Electric Circuit Analysis II

Chapter one: - Steady State Single Phase AC Circuit Analysis

1.1 Sinusoidal Steady-State (SSS) Analysis.
So far, you have discussed the response of circuits due to DC source and this section will
concentrate on the steady-state response of circuits driven by sinusoidal sources. The
response will also be sinusoidal. When a sinusoidal source energizes a circuit, all the
signals of interest in the circuit have the same frequency. Therefore, it is sufficient to
represent those signals in terms of their amplitude and phase angle. This leads to the
phasor representation of sinusoidal signals. All steady state voltages and currents have
the same frequency as the source. In order to find a steady state voltage or current, all we
need to know is its magnitude and its phase relative to the source (we already know its
frequency). Instead of differential equation, we use the concepts of phasors and complex
impedances. Phasors and complex impedances convert problems involving differential
equations into circuit analysis problems. For a linear circuit, the assumption of a
sinusoidal source represents no real restriction, since a source that can be described by a
periodic function can be replaced by an equivalent combination (Fourier series) of
sinusoids. Any steady state voltage or current in a linear circuit with a sinusoidal source
is a sinusoid.
Why Linear?
We shall consider the steady-state response of linear ac circuits to sinusoidal inputs. A
linear component has the property that doubling the voltage across it doubles the current
through it. Most circuits for processing signals are linear. Analysis of non-linear circuits is
difficult and normally requires the use of a computer.
Why Steady-State?
Steady-state means that the input waveform has been present long enough for any
transients to die away

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Why Sinusoidal?
A sinusoid is a signal that has the form of the sine or cosine function. A sinusoidal
current is usually referred to as alternating current (ac). Such a current reverses at
regular time intervals and has alternately positive and negative values. Circuits driven by
sinusoidal current or voltage sources are called ac circuits. A linear circuit will not
change the waveform or frequency of a sinusoidal input (the amplitude and phase may be
altered). Power is generated as a sinusoid by rotating electrical. Sinusoidal carrier waves
are modulated to transmit information (radio broadcasts). Any periodic waveform can be
considered to be the sum of a fundamental pure sinusoid plus harmonics (Fourier
analysis). Steady-state sinusoidal analysis methods are important for several reasons:
• Sinusoidal inputs are an extremely important category of forcing functions. In electrical
engineering, for example, sinusoids are the dominant signal in the electrical power
industry. The alternating current (or AC) signals used in power transmission are, in fact,
so pervasive that any electrical engineers commonly refer to any sinusoidal signal as
―AC‖. Carrier signals used in communications systems are also sinusoidal in nature.
• The simplification associated with the analysis of steady state sinusoidal analysis is
often so desirable that system responses to non-sinusoidal inputs are interpreted in terms
of their sinusoidal steady-state response. System design requirements are often specified
in terms of the desired steady-state sinusoidal response of the system. Electricity is
produced by generators at power stations and then distributed by a vast network of
transmission lines (called the National Grid system) to industry and for domestic use. It is
easier and cheaper to generate alternating current (a.c.) than direct current (d.c.) and a.c.
is more conveniently distributed than d.c. since its voltage can be readily altered using
transformers. Whenever d.c. is needed in preference to a.c., devices called rectifiers are
used for conversion.

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We will be concerned with sinusoidal signals, which can be written in the form,

, where A is the amplitude of the sinusoid, w is the angular

frequency (in radians/second) of the signal, and  is the phase angle (expressed in
radians or degrees) of the signal. A provides the peak value of the sinusoid, w governs the
rate of oscillation of the signal, and  affects the translation of the sinusoid in time. A
typical sinusoidal signal is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Sinusoidal signal.

Characteristics of Sinusoidal
Consider the sinusoidal voltage v (t) = Vm sin ωt
Where, Vm = the amplitude of the sinusoid, ω = the angular frequency in radians/s and
ωt = the argument of the sinusoid

Both the polarity and magnitude of voltage are changing.

Amplitude: Vm Im

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1.1.1 GENERATION OF SINUSOIDAL AC VOLTAGE ANALYSIS
Sinusoidal ac voltages are available from a variety of sources. The most common source
is the typical home outlet, which provides an ac voltage that originates at a power plant;
such a power plant is most commonly fueled by water power, oil, gas, or nuclear fusion.
In each case an ac generator (also called an alternator), Analysis of the AC power
generation process and of the alternating current we use in almost every aspect of our
lives is necessary to better understand how AC power is used in today‘s technology.
Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the other way, continually reversing
direction. Let a single turn coil be free to rotate at constant angular velocity
symmetrically between the poles of a magnet system as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1
An e.m.f. is generated in the coil (from Faraday‘s Laws) which varies in magnitude and
reverses its direction at regular intervals. The reason for this is shown in Figure 2. In
positions (a), (e) and (i) the conductors of the loop are effectively moving along the
magnetic field, no flux is cut and hence no e.m.f. is induced. In position (c) maximum
flux is cut and hence maximum e.m.f. is induced. In position (g), maximum flux is cut
and hence maximum e.m.f. is again induced. However, using Fleming‘s right-hand rule,
the induced e.m.f. is in the opposite direction to that in position (c) and is thus shown as -
E. In positions (b), (d), (f) and (h) some flux is cut and hence some e.m.f. is induced. If all
such positions of the coil are considered, in one revolution of the coil, one cycle of
alternating e.m.f. is produced as shown. This is the principle operation of the ac generator
(i.e. the alternator).

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 Figure 2

1.1.2 AC Waveforms
If values of quantities which vary with time t are plotted to a base of time, the resulting
graph is called a waveform. Some typical waveforms are shown in Figure 3. Waveforms
(a) and (b) are unidirectional waveforms, for, although they vary considerably with time,
they flow in one direction only (i.e. they do not cross the time axis and become negative).
Waveforms (c) to (g) are called alternating waveforms since their quantities are
continually changing in direction (i.e. alternately positive and negative).

A waveform of the type shown in Figure 3(g) is called a sine wave. It is the shape of the
waveform of e.m.f. produced by an alternator and thus the mains electricity supply is of
‗sinusoidal‘ form. The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose
shape is unaffected by the response characteristics of R, L, and C elements.
 One complete series of values is called a cycle (i.e. from O to P in Figure 3(g)).

 The time taken for an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is called the
period or the periodic time, T, of the waveform.

 The number of cycles completed in one second is called the frequency, f, of the
supply and is measured in hertz, Hz. The standard frequency of the electricity
supply in Great Britain is 50 Hz.

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 Figure 3
An AC voltage is continually changing between positive (+) and negative (-). The rate
of changing direction is called the frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz (Hz)
which is the number of forwards-
backwards cycles per second.
An electrical signal is a voltage or
current which conveys information,
usually it means a voltage. The
term can be used for any voltage or
current in a circuit.

The voltage-time graph on the right shows various properties of an electrical signal. In
addition to the properties labelled on the graph, there is frequency which is the number of
cycles per second.

The diagram shows a sine wave but these properties apply to any signal with a constant
shape.

Amplitude or Peak voltage (Vp) is the maximum voltage value reached in a half cycle
or the maximum value or the amplitude of the waveform. It is measured in volts, V. Such
values are represented by Vm, Im, etc. (see Figures 3(f) and (g)).

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  Peak-Peak Voltage (Vpp) is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading
an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage. It is the difference
between the maximum and minimum values in a cycle
 Instantaneous values are the values of the alternating quantities at any instant of
time. They are represented by small letters, i, v, e etc., (see Figures 3(f) and (g)).
 The average or mean value of a symmetrical alternating quantity, (such as a sine
wave), is the average value measured over half cycle, (since over a complete
cycle the average value is zero).

 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle. It is measured
in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms) and
microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often
used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

 Example1. Determine the periodic time for frequencies of (a) 50 Hz and (b) 20
kHz
 Example2. An alternating current completes 4 cycles in 10ms. What is its
frequency?

 Root Mean Square (RMS) Values, The

value of an AC voltage is continually
changing from zero up to the positive peak,
through zero to the negative peak and back
to zero again. Clearly for most of the time it

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 is less than the peak voltage, so this is not a good measure of its real effect. The
RMS value is the effective value of a varying voltage or current. It is the
equivalent steady DC (constant) value which gives the same effect. For example a
lamp connected to a 6V RMS AC supply will light with the same brightness
when connected to a steady 6V DC supply. However, the lamp will be dimmer if
connected to a 6V peak AC supply because the RMS value of this is only 4.2V (it
is equivalent to a steady 4.2V DC). You may find it helps to think of the RMS
value as a sort of average, but please remember that it is NOT really the average!
In fact the average voltage (or current) of an AC signal is zero because the
positive and negative parts exactly cancel out!

What do AC meters show, is it the RMS or peak voltage? AC voltmeters and ammeters
show the RMS value of the voltage or current.

What does '6V AC' really mean, is it the RMS or peak voltage? If the peak value is
meant it should be clearly stated, otherwise assume it is the RMS value. In everyday use
AC voltages (and currents) are always given as RMS values because this allows a
sensible comparison to be made with steady DC voltages (and currents), such as from a
battery.

For example a '6V AC supply' means 6V RMS, the peak voltage is 8.6V. The UK mains
supply is 230V AC, this means 230V RMS so the peak voltage of the mains is about
320V!

So what does root mean square (RMS) really mean? First square all the values, then
find the average (mean) of these square values over a complete cycle, and find the square
root of this average. That is the RMS value. Confused? Ignore the maths (it looks more
complicated than it really is), just accept that RMS values for voltage and current are a
much more useful quantity than peak values. Instead we use the root mean square
voltage (VRMS) which is 0.707 of the peak voltage (Vpeak):
VRMS = 0.707 × Vpeak and Vpeak = 1.4 × VRMS

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There are six basic equations that are used to convert a value of AC voltage or Current to
another value which is listed below.
1. Average value = 0.637 x Peak Value
2. Peak value = 1.57 x Average value
3. Effective value (RMS) = 0.707 x peak value
4. Peak value = 1.414 x Effective value (RMS)
5. Effective value (RMS) = 1.11 x Average Value
6. 0.9 x Average value = effective (RMS)

The values of form and peak factors give an indication of the shape of waveforms.
Example 3. For the periodic waveforms shown in Figure 5 determine for each: (i)
frequency (ii) average value over half a cycle (iii) rms value (iv) form factor and (v) peak
factor

Figure 5

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 1.1.3 Frequency, Angular Velocity and Period of Sine Waves
The sinusoidal waveform is the only alternating waveform whose shape is unaffected by
the response characteristics of R, L, and C elements.

Figure:- Sine wave and cosine wave with the horizontal axis in degrees.
A number of electrical formulas contain a multiplier of p. For this reason, it is sometimes
preferable to measure angles in radians rather than in degrees. The quantity p is the ratio
of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. p has been determined to an extended
number of places primarily in an attempt to see if a repetitive sequence of numbers
appears. It does not. A sampling of the effort appears below:

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π = 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 . . . Although the approximation π = 3.14 is often
applied, all the calculations in this text will use the π function as provided on all scientific
calculators.
The unit of measurement for the horizontal axis is the degree and the Frequency used is
the radian (rad). Therefore, there are 2π rad around a 360°. 2π rad = 360°

For 180° and 360°, the two units of measurement are related as the conversion equations
between the two are the following:

Using the radian as the unit of measurement for the abscissa, we would obtain a sine
wave, as shown in Fig. below; it is of particular interest that the sinusoidal waveform can
be derived from the length of the vertical projection of a radius vector rotating in a
uniform circular motion about a fixed point. Starting and plotting the amplitude (above
and below zero) on the coordinates drawn to the right. We will trace a complete
sinusoidal waveform after the radius vector has completed a 360° rotation about the
center. The velocity with which the radius vector rotates about the center, called the
angular velocity, can be determined from the following equation:

Fig. Plotting a sine wave versus radians.

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The velocity with which the radius vector rotates about the center, called the angular
velocity, can be determined from the above equation:

Since ω is typically provided in radians per second, the angle α obtained using Eq. above
is usually in radians. If a is required in degrees, Example 1: Determine the angular
velocity of a sine wave having a frequency of 60 Hz.

1.1.4 Phasor and Arithmetic Representations of Sinusoidal

waveform;
Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of phasors, which are more convenient to work
with than sine and cosine functions. A phasor is a complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid. In Fig 6, OA represents a vector that is free to rotate
anticlockwise about 0 at an angular velocity of ω rad/s. A rotating vector is known as a
phasor.

Fig 6
After time t seconds the vector OA has turned through an angle ωt. If the line BC is

constructed perpendicular to OA as shown, then If all such

vertical components are projected on to a graph of y against angle ωt (in radians), a sine
curve results of maximum value OA. Any quantity which varies sinusoidally can thus be
represented as a phasor. A sine curve may not always start at 0°. To show this a periodic
function is represented by

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Where, Φ is the phase (or angle) difference compared with . In Figure 7(a),
starts Φ radians earlier than and is thus said to lead y1 by Φ
radians. Phasors y1 and y2 are shown in Figure 7(b) at the time when t= 0.
In Figure 7(c), starts Φ radians later than and is thus said to lag
y3 by Φ radians. Phasors y3 and y4are shown in Figure 7(d) at the time when t = 0.

Given the general sinusoidal voltage

Then (i) Amplitude or maximum value =Vm
(ii) Peak to peak value = 2Vm
(iii) Angular velocity = ω rad/s
(iv) Periodic time, T = 2π/ω seconds
(v) Frequency, f = ω/2 π Hz (since ω =2 π f)
(vi) Φ = angle of lag or lead (compared with v = Vm sin ωt)

Figure 7
Example 4. An alternating voltage is given by v= 282.8 sin 314t volts. Find (a) the rms
voltage, (b) the frequency and (c) the instantaneous value of voltage when t = 4ms

(a) The general expression for an alternating voltage is

Comparing v = 282.8 sin 314t with this general expression gives the peak voltage
as 282.8 V
Hence the rms voltage= 0.707 ×maximum value = 0.707 × 282.8 = 200 V
(b) Angular velocity, ω = 314 rad/s, i.e. 2 π f =314

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 Hence frequency, f = 314/2 π= 50 Hz
(b) When t = 4 ms, v = 282.8 sin(314 × 4 × 10-3)= 282.8 sin1.256= 268.9 V
(c)

Example 4.1:

1.3.1 Combinational Phase Relations of Sine waveforms

Thus far, we have considered only sine waves that have maxima at π/2 and 3π/2, with a
zero value at 0, π, and 2π, as shown in Fig. below If the waveform is shifted to the right
or left of 0°, the expression becomes The resultant of the addition (or subtraction) of two
sinusoidal quantities may be determined either:
(a) By plotting the periodic functions graphically (see example 5), or
(b) By resolution of phasors by drawing or calculation (see example 6).
Example 5
The instantaneous values of two alternating currents are given by i1 = 20 sin ωt amperes
and i2 = 10 sin (ωt +π/3) amperes. By plotting i1 and i2 on the same axes, using the same
scale, over one cycle, and adding ordinates at intervals, obtain a sinusoidal expression for
i1 + i2, i1 = 20 sin ωt and i2 = 10 sin (ωt +π/3) are shown plotted in Figure 8 Ordinates of
i1 and i2 are added at, say, 15° intervals (a pair of dividers are useful for this). For
example, at 30°, i1 + i2= 10 + 10=20 A at 60°, i1 + i2= 8.7 + 17.3 =26 A at 150°, i1 + i2=
10 + (-5) = 5 A, and so on. The resultant waveform for i1 C i2 is shown by the broken
line in Figure 8. It has the same period, and hence frequency, as i1 and i2.

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 The amplitude or peak value is 26.5 A. The resultant waveform leads the curve i1
= 20 sin ωt by 19°

Figure 8
Hence the sinusoidal expression for the resultant i1 + i2is given by: iR = i1 + i2= 26.5 sin
(ωt + 0.332) A
Example 6. Two alternating voltages are represented by v1 =50 sin ωt volts and v2 = 100
sin(ωt + π/6)V. Draw the phasor diagram and find, by calculation, a sinusoidal expression
to represent v1 + v2
A complex number z can be written in rectangular form as z = x + jy where j = √−1; x is
the real part of z; y is the imaginary part of z. In this context, the variables x and y do not
represent a location as in two-dimensional vector analysis but rather the real and
imaginary parts of z in the complex plane.

The complex number z can also be written in polar or exponential form as

where r is the magnitude of z, and φ is the phase of z. We notice that z can be

represented in three ways:

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The relationship between the rectangular form and the polar form is shown in Fig. below, where the x axis
represents the real part and the y axis represents the imaginary part of a complex number. Given x and y,
we can get r and φ as

On the other hand, if we know r and φ, we can obtain x and y as

Thus, z may be written as

Addition and subtraction of complex numbers are better performed in rectangular form;
multiplication and division are better done in polar form. Given the complex numbers

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Complex conjugate
The complex conjugate of (a + jb) is (a -jb). For example, the conjugate of (3-j2) is (3+ j2). The product of a
complex number and its complex conjugate is always a real number, and this is an important property used when
dividing complex numbers.

1.4. Series and Parallel RLC AC circuits;

In any a.c. series circuit the current is common to each component and is thus taken as
the reference phasor.

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1.4.1 Purely Resistive AC circuit
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit, the current IR and applied voltage VR are in phase. See
Figure 9.

1.4.2 Purely Inductive AC Circuit

In a purely inductive a.c. circuit, the current IL lags the applied voltage VL by 90° (i.e. π/2
rads). See Figure 10.
In a purely inductive circuit the opposition to the flow of alternating current is called the
inductive reactance, XL.

Figure 10
Where f is the supply frequency, in hertz, and L is the inductance, in henry‘s. XL is
proportional to f as shown in Figure 11.

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1.4.3 Purely Capacitive AC Circuit
In a purely capacitive AC circuit, the current IC leads the applied voltage VC by 90° (i.e.
π/2 rads). See Figure below. In a purely capacitive circuit the opposition to the flow of
alternating current is called the capacitive reactance, XC

1.4.4 Series R–L–C AC Circuits

In an a.c. series circuit containing resistance R, inductance L and capacitance C, the
applied voltage V is the phasor sum of VR, VL and VC. See the following Figures, from
this figure VL and VC are anti-phase, i.e. displaced by 180°, and there are three phasor
diagrams possible—each depending on the relative values of VL and VC

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 The applied voltage V and the current I are in phase. This effect is called series
Resonance
Example: - 1. A coil of resistance 5 Ω and inductance 120 mH in series with a 100 μF
capacitor is connected to a 300 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the current flowing, (b) the
phase difference between the supply voltage and current, (c) the voltage across the coil
and (d) the voltage across the capacitor.
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure below

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1.4.2 Single-phase parallel a.c. circuits
1.4.2.1 Introduction
In parallel circuits, such as those shown in Figures 24 and 25, the voltage is common to
each branch of the network and is thus taken as the reference phasor when drawing

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phasor diagrams.
1.4.2.2 R–L parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and inductance L shown in
Figures 24, the current flowing in the resistance, IR, is in-phase with the supply voltage V
and the current flowing in the inductance, IL, lags the supply voltage by 90°. The supply
current I is the phasor sum of IR and IL and thus the current I lags the applied voltage V
by an angle lying between 0° and 90° (depending on the values of I R and IL), shown as
angle Φ in the phasor diagram. From the phasor diagram:

Figures 24
Example 1. A 20 Ωresistor is connected in parallel with an inductance of 2.387 mH
across a 60 V, 1 kHz supply. Calculate (a) the current in each branch, (b) the supply
current, (c) the circuit phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, and (e) the power
consumed.
1.4.2.3 R–C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch parallel circuit containing resistance R and capacitance C shown in
Figures 25, IR is in-phase with the supply voltage V and the current flowing in the
capacitor, IC, leads V by 90°. The supply current I is the phasor sum of IR and IC and thus

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the current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle lying between 0° and 90°
(depending on the values of IR and IC), shown as angle α in the phasor diagram.
From the phasor diagram:

Figures 25

Example2. A 30F capacitor is connected in parallel with an 80 Ω resistor across a 240 V,

50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the current in each branch, (b) the supply current, (c) the
circuit phase angle, (d) the circuit impedance, (e) the power dissipated, and (f) the
apparent power.

1.4.2.4 L–C parallel a.c. circuit

In the two branch parallel circuit containing inductance L and capacitance C shown in
Figure 26, IL lags V by 90° and IC leads V by 90°.
Theoretically there are three phasor diagrams possible—each depending on the relative
values of IL and IC:
(i) IL > IC (giving a supply current, I =IL -IC lagging V by 90°)

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(ii) IC > IL (giving a supply current, I = IC -IL leading V by 90°)
(iii) IL= IC (giving a supply current, I = 0).

Figure 26
The latter condition is not possible in practice due to circuit resistance inevitably being
present .

Example3. A pure inductance of 120 mH is connected in parallel with a 25 F capacitor

and the network is connected to a 100 V, 50 Hz supply. Determine (a) the branch
currents, (b) the supply current and its phase angle, (c) the circuit impedance, and (d)
the power consumed.
1.4.5 Parallel RL–C AC Circuits
1.4.2.5 LR–C parallel a.c. circuit
In the two branch circuit containing capacitance C in parallel with inductance L and
resistance R in series (such as a coil) shown in Figure 27(a), the phasor diagram for the
LR branch alone is shown in Figure 27(b) and the phasor diagram for the C branch is
shown alone in Figure 27(c).
Rotating each and superimposing on one another gives the complete phasor diagram
shown in Figure 27(d). The current ILR of Figure 27(d) may be resolved into horizontal
and vertical components. The horizontal component, shown as op is ILR cos φ1and the
vertical component, shown as pq is ILR sinφ1.
There are three possible conditions for this circuit:

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or (ii) by resolving each current into their ‗in-phase‘ (i.e. horizontal) and ‗quadrature‘
(i.e. vertical) components, as demonstrated in examples 3 and 4. With reference to the
phasor diagrams of Figure below.

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Example 3: A coil of inductance 159.2 mH and resistance 40 Ω is connected in parallel
with a 30 μF capacitor across a 240 V, 50 Hz supply. Calculate (a) the current in the coil
and its phase angle, (b) the current in the capacitor and its phase angle, (c) the supply
current and its phase angle,(d) the circuit impedance, (e) the power consumed, (f) the
apparent power, and (g) the reactive power. Draw the phasor diagram.

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(c) The supply current I is the phasor sum of ILR and IC This may be obtained by drawing
the phasor diagram to scale and measuring the current I and its phase angle relative to V.
(Current I will always be the diagonal of the parallelogram formed as in Figure (b)).
Alternatively the current ILR and IC may be resolved into their horizontal (or ‗in-phase‘)
and vertical (or ‗quadrant‘) components. The horizontal component of ILR is

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 1.5. Impedance and Admittance Parameters
In the preceding section, we obtained the voltage-current relations for the three passive
elements as

These equations may be written in terms of the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor
current as

From these three expressions, we obtain Ohm‘s law in phasor form for any type of
element as

Where Z is a frequency-dependent quantity known as impedance, measured in ohms.

The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of the phasor voltage V to the phasor current I,
measured in ohms (Ω). The impedance represents the opposition which the circuit
exhibits to the flow of sinusoidal current. Although the impedance is the ratio of two
phasors, it is not a phasor, because it does not correspond to a sinusoidally varying
quantity. The impedances of resistors, inductors, and capacitors can be readily obtained
from the above equation and summarizes their impedances and admittance by the
following table.
Impedances and Admittances of Passive Elements
Basic Impedance Admittance At Low Frequency At High Frequency
Elements or or
Resistance Z=R 1 Z=R and Z=R and
Y
R 1 1
Y Y
R R
Inductance Z = jωL 1 and and
Y
jL

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 Capacitance 1 Y = and
Z and
jC jωC

From the above table we notice that ZL = jωL and ZC = −j/ωC. Consider two extreme
cases of angular frequency. When ω = 0 (i.e., for dc sources), ZL = 0 and ZC → ∞,
confirming what we already know that the inductor acts like a short circuit, while the
capacitor acts like an open circuit. When ω → ∞ (i.e., for high frequencies), ZL → ∞ and
ZC = 0, indicating that the inductor is an open circuit to high frequencies, while the
capacitor is a short circuit.

Equivalent circuits at dc and high frequencies: (a) inductor, (b) capacitor.

As a complex quantity, the impedance may be expressed in rectangular form as Z = R +
jX, where R = Re Z is the resistance and X = Im Z is the reactance. The reactance X may
be positive or negative. We say that the impedance is inductive when X is positive or
capacitive when X is negative. Thus, impedance Z = R + jX is said to be inductive or
lagging since current lags voltage, while impedance Z = R − jX is capacitive or leading
because current leads voltage. The impedance, resistance, and reactance are all measured
in ohms. The impedance may also be expressed in polar form as

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It is sometimes convenient to work with the reciprocal of impedance, known as
Admittance. The Admittance Y is the reciprocal of impedance, measured in siemens (S).
The admittance Y of an element (or a circuit) is the ratio of the phasor current through it
to the phasor voltage across it, or As a complex quantity, we may write Y as

Where G =Re Y is called the conductance and B =Im Y is called the susceptance.
Admittance, conductance, and susceptance are all expressed in the unit of siemens (or
mhos).

Showing that G = 1/R as it is in resistive circuits. Of course, if X = 0, then G = 1/R.

Example:-

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The voltage across the capacitor is

Notice that i(t) leads v(t) by 90◦ as expected.

For series-connected impedances the total circuit impedance can be represented as a
single L–C–R circuit by combining all values of resistance together, all values of
inductance together and all values of capacitance together, (remembering that for series
connected capacitors

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Example: The following three impedances are connected in series across a 40 V, 20 kHz
supply: (i) a resistance of 8 Ω, (ii) a coil of inductance 130 μH and 5 Ω resistances, and
(iii) a 10 Ω resistor in series with a 0.25 μF capacitor. Calculate (a) the circuit current, (b)
the circuit phase angle and (c) the voltage drop across each impedance.
The circuit diagram is shown in Figure below (a). Since the total circuit resistance is 8 +
5 + 10, i.e. 23 Ω, an equivalent circuit diagram may be drawn as shown in Figure (b)

Example. Determine the admittance, conductance and susceptance of the following

impedances: (a)-j5 Ω b) 25 + j40Ω (c) 3 - j2Ω

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Example The admittance of a circuit is 0.040 + j0.025S.
Determine the values of the resistance and the capacitive reactance of the circuit if they
are connected (a) in parallel, (b) in series.

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