Water Logging is a water quality monitoring program with the goals of using field

monitoring as an educational tool and an outreach experience for the senior citizens
in the Town of Huntington and for high school students in an intergenerational
project with the seniors. The program is foremost concerned with developing a
stewardship of our local bays and waters and further serves to establish baseline
data acquisition on select water quality parameters that can be used to gauge the
general “health” of the bays. The name, “Water Logging”, is derived from a ship’s
log which is used to keep a record of the ship's occurrences at sea. In this program,
we are “logging” water quality parameters.

Another problem associated with excessive irrigation on poorly drained soils is

waterlogging. This occurs (as is common for salinization) in poorly drained soils
where water can't penetrate deeply. For example, there may be an impermeable
clay layer below the soil. It also occurs on areas that are poorly drained
topographically. What happens is that the irrigation water (and/or seepage from
canals) eventually raises the water table in the ground -- the upper level of the
groundwater -- from beneath. Growers don't generally realize that waterlogging is
happening until it is too late -- tests for water in soil are apparently very
expensive.

The raised water table results in the soils becoming waterlogged. When soils are
water logged, air spaces in the soil are filled with water, and plant roots
essentially suffocate -- lack oxygen. Waterlogging also damages soil structure.

Worldwide, about 10% of all irrigated land suffers from water logging. This is an
area about the size of Idaho. As a result, productivity has fallen about 20% in this
area of cropland.

Both waterlogging and salinization could be reduced if the efficiency of irrigation

systems could be improved, and more appropriate crops (less water hungry)
could be grown in arid and semi-arid regions. In addition, increasing the cost of
water to more closely reflect its true value would encourage its conservation,
rather than using incentives that essentially encourage wasting water, as some
water rights laws in the US do (e.g., the "use it or lose it" approaches discussed
above). We can consider excessive irrigation to be another example of
humanities' attempt to increase "K" in ways that are unsustainable. For example,
one could argue that the Central Valley of CA shouldn't be lush and green; it is
one of the most agriculturally productive regions of the world only because of
irrigation, which may not be sustainable there.

Impact of Waterlogging and Salinity

The rise of groundwater tables to near the surface in SGW areas, and the
consequent soil salinization became, and continue to be, serious environmental
problem associated with irrigation in the Indus Basin. The impact of salinity on
agricultural productivity is severe: a 25 percent reduction in the production of
Pakistan's major crops is attributed by many experts and the Borrower to soil
salinity alone. In Sindh Province where the problem is much more severe, the
Borrower estimates that the impact may be closer to 40-60 percent in SGW
areas. The critical threshold at which salinity begins to affect the productivity of
agricultural land varies by crop. Similarly, the impacts of waterlogging on yields
are startling. High groundwater tables inhibit root growth and therefore reduce
crop yields. As the depth to watertable decreases to within 5 feet, yields of all
major crops begin to decline rapidly. At 0 to 0.8 feet depth-to-watertable, yields
are 2 percent for cotton, 9 percent for sugar, and 21 percent for wheat. In
addition, there are serious environmental and poverty impacts associated with
waterlogging and salinity:

• Waterlogging and salinity - principle threats to the sustainability of irrigated

agriculture
• An effective and efficient drainage is essential for sustainable irrigated
agriculture
• Over an area of 5 Million acres the water table remains shallower than 5
feet to NSL
• Negative impact of waterlogging and salinity in Pakistan is estimated at
Rs. 30 billion per annum

Measures Adopted to Control Waterlogging & Salinity

In the early 1960s, a massive effort to control waterlogging and salinity was
undertaken. By June 1999, 58 surface and sub-surface drainage projects had
been completed in a gross area of 18.507 million acres (7.40 Mha) at a cost of
Rs. 37 billion.

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Since large areas were earmarked in Pakistan for providing tile drainage, therefore, it
was felt essential to conduct research on tile drainage to define parameters of
design, locate and select suitable materials and test them in actual field conditions.
The Centre therefore assigned first priority to conduct research on tile drainage as a
measure to control waterlogging and salinity problems. The projects completed and
on-going ones are reported in the ensuing pages.
East Khairpur Tile Drainage Pilot Project
A Pilot Tile Drainage Project at Khairpur was planned and implemented. The
monitoring of the installed system to see its performance for soil improvement and
crop production was undertaken. The drainage system comprised of collectors and
PVC laterals with spacing of 150m and 300m.

The pilot study has produced encouraging results and the system can offer the best
alternative where the tubewell drainage is not suitable, because of limited aquifer
depth and saline groundwater. In the pilot project, the water table is controlled upto
100cm and there is a good improvement in groundwater and soil quality. However,
from the year 1994 watertable has again risen in the whole project area. This
happened because the project was handed over to SCARPs authorities where due to
 poor O&M the project is not getting the desired results. There are frequent faults in
pumps and electricity breakdowns as well. However, following results are reached
from first effort of DRC.
• Achievements
• Composite system of laterals excelled over long laterals.
• Maximum soil salinity decreased from 168 dS/m to 18 dS/m in 1995 within 2 cm of
soil surface.
• Watertable lowered below 100 cm from ground surface.
• Usable groundwater increased from 8% to 43% of the project area.
• Cotton yield increased from 5 maunds/acre to 15 maunds/acre.
• Wheat yield increased from 8 maunds/acre to 25 maunds/acre.
• Fibre envelope can replace gravel due to its efficient performance for 14 years.
• Capital cost can be reduced because actual drainage coefficient is 1.75 mm/day
against design value of 3 mm/day.
• Capital cost can be further reduced by supplementing electric motor-pumping with
low power diesel engines to ensure uninterrupted operation.

Surface Drainage and Watertable Control Project

Under the Irrigation System Management Research (ISM-R) Program, which was co-
funded by the USAID and GoP; DRC was recognized as a specialized Center. It is
capable of conducting research in drainage of waterlogged and saline soils. This
project was meant to establish physical, chemical, social and economic criteria for
the selection, design, construction and evaluation of drainage system on isolated
farms. It endeavoured to develop and test the low cost on-farm drainage.

• Achievements
DRC constructed six isolated tile drainage units under ISM-R in areas, which were
outside project boundaries of SCARPs of WAPDA. The idea of collaborative drainage
was developed to create awareness in the farming community about the importance
of drainage and to associate them in drainage activity by sharing capital cost of the
project and taking full responsibility of operation and maintenance. The average cost
of drainage was Rs.21,800 per hectare. The farmers shared upto 60 percent of the
capital cost and full operational and maintenance cost.
Monitoring and evaluation of these tile drainage units indicate that waterlogged and
saline soils were reclaimed. The concept of collaborative land drainage proved highly
successful. Looking into the great success of isolated tile drainage units for control of
soil salinity, waterlogging, and increase in crop yields, many progressive farmers
approached DRC for on-farm drainage on cost sharing basis.

• Suitability of Interceptor Drains

Interceptor drains are one of the physically feasible drainage alternatives to recover
seepage losses from unlined irrigation channels near their vicinity. Suitability of
these drains has been worked out over tile drains, which are running parallel to
perennial channels in DRC constructed tile drainage projects at Khairpur and Bughio
Farm. The benefit of interceptor drains lies in recovering 67% of the drainage
coefficient. It was observed that Dupit-Forchheimer method applies to estimate
seepage recovery if a calibration factor of 0.523 was introduced.
Based on available data, it is recommended to place drains between 1.8 and 2.8
metres depth below the ground surface at a distance between 15 and 23 metres
from the canal bank. To achieve better simulation for seepage interception a two-
dimensional numerical model for an isotropic media should be preferred over simple
analytical models.
 • Disposal of Drainage Effluent
Leaching and disposal of saline drainage water are the two basic requirements for
maintaining salt balance. Disposal requirements can be reduced by improved
irrigation water management and by reusing drainage water. There will however
always remain a greater need for disposal. Disposal is being effected through
evaporation ponds, surface drains, outfall drains, irrigation canals and most recently
injection wells. Each solution has its merits and demerits, however, gained
experience is still limited and it needs further research. At Nuclear Institute of
Agriculture farm, drainage effluent was first reused for growing kallar grass and later
diverted for irrigation of arable crops. Whereas at Bughio farm, the drainage effluent
is disposed off into the canal and at Sujawal into the fishpond for one year. At
Nawazabad farm, drainage effluent is used for irrigating crops. The most recent
started effort is an experiment to dispose off drainage water deep into the aquifer
through injection well at Nuclear Institute of Agriculture farm. Also, the data
collected from this project has been used to calibrate the tile drainage and injection
well model under non-steady-state conditions. The model results suggest the
drainage effluent may be injected into underlying deep aquifer without doing any
harm to local hydrological balance.

Tile Drainage System at Niaz Stadium Hyderabad

The rising of groundwater level by accumulation of rainwater in the adjoining areas
of Niaz Stadium Hyderabad led to a serious problem of waterlogging and salinity.
This polluted the ground and did not allow the grass to flourish and consequently the
ground became unfit for playing cricket and other games. Commissioner Hyderabad
Division and Chairman Sports Committee, realizing the problem, called on DRC
management to explore the possible solution to the problem. It was considered that
a sub surface tile drainage and rainwater evacuation system with disposal
arrangement would be an appropriate solution of the problem. DRC agreed to install
the system on full cost basis. After approval of the design and cost estimate, DRC
completed installation by July 1995.

Alternative Project Development for Drainage of Irrigated Lands

The project endeavors to develop physically feasible drainage alternatives for
different hydrological and agronomic units in the country. It seeks to evolve an
integrated irrigation and drainage complex. It should be comparably efficient and
less expensive than the existing drainage systems.

• Achievements
• Tile Drainage unit at Nabi Shah Wagan Farm was completed on 40 ha. Drainage
Coefficient is 3.5 mm/day.
• Land owners have paid 35% capital cost & 100% O&M costs.
• Cropping pattern has been changed from paddy to sugarcane, wheat, vegetables
and fruit farming.
• Farm returns substantiate that land owner can recover his share of the drainage
cost within 3 years. Incremental benefit over incremental cost ratio is 1.22.
• Due to over irrigation to paddy, tile drainage has become necessary for adjacent
lands to control high watertable conditions of surroundings.
• Construction of shallow tile drainage system to cultivate sugarcane at Matiari Sugar
Mill Farm Hyderabad.
• Construction of tile drainage to cultivate banana crop at Shaikh Suleman Farm
Saeedabad, Hyderabad.
 Development of Tile Drainage Project in Phase-II area of DRC in East Khairpur Tile
Drainage Pilot Project
Departmental Development Working Party of Ministry of Science and Technology and
DRC Technical Advisory Committee decided to extend the scope of this project to
other areas on cost sharing basis with the farmers. The landowners in the Phase-II
area were contacted for capital cost sharing and to take full responsibility of
operation and maintenance of the system after completion. As they showed their
inability, a tile drainage project was initiated at Jagir Farm District Shikarpur to study
the various aspects of the drainage in stressed areas having severe waterlogging and
salinity problems. Total area of the project was 100 hectares and tile drainage units
at Soomro Farm Jacobabad and Suhbatpur Balochistan were implemented. Post
project results are encouraging as regard to watertable and salinity control.
Skimming Well Modeling for Irrigation and Drainage of Agricultural Lands
The aim of this project is to develop a simulation model for groundwater resources of
Pakistan to predict its quantum of flow and quality at various depths below ground
surface in response to groundwater withdrawal rates. It is also envisaged to establish
criteria for the conjunctive use of surface and groundwater.
Sixteen Skimming wells were constructed for irrigation and drainage on cost-sharing
basis and at eight allocations, pumping and testing was performed.
Three-Dimensional Finite Element Groundwater Flow Model was developed and
exercised for Interceptor drains and comparison of Skimming and Scavenger wells.
Aquifer parameters like, hydraulic conductivity, storativity and solute dispersivity for
stratified conditions were determined in 3 dimensional spatial coordinates.
Management strategies for reducing the up coning of saline groundwater into fresh
groundwater were simulated and tested.
Modelling suggested that through injection wells, artificial recharge to groundwater is
practicable only when recharge rates are small. Moreover, for injecting wastes the
strainer of injection well should be placed sufficiently deep. It is proved that for the
same discharge upcoming of saline groundwater is less in case of multi-bore i.e.
double or triple bore skimming wells rather than for a single bore. Similarly double
and triple bore skimming wells result in greater control of rising watertable than is
possible from a single bore skimming well. Modelling exercises also predicted that
multilateral shallow interceptors are more effective and economical than a single
deep drain for seepage interception. For particular cases long term consequences of
groundwater mining and recharge were also predicted.

Salt Affected Soils and their Reclamation Project

Research on soil salinity, sodicity, economic and technical evaluation of various
reclamation methods, salinity control and management of reclaimed soils has been
undertaken. This is under a separate development project namely Salt Affected Soils
and their Reclamation.
Eighteen research studies are completed under this project. These cover aspects
such as reclamation, saline water use, resalinization, management of saline soils,
salt tolerance and biological reclamation.

Consumptive Use of Water by Crops

Consumptive use of water of sugar cane, wheat and cotton at pre-fixed watertable
depth was determined in conventional lysimeters. The water requirement of
sugarcane at 1.5 m depth is found to be 2,100mm and for wheat and cotton it is
450mm and 713mm at 1.25m and 1.5m depth respectively. The reference
evapotrans-piration of berseem was also determined.
 Determination of consumptive use of water for paddy and spring maize is in
progress, nearby the main lysimeter station. Two crop seasons of paddy and one
crop season of spring maize is completed. The interim results are as under:
1) CU of water for paddy = 1500 mm
2) CU of water for spring maize=413 mm.

Water Management Research Studies Under Field Conditions

The following research studies have been completed:

1. Determination of water requirement of sugarcane (BL-4 Variety).
2. Determination of water requirement for wheat and cotton crops under field
conditions.
3. Determination of water requirement of two wheat and two cotton varieties under
field conditions.
4. Development and testing of irrigation schedules for wheat, cotton and sugarcane
crops under rotational delivery water (wara bundi).
5. Effect of alternate, irrigation skipping on the yields of wheat and cotton.
6. Effect of different irrigation levels on the yields of wheat and cotton and soil
salinity assessment.
7. Effect of different irrigation methods on the yield of cotton.

Innovative Irrigation Techniques

Recognizing the problem of scarcity of irrigation water, the center conducted
experiments on comparatively newer methods of irrigation with the aim to save
irrigation water without causing any decrease in crop yield, and also to see how far
those methods were useful in preventing soil salinity development in the root zone.
Water management practices through innovative irrigation techniques can prevent
the problems of waterlogging and salinity in the root zone.

Trickle Irrigation System

Results from research on trickle irrigation system are summarized as follows:
i) This method of irrigation is capable to save irrigation water upto 60% over furrow
irrigation for vegetable crops.
ii) Weed emergence is minimized, thus less labour cost.
iii) All the system components are working satisfactorily for about 8 years. However,
the life of trickler is only for two crop seasons.
iv) Soil salinity did not develop in the wetted zone. However, it developed at wetted
periphery. Thus the land needs leaching operation after three years if sufficient
rainfall is not received.
v) Higher yield of vegetables and higher water use efficiency was noted in trickle
irrigation when compared with furrow method.

Sprinkler Irrigation System

DRC is conducting research on sprinkler irrigation system. For this purpose, DRC
engineers and scientists have designed and fabricated sprinkler system for about one
acre. All the components used in this system are fabricated from local material. The
system is immovable type which is connected directly to a tubewell.

i) Under this system, 27-30% irrigation water could be saved over flood irrigation
method by growing wheat and cotton crops.
ii) The system has been working satisfactorily for about 8 years.
iii) Higher yield and higher water use efficiency are achieved in sprinkler irrigation
 method as compared to flood irrigation method.
Agricultural Research Project-II
Following two projects were sponsored by Pakistan Agricultural Research Council
through PCRWR:
• Project No.1: Analysis and Monitoring Water Quality of Lower Indus Down Stream
Kotri.
• Project No.2: Analysis of Water Quality of Hamal and Manchar Lakes.
Nitrate Concentration in Effluent from Isolated Drainage Units
Nitrate-N has been recognized as one of the most important agriculture related
contaminant of groundwater. It also contributes to global warming and ozone layer
depletion. Increasing levels of Nitrate-N in drinking water are associated with blue
baby disease and cancer. Most of the population, especially rural people, utilizes
groundwater for drinking, which is at the verge of deterioration due to excessive use
of nitrogen-fertilizers. Keeping in view the health as well as environmental concerns
of nitrate nitrogen a pilot study was launched to investigate the seriousness of the
problem. Field sites were selected within the boundaries of DRC installed isolated tile
drainage units Nawazabad Farm, Bughio Farm, Nuclear Institute of Agriculture (NIA),
Tando Jam, East Kharipur Pilot Project, Essani Farm, at Nabishah Farm, and
Minilysimeters installed at DRC Campus.

The objectives of these studies were:

(a) to assess magnitude and seriousness of the problem in the selected areas;
(b) to delineate the problem area specially in shallow groundwater; and
(c) to create awareness among fellow researchers, scientists and farming community
about nitrate contamination.

Achievements
• The results of the study conducted at different isolated tile drainage units in lower
Indus reveal, that there is no serious danger of groundwater contamination by
Nitrate-N leaching if the existing drainage system is functioning well.
• The Nitrate-N concentrations at the selected sites were within the maximum
permissible limits except a few from lateral lines. Nevertheless, they clearly pointed
out the potential for contamination.
• In auger holes Nitrate-N concentration was more in collected samples being in
comparatively deeper watertable depths, however, in shallow watertable depths
within tile drainage area, its accumulation is low and Nitrate-N is removed by
drainage effluent.

Drainage of irrigated land is required to reduce waterlogging and soil salinization that inevitably accompanies
waterlogging in arid zones. At present, about 20-30 million hectares of irrigated land are seriously affected by
salinity.

FAO-AGL Saline Soils Overview Read more …

FAO-LADA Case Studies on Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands Read more …

Agricultural drainage water management in arid and semi-arid areas

Publication Series: Irrigation and Drainage Paper 61, 2002

This publication provides planners, decision-makers and engineers with guidelines to sustain irrigated agriculture
and at the same time to protect water resources from the negative impacts of agricultural drainage water
disposal. On the basis of case studies from Central Asia, Egypt, India, Pakistan and the United States of America,
it distinguishes four broad groups of drainage water management options: water conservation, drainage water
reuse, drainage water disposal and drainage water treatment. All these options have certain potential impacts on
the hydrology and water quality in an area, with interactions and trade-offs occurring when more than one is
applied. This publication presents a framework to help make a selection from among the various drainage water
management options and to evaluate their impact and contribution towards development goals. In addition, it
presents technical background and guidelines on each of the options to enable improved assessment of their
impacts and to facilitate the preparation of drainage water management plans and designs.
(5704 KB)

Materials for subsurface land drainage systems

Publication Series: FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper 60, 2000

This publication presents practical guidelines to assess the need for envelopes and to select appropriate materials
(i.e. pipes and envelopes) for the proper and lasting performance of subsurface drainage systems. In addition, it
contains guidelines for adequate installation and maintenance of drainage materials as well as the required
specifications and standards of such materials, which may be used in tender documents for implementation of
subsurface drainage works. Practical guidelines for the implementation of laboratory and field investigations to
evaluate the performance of drainage materials have also been included. This Paper aims to provide this practical
information to drainage engineers and contractors who are in charge of drainage projects.

In the irrigated areas of semi-arid regions, especially in northwest India, a considerable

recharge to the groundwater leads to waterlogging and secondary salinization. In several
sub-areas groundwater is mined, water tables fall, and salts are added to the root zone
because a high proportion of irrigation water is derived from pumped groundwater of
poor quality. Out of 1 million hectares of irrigation induced waterlogged saline area in
northwest India, approximately half a million hectares are in the state of Haryana. Taking
a homogenous physical environment as a starting point, the way and the extent to which
farmers' activities will affect the salinity and sodicity situation depend on fanning and
irrigation practices. In the past, soil salinity was mainly associated with high groundwater
tables, which bring salts into the root zone through capillary rise when water is pumped.
But nowadays, increasing exploitation of groundwater for irrigation purposes has led to
declining groundwater tables and a threat of sodification and salinization due to use of
poor quality groundwater. Farmers in northwest India are facing a situation in which they
have to deal with salt volumes that are harmful for water uptake of crops. They are also
facing the problem of sodicity, which has an adverse effect on the physical structure of
the soil, causing problems of water intake, transfer and aeration. To mitigate the adverse
effect of soil salinity on crop yield, the farmers irrigate frequently, either mixing canal
water and groundwater, or alternately using canal water and groundwater. Due to
differences in environmental parameters in the farming systems, such as groundwater
quality, soil types and uneven distribution of irrigation water, income losses to the
farming community are not uniform. This paper highlights the economic loss due to
environmental degradation through the twin problems of waterlogging and soil salinity,
which threaten the sustainability of agricultural production in Haryana state. Our analysis
shows that the net present value of the damage due to waterlogging and salinity in
Haryana is about Rs. 23,900/ha (in 1998-1999 constant prices). The estimated potential
annual loss is about Rs. 1669 million (about US$ 37 million) from the waterlogged saline
area. The major finding of the paper is that intensification per se is not the root cause of
land degradation, but rather the policy environment that encouraged inappropriate land
use and injudicious input use, especially excessive irrigation. Trade policies, output price
policies and input subsidies all have contributed to the degradation of agricultural land
Impact of Waterlogging and Salinity

The rise of groundwater tables to near the surface in SGW areas, and the
consequent soil salinization became, and continue to be, serious
environmental problem associated with irrigation in the Indus Basin. The
impact of salinity on agricultural productivity is severe: a 25 percent reduction
in the production of Pakistan's major crops is attributed by many experts and
the Borrower to soil salinity alone. In Sindh Province where the problem is
much more severe, the Borrower estimates that the impact may be closer to
40-60 percent in SGW areas. The critical threshold at which salinity begins to
affect the productivity of agricultural land varies by crop. Similarly, the impacts
of waterlogging on yields are startling. High groundwater tables inhibit root
growth and therefore reduce crop yields. As the depth to watertable
decreases to within 5 feet, yields of all major crops begin to decline rapidly. At
0 to 0.8 feet depth-to-watertable, yields are 2 percent for cotton, 9 percent for
sugar, and 21 percent for wheat. In addition, there are serious environmental
and poverty impacts associated with waterlogging and salinity:

• Waterlogging and salinity - principle threats to the sustainability of

irrigated agriculture
• An effective and efficient drainage is essential for sustainable irrigated
agriculture
• Over an area of 5 Million acres the water table remains shallower than
5 feet to NSL
• Negative impact of waterlogging and salinity in Pakistan is estimated at
Rs. 30 billion per annum

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Measures Adopted to Control Waterlogging & Salinity

In the early 1960s, a massive effort to control waterlogging and salinity was
undertaken. By June 1999, 58 surface and sub-surface drainage projects had
been completed in a gross area of 18.507 million acres (7.40 Mha) at a cost
of Rs. 37 billion.

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Magnitude of Crisis

Agriculture accounts for more than 25 percent of GDP, more than 50 percent
of employment, and (directly or indirectly) 70 percent of export revenues. It
has a central role in alleviating poverty, given the concentration of the poor in
rural areas; and in protecting the environment, given that agriculture is the
primary user of natural resources. Agriculture contributes significantly to all
other sectors and is the main engine of growth for the economy. Pakistan's
agriculture depends heavily on irrigation, which covers 79 percent of the total
cropped area of 20.8 million hectares (51 million acres). Irrigated agriculture
in turn is by far the dominant user of available water supply, accounting for 98
percent of direct flows and the bulk of re-flows.

Results of Previous Drainage Programmes

Unlike the irrigation network, which is contiguous, Pakistan's drainage

network is by sharp contrast not interconnected. Much of the drainage
effluent is either retained in the IBIS or disposed into the rivers and canals.
The drainage solutions which Pakistan has so far applied to the problem have
been slow to stem the rising tide of waterlogging and salinity. Further, most of
the drainage effluent which is generated is retained or recycled within the
basin, as noted above. The consequence of operating a vast, inefficient, and
interconnected irrigation system for decades first without drainage, and then
later interwoven with an inefficient, inadequate and discontinuous drainage
system has been the gradual rising of the watertable and associated salinity.
The loss of agricultural land to waterlogging and salinity substantially exceeds
the amount of new land brought under irrigation expansion schemes during
the same period.

Since 1960, Pakistan has been implementing an ambitious program of

Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARPS: 51 projects to date), the
scope of which is summarized in the table below.

EXISTING DRAINAGE FACILITIES

Subsurface Drainage
Drainage Surface
Province Area Drains Tubewells (Numbers) Tile
Intercepting
(km) (Km) FGW* SGW* ScW* Drains
Drains (Km)
(Ma)
Punjab 7.79 7326 8065 1985 - 0.130 -
Sindh 4.29 5980 4161 365 376 0.045 561
NWFP 0.53 1990 491 - - 0.377 -
Balochistan 0.16 160 -- - - - -
TOTAL 12.77 15456 12717 2350 376 0.552 561

FGW stands for 'Fresh Groundwater'; SGW stands for 'Saline Groundwater';
ScW stands for "Scavenger tubewells."

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Monitoring Results

Monitoring of completed projects indicates that some are reasonably

successful and others have failed to deliver their expected results. On the
average, the watertable depth of 4 to 5 million acres of irrigated areas
persistently remains within 5 feet. Of the 1.25 million acres are within 5 feet in
completed SCARPs, one million acres are located in tubewell drainage
projects. The condition of tile and surface drainage projects is not much
different. The probable cause of re-appearance of waterlogging in completed
saline area (SCARPs) was identified as reduced pumpage due to deferred
maintenance and increased canal water input. In fresh ground water areas
the watertable is generally under control. Salt balance studies further
indicated that Indus River System carries 33million tons of salt out of which
25 million tons are deposited in the irrigated agriculture areas. The salts
brought in by the rivers is accumulating in the down stream areas; and in
areas, where SGW tubewell's drainage effluent is being re-used, average
annual application of salt has increased, which are partly accumulating in the
soils and at places the lands, once reclaimed, are being re-salinised.

The issue of salt balance in the Indus Basin, the drainage and disposal
strategy, the policy and institutional problems faced by Irrigation and
Drainage Sector in Pakistan alongwith the proposed solutions were examined
critically and it was decided that the present state of affairs is fast heading
towards total collapse of the system.

It was further concluded that among the major causes of below expectation
performance of the drainage projects are deficiencies in policy and
institutional matters, and low priority given to O&M of completed drainage
facilities.

Extensive development of irrigation infrastructure in the Indus Plain, during

the 19th and 20th centuries, have brought large tracts of land under year
round cultivation. These developments, however, had their negative impact in
the form of water-logging and salinity.

To control water-logging and salinity, a number of drainage projects have

been implemented since 1960's. The performance of these projects has been
below expectation mainly because of deficiencies in policy and institutional
matters, inadequate O&M of completed drainage facilities and undertaking
too many new projects at one time. The implementation of these projects took
long time in starting up and tended to rigidly concentrate investments in
favored areas - often ignoring small pockets unattractive for international
financing.

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Need for Drainage

An effective and efficient drainage system is essential to sustain

environmentally-sound irrigated agriculture. The aquifer on which the IBIS is
overlaid averages 3000 feet deep and is completely unified. The Indus Basin
has flat topography, porous soils, and semi-arid climate with high
evaporation. In such an environment, irrigation without drainage leads
inevitably to rising watertables and eventual salinity. Yet even under these
circumstances, it is possible, and economically rational, to postpone the
provision of drainage while expanding the irrigation network. This is what
Pakistan chose to do.

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Need for NDP

The cumulative effect of the above situation is that at present the drainage
sector is seriously handicapped with the problems of:
 too many run-down projects in need of rehabilitation;
 a growing portfolio of incomplete projects
 continued incidence of water-logging and salinity
 accumulation of incoming salt within the basin ; and,
 chronic shortage of funds for O&M of completed projects.

To overcome these shortcomings and to re-appraise the existing situation,

National Drainage Programme has been conceived. The programme is to be
implemented in phases over a time period of 25 years. The first phase of the
programme is to be implemented in six and a half years, has been developed
to strategically address the multifarious issues facing the drainage sector and
to restore the sustainability of environmentally sound irrigated agriculture in
Pakistan.