metropolitan, urban and rural
for providing appropriate
conditions.(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri,
technology based shelter
2003)
particularly to the vulnerable group
and economically weaker
Logical approach for optimizing
section.(R.K.Garg, 2008)
housing solutions:

There should be a logical approach for Prefabrication as applied to `Low Cost

providing appropriate technology based on Housing
the availability of options, considering its (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)
technical and economical analysis. Advantages of prefabrication are:
1. There should be optimal space in 1. In prefabricated construction, as the
the design considering efficiency of components are readymade, self
space, minimum circulation space. supporting, shuttering and
scaffolding is eliminated with a
saving in shuttering cost.

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2. In conventional methods, the building industry. In actual construction,

shuttering gets damaged due to its the number of the bricks or blocks that are
repetitive use because of frequent broken into different sizes to fit into
cutting, nailing etc. On the other position at site is very large. which results
hand, the mould for the precast in wastage of material poor quality.
components can be used for large Increasing the size of wall blocks will prove
number of repetitions thereby economical due to greater speed and less
reducing the cost of the mould per mortar consumption, which can be
unit. achieved by producing low density bigger
3. In prefabricated housing system, size wall blocks using industrial wastes like
time is saved by the use of precast blast furnace slag and fly ash.
elements which are casted off-site Several prefabrication techniques have
during the course of foundations been developed and executed for walls but
being laid. The finishes and services these medium and large panel techniques
can be done below the slab have not proved economical for low rise
immediately. While in the buildings as compared to traditional brick
conventional in-situ RCC slabs, due work. (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)
to props and shuttering, the work
cannot be done, till they are i. Non erodable mud plaster:
removed. Thus, saving of time The plaster over mud walls gets eroded
attributes to saving of money. during rains, which necessitates costly
4. In precast construction, similar annual repairs. This can be made non
types of components are produced erodable by the use of bitumen cutback
repeatedly, resulting in increased emulsion containing mixture of hot
productivity and economy in cost bitumen and kerosene oil. The mixture is
too. pugged along with mud mortar and wheat/
5. Since there is repeated production rice straw. This mortar is applied on mud
of similar types of components in wall surface in thickness of 12 mm. One or
precast construction, therefore, it two coats of mud cow dung slurry with
results in faster execution, more cutback are applied after the plaster is dry.
productivity and economy. The maintenance cost is low due to
6. In prefabricated construction, the enhanced durability of mud
work at site is reduced to minimum, walls.(R.K.Garg, 2008)
thereby, enhancing the quality of
work, reliability and cleanliness.
7. The execution is much faster than
the conventional methods, thereby,
reducing the time period of
construction which can be beneficial
in early returns of the investment.

Concept of prefabrication / partial

prefabrication has been adopted for
speedier construction, better quality
components & saving in material quantities
& costs .Some of these construction Fig. 1. Mud Plastered House
techniques & Materials for walls, roof
& floor slab, doors & windows are as
follows: ii. Fly –Ash sand lime bricks:
In Walls:- By mixing of lime and fly ash in the
In the construction of walls, rammed presence of moisture, fly ash sand lime
earth, normal bricks, soil cement blocks, bricks are made. Fly Ash reacts with lime
hollow clay blocks, dense concrete blocks, at ordinary temperature and forms a
small, medium and room size panels etc of compound possessing cementitious
different sizes are used. However, bricks properties. After reactions between lime
continue to be the backbone of the and fly ash, calcium silicate hydrates are

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 ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

produced which are responsible for the vii. L Panel Roofing

high strength of the compound. Bricks viii. Trapezon Panel Roofing
made by mixing lime and fly ash are ix. Un reinforced Pyramidal Brick Roof
therefore, chemically bonded bricks. i. Precast RC plank roofing
The bricks are manufactured with the help system:
of hydraulic press and are dried in the This system consists of precast RC planks
autoclave. These bricks have various supported over partially precast joist.
advantages over the clay bricks, It RC planks are made with thickness partly
possesses adequate crushing strength, varying between 3 cm and 6 cm. There are
uniform shape, smooth finish and does not haunches in the plank which are tapered.
require plastering and also are lighter in When the plank is put in between the
weight than ordinary clay bricks. joists, the space above 3 cm thickness is
(R.K.Garg, 2008) filled with in-situ concrete to get tee-beam
effect of the joists. A 3 cm wide tapered
iii. Solid concrete and stone blocks: concrete filling is also provided for
This technique is suitable in areas where strengthening the haunch portion during
stones and aggregates for the blocks are handling and erection. The planks have 3
available locally at cheaper rates. numbers 6 mm dia MS main reinforcement
Innovative techniques of solid blocks with and 6 mm dia @ 20 cm centre to centre
both lean concrete and stones have been cross bars.
developed for walls. The gang-mould is The planks are made in module width of
developed for semi-mechanized faster 30 cm with maximum length of 150 cm
production of the blocks. and the maximum weight of the dry panel
In the manual process, single block is 50 kg (Figure 2).
moulds are used wherein the concrete is Precast joist is rectangular in shape, 15 cm
compacted with help of a plate vibrator. wide and the precast portion is 15 cm
With the use of a portable power screw deep (Figure 2). The above portion is
driven egg laying type machine, solid casted while laying in-situ concrete over
concrete blocks are made with higher planks. The stirrups remain projected out
productivity at low cost. Six blocks of 30 x of the precast joist. Thus, the total depth
20 x 5 cm size are cast in single operation of the joist becomes 21 cm. The joist is
with an output of 120-150/hr. (R.K.Garg, designed as composite Tee-beam with 6
2008) cm thick flange comprising of 3 cm precast
and 3 cm in-situ concrete (Figure 3). This
In Floor and Roof: section of the joist can be adopted up to a
span of 400 cm. For longer spans, the
Structural floors/roofs account for depth of the joist should be more and
substantial cost of a building in normal lifting would require simple chain pulley
situation. Therefore, any savings achieved block.
in floor/roof considerably reduce the cost The completely finished slab can be used
of building. Traditional Cast-in-situ as intermediate floor for living also
concrete roof involve the use of temporary In residential buildings, balcony
Shuttering which adds to the cost of projections can be provided along the
construction and time. Use of standardized partially precast joists, designed with an
and optimized roofing components where overhang carrying super imposed loads for
shuttering is avoided prove to be balcony as specified in IS: 875-1964, in
economical, fast and better in quality. addition to the self load and the load due
Some of the prefabricated roofing/flooring to balcony railings. The main
components found suitable in many low- reinforcement of the overhang provided at
cost housing projects are: the top in the in-situ concrete attains
i. Precast RC Planks. sufficient strength.
ii. Prefabricated Brick Panels The savings achieved in practical
iii. Precast RB Curved Panels. implementations compared with
iv. Precast RC Channel Roofing conventional RCC slab is about
v. Precast Hollow Slabs 25%.(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)
vi. Precast Concrete Panels

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(b) Partially precast joist

It is a rectangular shaped joist 13 cm
wide and 10 cm to 12.5 cm deep with
stirrups projecting out so that the overall
depth of joist with in-situ concrete
becomes 21 cm to 23.5 cm, it is designed
as composite Tee-beam with 3.5 cm thick
flange.(Figures 5 and 6 ). (P.K.Adlakha
Fig. 2 Precast R.C. Planks and H.C.Puri, 2002)

Fig. 3 R.C. Planks laid over partially

precast joists
Fig. 6 Precast R C Plank and Joist
System
ii. Prefabricated brick panel
roofing system:
The prefabricated brick panel roofing
system consists of:
(a) Prefab brick panel
Brick panel is made of first class bricks
reinforced with two MS bars of 6 mm dia
and joints filled with either 1:3 cement
sand mortar or M-15 concrete. Panels can
be made in any size
but generally width is 53 cm and the
length between 90 cm to120 cm,
depending upon the requirement. The gap
between the two panels is about 2 cms
and can be increased to 5 cms
depending upon the need. A panel of 90
cm length requires 16 bricks and a panel
of 120 cm requires 19 bricks (Figure 4).
(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)

Fig. 5 Details of Precast Joist

Structural design
The prefab brick panel for roof as well as
for floor of residential buildings has two
numbers 6 mm dia MS bars as
reinforcement up to a span of 120 cms.
The partially precast RC joist, is designed
as simply supported Tee-beam with 3.5cm
thick flange. The reinforcement in joist is
provided as per design requirements
depending upon the spacing and span of
Fig. 4 Brick Panel the joist.

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 ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

An overall economy of 25% has been

achieved in actual practice compared to
cast-in-situ RCC slab. (P.K.Adlakha and
H.C.Puri, 2002)

iii. Precast curved brick arch panel

roofing
This roofing is same as RB panel roofing
except that the panels do not have any
reinforcement. A panel while casting is
given a rise in the centre and thus an
arching action is created.
An overall economy of 30% has been
Fig. 8 RC Channel Unit System
achieved in single storeyed building and
20% in two or three storeyed buildings
v. Precast hollow slabs roofing
(Figure 7). (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri,
Precast hollow slabs are panels in which
2002)
voids are created by earthen kulars.
without decreasing the stiffness or
strength.
These hollow slabs are lighter than solid
slabs and thus save the cost of concrete,
steel and the cost of walling and
foundations too due to less weight.
The width of a panel is 300 mm and depth
may vary from 100 mm to 150 mm as per
the span, the length of the panel being
Fig. 7 Pre Fab Brick Arch Panel adjusted to suit the span. The outer sides
are corrugated to provide transfer of shear
iv. Precast RC channel roofing between adjacent units. The‟kulars„ are
Precast channels are trough shaped with placed inverted so as to create a hollow
the outer sides corrugated and grooved at during precasting (Figure 9). Extra
the ends to provide shear key action and reinforcement is provided at top also to
to transfer moments between adjacent take care of handling stresses during lifting
units. Nominal width of units is 300 mm or and placement. There is saving of about
600 mm with overall depths of 130 mm to 30% in cost of concrete and an overall
200 mm (Figure 8). The lengths of the saving of about 23%.(P.K.Adlakha and
units are adjusted to suit the span. The H.C.Puri, 2002)
flange thickness is 30 mm to 35 mm.
Where balcony is provided, the units are
projected out as cantilever by providing
necessary reinforcement for cantilever
moment. A saving of 14% has been
achieved in actual implementation in
various projects. (P.K.Adlakha and
H.C.Puri, 2002)

Fig.9 Hollow Slabs Roofing System

vi. L- Pan roofing

The pre cast full span RC L-panel is of
section „L‟. The L- panels are supported on
parallel gable walls and are used for sloped
roof of a building. The RC units can be cast

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 ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

with simple timber/ steel moulds and are was found to be the major cause of failure
easy for manual handling with simple of RCC structure in coastal areas and a
lifting and hoisting gadgets. L-Panel pyramidal roof with brick and cement
roofing is quite lighter in weight, economic concrete without reinforcement was
in construction and sound in performance therefore developed.
and durability. In addition to roof, the L- The roof is provided with peripheral RCC
panels can be used for making loft, Ring beam. The beam is supported on
cooking platforms, parapets and many eight brick columns or walls and is cast as
other minor elements of buildings and integral part of the pyramidal roof using
structures. The techniques has been used suitable shuttering. The roof can be of
widely in many mass housing programme different sizes and shapes. (Figure. 12)
in the country. (figure:10) (R.K.Garg, (R.K.Garg, 2008)
2008)

Fig.12 Un Reinforced Pyramidal Brick

Roof
Fig.10 L Pan Roofing System
vii. Trapezonpan roofing flooring Seismic strengthening arrangements
Typical precast RC trapezonpanel has of precast roofing systems
trapezium section in orthogonal directions. IS-4326; 1993 has given
The components are sound and can be recommendations regarding strengthening
manually handled with ease. These measures for precast roofing techniques.
components are placed in position to form The code recommends that for building
roof/floor and haunch filling is done with category A, B and C based on seismic co-
in-situ concrete to make a monolithic efficient, a tie beam is to be provided all
surface. round the floor or roof to bind together all
Trapezo-panels can be produced in stacks the precast components to make it a
one above the other and have advantage diaphragm. The beams shall be to the full
in production, stacking and supply. These width of supporting wall less the bearing of
units are used for floors/ roofs with / precast components. The depth of the
without deck concrete.(figure:11) beam shall be equal to the depth of the
(R.K.Garg, 2008) precast components plus the thickness of
structural deck concrete, whenever used
over the components. Tie beams shall be
provided on all longitudinal and cross
walls. In category D, structural deck
concrete of 35 mm thickness reinforced
with 6 mm dia bars, 150 mm both ways
and anchored into tie beams shall be
provided. For economy, the deck concrete
itself can serve as floor finish.
(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002)
Fig.11 Trapezonpan Roofing System
Other uses of prefabrication
viii. Un-reinforced pyramidal brick
The use of prefabrication for other
roof
materials can be made like lintels, sun
Un-reinforced pyramidal brick roof
shades, cupboard shelves, kitchen working
construction system is suitable for low cost
slab and shelves, precast Ferro cement
houses in cyclone affected and other
tanks, precast staircase steps, precast
coastal areas. Corrosion of reinforcement

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Ferro cement drains (P.K.Adlakha and Materials used:-

H.C.Puri, 2002) (BMTPC- Building Materials &
(a) Thin precast RCC lintel Technology Promotion Council, Govt.
Normally lintels are designed on the of India)
assumption that the load from a triangular By and large, conventional building
portion of the masonry above, acts on the materials like burnt bricks, steel and
lintel. Bending moment will be WL/8 where cement are higher in cost, utilize large
W is the load on the lintel and L is the amount of non-renewable natural
span assumed for the design purpose. By resources like energy, minerals, top soil,
this method, a thickness of 15 cm is forest cover,etc,. The continued use of
required. Thin precast RCC lintels are such conventional materials has adverse
designed taking into account the impact on economy and environment.
composite action of the lintel with the brick Environment friendly materials and
work. Design chart prepared for thin technologies with cost effectiveness are,
precast RCC lintels in the brick walls of therefore, required to be adopted for
normal residential building is applicable sustainable constructions which must fulfill
only when the load on the lintel is some or more of the following criterion :-
uniformly distributed. The brick work over Not endanger bio-reserves and be
the lintel is done in a mortar not leaner non-polluting.
than 1:6. The thickness of the lintel is kept Be self sustaining and promote self
equal to the thickness of brick itself having reliance.
a bearing of 230 mm on either supports. Recycle polluting waste into usable
Use of precast lintels speeds up the materials.
construction of walls besides eliminating Utilize locally available materials.
shuttering and centering. Adoption of thin Utilize local skills, manpower and
lintels results in upto 50% saving in managing systems.
materials and overall cost of lintels. Benefit local economy by being
(P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri, 2002) income generating.
Utilize renewable energy sources.
(b)Doors and windows Be accessible to people.
Innumerable types and sizes of doors and Be low in monetary cost.
windows used in single and similar
buildings. This involves the use of 1. Bamboo Mat Board
additional skilled labour on site and off site
and also wastage of expensive materials Raw material Bamboo grass(plant),
like timber, glass etc. Economy can be source Species
achieved by:
(i) Standardizing and optimizing Materials for Bamboo, polymeric
dimensions; production resin, chlorinated
(ii) Evolving restricted number of doors hydrocarbons and
and window sizes; and boron and cashew nut
(iii) Use of precast door and window shell liquid.
frames.(Fig. 13)
Applications Flooring, walling,
structural membrane,
false ceiling,
door/window frames.

2. Bamboo Mat Veneer Composite

Raw material Plantation wood,

source bamboo plant

Materials for Plantation wood

production veneer, bamboo mat,
Fig.13Frame Less Door polymeric resin,

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 ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

chlorinated 5. Fly Ash Polymer Composite

hydrocarbons, boron,
cashew nut shell liquid Raw material Fly ash from coal
source based power
Applications Door skin in flush generating plants.
doors, structural use
as roofing, web Materials for Fly ash, Polymeric
construction, prefab production material
and portable shelters,
packing, modular Applications Partitions, door
partitions, furniture. shutters, roofing
sheets
3. Bamboo Corrugated Roofing
Sheet 6. Blast Furnace Slag Composite

Raw material Bamboo grass(plant), Raw material Waste from steel

source Species source plants

Materials for Bamboo, polymeric Materials for Blast furnace slag,

production resin, chlorinated production polymeric resin,
hydrocarbons and laminating material
boron and cashew nut
shell liquid. coating Applications Partitions and interior
for UV Protection and finishing on walls
to improve
impermeability to 7. Sandwitched Fly Ash Panel
water.
Raw material Fly ash from coal
Applications Roofing sheets as source based power
substitute to generating plants.
corrugated Asbestos
Cement sheets, Materials for Fly ash, cement,
Galvanized Iron production sand, foaming agent
sheets, Aluminium
sheets and Fibre- Applications Partitions and walling
reinforced Plastic panels
(FRP) sheets.
8. Plantation Timber Doors/
4. Bamboo-Rice Husk Composite Windows

Raw material Rice mills, bamboo Raw material Rubber wood, popular
source plants (grass) source wood and other soft
woods
Materials for Rice husk, bamboo
production mat, cashew nut shell Materials for Rubber wood and
liquid phenolic resin. production popular wood plants,
thermoplastic and
Applications Temporary shelters, thermosetting resin,
ware houses, false adhesives
ceilings, insulation,
partition and stage Applications Doors and window
settings, industrial frames , flush and
and domestic floorings paneled door shutters

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Case histories in India Clay jalli in ventilators

Demonstrations Construction Others
Using Cost- Effective & Disaster External Cement plaster
Resistant Technologies – BMTPC’s White wash on internal walls
Initiatives Water proof cement paint on
BMTPC has been promoting cost-effective external walls
& environment- friendly building materials Precast Ferro cement lofts , shelves
& construction techniques in different , chajjas.
regions of the country. During recent past
the council has been laying emphasis on
putting up demonstration structures
utilising region specific technologies .
Such efforts for demonstrating innovative
technologies have created a much better
impact and helped in building up
confidence and acceptability in private &
public construction agencies, professional
& contractors. Details of the major
projects handled by them are given as
under:- Fig. 14

1. Demonstration Housing Project at

Laggerre, Bangalore, Karnataka.
(Figures 14 and 15)
Project Profile:-
Name of : VAMBAY – Ministry
scheme of HUPA
Location of site : Laggere, Bangalore
No. of Units : 252 (Ground +2)
Built-up area of a : 275sq.ft
unit
Unit consist of : 2 rooms 1 kitchen,
1 bath room, 1WC
Cost per unit : Rs.60000 Fig. 15 Typical Plan of A Unit
Cost per Sqft : Rs.218/-
Nodal State : Karnataka slum 2. Demonstration Housing Project at
Agency clearance Board Dehradun, uttarakhand
(Figures 18 and 19)
Technologies / Specification Project Profile:-
Foundation Name of : VAMBAY – Ministry
Random Rubble Stone Masonry scheme of HUPA
Walling
Solid Concrete blocks for 200mm Location of site : Dehradun
thick walls Ram Kusth
Clay Bricks for partition walls Ashram, Ryagi
RCC Plinth Band for Earthquake Road{28 Double
resistance Units(DUs)}
Roof/Floor Rotary club
RC Filler slab using clay bricks as kusth
fillers in ground Ashram,(Bhagat
RC slab for second floor Singh Colony
IPS flooring (34 DUs)
Doors & Windows Shanti Kusth
Pre-cast RCC door frames Ashram, Bhagat
Coir polymer Door shutters singh Colony
Steel Sheet window shutters (38DUs)

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 ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

No. of Units : 100 Fig. 19 Typical Plan of A Unit

Built-up area of : 181sq.ft Conclusions

a unit Mass housing targets can be achieved by
Unit consist of : 1room,kitchenspace, replacing the conventional methods of
1 bath room, 1WC planning and executing building operation
based on special and individual needs and
Cost per unit : Rs.45000 accepting common denominator based on
surveys, population needs and rational use
Cost per Sqft : Rs.249/- of materials and resources.
Adoption of any alternative technology on
Nodal State : District Urban large scale needs a guaranteed market to
Agency Development function and this cannot be established
Agency unless the product is effective and
economical. Partial prefabrication is an
Technologies / Specification approach towards the above operation
Foundation under controlled conditions.
Step footing in solid concrete blocks The essence lies in the systematic
Walling approach in building methodology and not
Solid /Hollow concrete blocks necessarily particular construction type or
RCC plinth, lintel, roof level band, design.
vertical reinforcement in corners for The methodology for low cost housing has
earth quake resistance to be of intermediate type- less
Roof/Floor sophisticated involving less capital
RCC planks & joist with screed investment. (P.K.Adlakha and H.C.Puri,
IPS flooring 2002)
Doors & Windows
Pre-cast RCC door frames Acknowledgements
Wood substitute door shutters The Authors owe a special word of
Fly ash polymer door shutter for gratitude to Ms Sayona Philip, OH-TCE
toilet. Delhi, Mr.H.K. Das, DGM–TCE, Mr. V.C.
Cement jalli in ventilators and Bhowmick, DGM-TCE, Mr. Tapan Ghosh,
windows Consultant-TCE, Mr.A.K. Srivastava,TCE,
Others Mr.B.S. Tomar, TCE, Mr.A.K. Pal, STUP
Internal and external pointing Consultants Pvt. Ltd. For their valuable
White wash on walls suggestions and constant support. Thanks
Precast ferrocement chajjas are also due to HUDCO, BMTPC and civil
Design Team of TCE Delhi for their moral
support without which, the paper on Low
Cost Housing could not have been
possible.

References

[1] “Faster Production of Stone Blocks and

Concrete Blocks‟, CBRI-Annual Report, 1999-
2000.
[2] Garg R.K., `Sustainable Human Settlements
and Cost Effective Housing Technologies.‟
Fig. 18 BMTPC
[3] Garg R.K., Garg N. K. & Batra Y. K.(2004),
Sanitation and Waste Water Disposal
Systems inRural Areas, Journal of Indian
Building Congress, Vol. 11, No. 2, 2004;
Seminar on “Up gradation of Housing &
Amenities in Rural Areas”, Bhubaneswar,
December, 22nd-23rd2004. BMTPC.

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 ACSGE-2009, Oct 25-27, BITS Pilani, India

[4] Gupta B.S., Jain S.K., Hira B.N.

“Trapezonpan Roofing/Flooring Scheme”,
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[5] Hira B.N. & Negi S.K., Journal of Indian
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Amenities in Rural Areas”, December, 22nd-
23rd2004. at Bhubaneswar Appropriate
Building Techniques for Rural Housing.
BMTPC.
[6] IS 4326: Earthquake Resistant Design and
Construction of Materials, 1993
[7] Lal A.K., `Hand Book of Low Cost Housing.‟
[8] National Urban Housing and Habitat Policy,
2007, Govt. of India.
[9] `Standards and Specifications for Cost
Effective Innovative Building Materials and
Techniques.‟ BMTPC.
[10] „Study on Low Cost Incremental Housing for
UP State.‟ BMTPCD, Adlakha and Associates.
[11] Verma. N., 1985, CBRI Building Research
Note No. 34 on Low Cost Sanitation for Rural
& Urban Houses.

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