Water/ Hydrology 2B

WHDL201

Chapter 6
Runoff

w Dr. Mohammed Seyam

Chapter contents

1. Phases of Runoff
2. Runoff Process
3. Stream flow measurement
4. Area-velocity method
5. Slope- Area method
6. Stage discharge relationship
Introduction to Runoff
Runoff means the draining or flowing off precipitationfrom
a catchment area through a surface channel.
Phases of Runoff
1. Overland flow or surface runoff
• It is the surface runoff from travels over the surface or in non-defined
open channel flow before it reaches a defined channel, i.e river.
• It is two-dimensional flow occurring on slopes or in ephemeral drainage
patterns
• Runoff normally applies to flow over a surface (ground water not included)

2. Stream flow

• It is used to describe the drainage after it reaches a defined channel

• one- and/or two-dimensional flow occurring in river network channels
Runoff Process
Excess water ( net precipitation) begins to accumulate as surface
storage in small depressions governed by surface topography. After that
excess water can move as overland flow to become stream flow after
arrive defined channel.

Runoff in River ( stream flow) can include into 2 main components:

1- Direct runoff: part of the runoff which enters the stream immediately
after the rainfall without first entering zone of saturation .
It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and rainfall on the surface
of the stream.
2- Base flow: the delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as
groundwater flow.
The flow comes from the water temporarily stored in the soil called interflow
and if this happen for many times it also included under baseflow.
Easily recognized as the slowly decreasing flow of the stream in rainless periods.
Stream Flow

• Streamflow represent the runoff phase of the hydrologic

cycle.
• A stream can be defined as defined flow channel into which
the surface runoff from a specified basin gather.
• It is a body of water with a current, confined within
a bed and banks

Overlandflow

interflow
Saturated overlandflow

Base flow
Stream Flow Components
1. Direct precipitation on the channel (typicallyincorporated into total basin
area)
2. Overland flow: when soil moisture storage and depression storage are
filled “excess” rainfall generates overlandflow.
3. Interflow: all rainfall that infiltrates doesnot reach saturated zone
(ground water).
Under certain conditions infiltrated moisture can travel through
shallow soil horizons.
Usually only significant for highly permeable soils.
4. Base flow: contribution to stream flow from groundwater

Overlandflow

interflow
Saturated overlandflow

Base flow
Stream Flow Presentation

Stream flow in terms of discharge vs time is represented

by the hydrograph. ( see chapter 7)

Stream flow represent the runoff phase of Hydrological cycle.

Hydrograph components thus become,

1. direct precipitation
2. surface runoff direct runoff
3. interflow
4. baseflow
Streamflow = direct runoff + baseflow
1,2,3 + 4
Stream flow regimes
- Perennial Stream (Fig 5.2)
A stream which always carries some flow. It is always fed
from groundwater base flow. Even during dry seasons the
water table will be above the bed of the stream.
- An intermittent stream (Fig 5.3)
Stream is fed from groundwater base only in the wet
season. During the wet season the water table is above the
stream bed. During dry seasons the water table drops to a
level lower than that of the stream bed; and therefore the
stream dries up.
- An ephemeral steam (Fig 5.4)
No contribution from groundwater (base flow) to the
stream (most rivers in arid zones)
Stream is
always fed
from
groundwater
base flow
Stream is fed
from
Groundwater
base only in
the wet
season
 No
contribution
from
groundwater
(base flow) to
the stream
(most rivers
in arid zones)

10
 Stream flow measurement
Measurement of overland flow is complex and not available.

Measurement of channel flow (streamflow) is carried out by combining for a

known channel geometry measurements of water level and flow velocity

Knowledge of quantity and quality of stream flow is a request of

municipal, industrial, agricultural andother water supply projects.

The water flowing in stream is measured as discharge of water with a

unit of volume (m3/sec, cubic of feet per second – cfs)

-
11
-12
Stream flow Measurements
1) Direct measurement of stream
- Area-velocity methods,
require measurements of water level and flow velocity
- Dilution techniques
- Electromagnetic methods
- Ultrasonic method

2) Indirect measurement of stream

- Hydraulic structure such as weir, flumes and gated
structure
- Slope area method

Note, Direct measurement of discharge is a very time-

consuming and costly procedure
Measurement of Stage ( water level)
- The stage of a river is defined as its water surface elevation
measured above a datum ( MSL or any arbitrary datum
connected to MSL

Two steps are followed:

The stage of the stream is measured by some methods

such as staff Gauge, wire gauge, automatic stage
recorder…. etc. the results is stage hydrograph

The discharge is related with the stage in well known

stage-discharge relationship (rating curve)
water depth recorder
 water level measurement
Typical water level measuring devices are
• ultrasonic gauges
• pneumatic recorders
• floating counters

recorder house
recorder
manometer
recorder chart assembly
table
gas
cylinder
floating
counter
stage pier
stilling plastic tube
well
19

intake orifice bubbling a

continuous gas stream
Velocity Measurement
The determination of discharge at a permanent river gauging
station is best made by measuring the flow velocities.
Measurement of Velocity

A mechanical device called Current meter is most commonly

used instrument for accurate determination of of the
stream- velocity field.
At n regular intervals along the cross sections:

• depth measurement, di
• velocity measurements at two depths (0.2di and 0.8di ) or at
one depth (0.6di )
 Discharge
measurement guiding cables
station (BAFU)
propeller

• water level (pressure

gauge)
• velocity (propeller)
• stable cross-section

counter

23
© P. Burlando
 propeller
operating
station

propeller

© P. Burlando © P. Burlando
Area-velocity method
• Direct method obtaining discharge correspond with a stage of
measurement by the velocity area method concept :
Q =  Vi Ai
• Where
Ai = cross section sub area
Vi = mean velocity for sub area

Q =  ( 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑖 Ŵi)
Q(m3/s) = A(m2) x V(m/s)
• Both types of instrument need to be calibrated to obtain
the relationship between the rate of revolutions of the
cups or propeller and the water velocity.
• Each individual instrument generally has its own
calibration curve or rating table to calculate the water
velocity based on the rotation per time.

v =  + n
v = stream flow velocity
 = starting velocity or velocity required to overcome mechanical
fraction
 = constant proportionality
N = revolutions per second
Area-velocity method
Area-velocity method (direct method)

Velocity is measured at 0.6 of the depth

For the first segment:

𝑊2 2
(𝑊1 + )
2
Average width, Ŵ1 = 2 (𝑊1 )

For the last segment:

𝑊𝑛−1 2
(𝑊𝑛 + 2
)
Average width, Ŵn-1 = 2 (𝑊𝑛 )

For rest of the segment:

𝑊 𝑊𝑖+1
Average width, Ŵi = [ 2 𝑖 + ]
2

Q =  ( 𝑉𝑖 𝑑𝑖 Ŵi)
Example :
The following table is the data obtained in a stream gauging operation. A
current meter with a calibration equation velocity, v = (0.32N + 0.032) m/s,
where N = revolutions per second was used to measure the velocity at 0.6
depth. Calculate the discharge in the stream, using the mid-section method.

Distance
from right river bank
(m) 0 2 4 6 9 12 15 18 20 22 23 24

Depth (m)
0 0.50 1.10 1.95 2.25 1.85 1.75 1.65 1.50 1.25 0.75 0

Number of
0 80 83 131 139 121 114 109 92 85 70 0
revolutions
Observation
time (s) 0 180 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 120 150 0
Calculation the average width Ŵ

For the first segment:

𝑊2 2
(𝑊1 + )
Average width, Ŵ1 = 2
2 (𝑊1 )
2
[ 2 + ]2
2
= = 2.25
2 (2)
For the last segment:
𝑊𝑛−1 2
(𝑊𝑛 + )
Average width, Ŵn-1 = 2
2 (𝑊𝑛 )
1
[ 1 +( 2)]2
= = 1.125
2 (1)

For rest of the segment:

𝑊𝑖 𝑊𝑖+1
Average width, Ŵi = [ + ]
2 2
Distance Average Depth Ns = Velocity, Segmental
from the width (m) (m) v (m/s) discharge,
Rev
edge (m) m3/s
/Second

0 0 0 0 0 -
2 2.25 0.5 0.44 0.17 0.196
4 2 1.1 0.69 0.25 0.557
6 2.5 1.95 1.09 0.38 1.859
9 3 2.25 1.16 0.40 2.718
12 3 1.85 1.01 0.35 1.969
15 3 1.75 0.95 0.34 1.764
18 2.5 1.65 0.91 0.32 1.331
20 2 1.5 0.77 0.28 0.832
22 1.5 1.25 0.71 0.26 0.485
23 1.125 0.75 0.47 0.18 0.153
24 0 0 0 0 -
11.864

Therefore, the discharge in the stream = 11.864 m3/s

Problem in gauging
Small streams :
• The depth of flow may be insufficient to cover the
ordinary current meter.

Mountain torrents :
• Streams with steep gradients and high velocities cannot
be gauged satisfactorily by the velocity-area method and
alternative means must be used, e.g. dilution gauging

Large rivers :
• Across wide rivers, there is always difficulty in locating the
instruments accurately at the sampling points.
Indirect method
-Make use of the relation between the discharge and the flow
discharge and the depths at specified locations.

1. Flow measuring structures (weirs, flume…etc)

2. Slope area methods

For flow measuring structures the discharge Q is a function

of the water-surface elevation measured at specified
location

Q = f(H)
Indirect method Slope- Area method
More details in Hydraulics Ch. 5
- The Manning equation

Q
Where :
Q = discharge (m3/s) n = Manning’s roughness coefficient (range
between 0.01 and 0.75)
A = cross-section area (m2)
R = the hydraulic radius, equal to the area divided by the wetted
perimeter (m)
S = the head loss per unit length of the channel, approximated by
the channel slope
R=A/P P = witted parameter

R = A/P
P = witted parameter
Example

A 3 m wide rectangular channel a discharge of 25 m-/s at a uniform

depth of 1. 2 m. Determine the slope of the channel if n 0.022.

2
Stage discharge relationship
 Measuring the discharge in direct method requires two
steps:
1. Measuring the stage (G) and discharge.
2. Prepare a stage discharge (rating curve)

 For a gauging section of the channel, the measured values of

discharge are plotted against the corresponding stages.

 The flow can be control by G-Q curve when:

1. G-Q is constant withtime (permanent)

2. G-Q is vary with time (shiftingcontrol)
Rating Curve