Unit 1: Perspectives on Assessment and Evaluation (a) Meaning of Assessment, Measurement, Tests, Examination, Appraisal, and Evaluation and their interrelationships; Principles of assessment and evaluation, Meaning of Assessment ors use to evaluate, In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of methods that edu measure, and document the academic readiness, learning progress, and skill acquisition of stucents From preschool through college and adulthood. It is the process of systematically gathering information as part of an evaluation. Assessment is carried out to see what children and young people know, understand and are able to do, Assessment is very important for tracking progress, planning next steps, reporting and involving parents, children and young people in learning, Meaning of Measurement ‘Measurement is actually the process of estimating the values that is the physical quantities like; time, temperature, weight, length etc. each measurement value is represented in the form of some standard units, ‘The estimated values by these measurements are actually compared against the standard quantities that are ‘of same type, Measurement is the assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event, which ‘can be compared with other objects or events. The scope and application of a measurement is dependent on the context and discipline. ‘Meaning of Tests A procedure intended to establish the quality, performance or reliability of something, especially before it is taken into widespread use. Meaning of Examination ‘The act of examining or state of being examined (Education), Written exercises, Oral questions or practical tasks, set (o test a candidate's knowledge and skill (as modifier): an examination paper. Meaning of Appraisal An assessment or estimation of the worth, value or quality of a person or thing, Impartial analysis and evaluation conducted according to established criteria to determine the acceptability, merit, or worth of an item ‘Meaning of Evaluation ‘Evaluation is a broader term that refers to all of the methods used to find out what happens as a result of using a specific intervention or practice. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of some object. It is the systematic acquisition and assessment of information to provide useful feedback about some object. Interrelation among Assessment, Evaluation and Measurement ‘Though the tetms assessment and evaluation are often used interchangeably (Cooper, 1999), many writers differentiate between them. Assessment is defined as gathering information or evidence, and evaluation is the use of that information or evidence to make judgments (Snowman, McCown, and Biehler, 2012) Measurement involves assigning numbers or scores to an “attribute or characteristic of a person in such a ‘Way that the numbers describe the degree to which the person possesses the attribute” (Nitco and Brookhart, 2011, p. 507). Assigning grade equivalents to scores on a standardized achievement test is an example of measurementPRINCIPLES OF ESSMENT Rel ty A test can be reliable but not valid, whereas a test cannot be valid yet unreliable, Reliability, in simple terms, describes the repeatability and consistency of atest. Validity defines the strength of the final results and whether they can be regarded as accurately describing the real world. Validity ‘The word "valid! is derived from the Latin validus, meaning strong. The validity of a measurement tool (for example, a test in education) is considered to be the degree to which the tool measures what it claims to measure; in this case, the validity is an equivalent to accuracy. Relevance and transferabi I education, the term relevance typically refers to learning experiences that are either directly applicable to the personal aspirations, interests or cultural experiences of students (personal relevance) or that are connected in some way to real-world issues, problems and contexts (life relevance). Relevance is the concept of one topic being connected to another topic in a way that makes it useful to consider the first topic when considering the second, The concept of relevance is studied in many different fields, including cognitive sciences, logic, and library and information science. Most fundamentally, however, itis studied in epistemology (the theory of knowledge. ‘Transferability implies that results of the research study can be applicable to similar situations or individuals. The knowledge which was obtained in situation will be relevant in another and investigators who carry out research in another context will be able to utilize certain concepts which were initially developed. It is comparable to generalizability, ‘Transferability in research is utilized by the readers of study. Transferability can apply in varying degrees to many types of rescarch, Transferability doesn't involve broad claims, but invites readers of research to make associations between elements of research and their own experience. For example, lecturers at a school may selectively apply to their own class's results from a research indicating that heuristic writing ‘exercises aid students at the university level 1(b) Behavioris, Cognitivist and Constructivist Perspectives of assessment LEARNING THEORY Learning theories are conceptual frameworks describing how information is absorbed, processed and retained during leaning. Cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences, as well as prior experience, all play a part in how understanding, or a world view, is acquired or changed and knowledge and skills retained, Behaviorists look at learning as an aspect of conditioning and will advocate a system of rewards and targets in education, Educators who embrace cognitive theory believe that the definition of learning as a change in behavior is too narrow and prefer to study the learner rather than their environment and in at learner's particular the complexities of human memory. Those who advocate constructivism believe ability to learn relies to a large extent on what he already knows and understands, and the acquisition of knowledge should be an individually tailored process of construction, Transformative learning theory focuses upon the often necessary change that is required in a leamer’s preconceptions and world view. Behaviorism,Behaviorism is a philosophy of leaming that only focuses on objectively observable behaviors and discounts mental activities. Behavior theorists define learning as nothing more than the acquisition of new behavior. Experiments by behaviorists identify conditioning as a universal learning process ‘There are two different types of conditioning, each yielding « different behavioral pattern: + Classic conditioning occurs when a natural reflex responds to a stimulus. The most popular example is Pavlov's observation that dogs salivate when they eat or even sce food, Essentially, animals and people are biologically “wired” so t specific response. certain stimulus will producs ‘* Behavioral or operant conditioning occurs when a response to a stimulus is reinforced. Basically, ‘operant conditioning is a simple feedback system: If a reward or reinforcement follows the response to a stimulus, then the response becomes more probable in the future, For example, leading behaviorist B.P. Skinner used reinforcement techniques to teach pigeons to dance and bow! a ball in a mini-alley. ‘How Behaviorism impacts learning: « Positive and negative reinforcement techniques of Behaviorism can be very effective + Teachers use Behaviorism when they reward or punish student behaviors, Cognitivism Jean Piaget authored a theory based on the idea that a developing child builds cognitive structures, mental “maps”, for understanding and responding to physical experiences within their environment. Piaget proposed that a child's cognitive structure increases in sophistication with development, moving from a few innate reflexes such as crying and sucking to highly complex mental activities ‘The four developmental stages of Piaget's model and the processes by which children progress through them are: The child is not yet able to conceptualize abstractly and needs concrete physical situations. As physical experience accumulates, the child starts to conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain their Physical experiences. Abstract problem solving is possible at this stage. For example, arithmetic equations can be solved with numbers, not just with objects. By this point, the child's cognitive structures are like those of an adult and include conceptual reasoning, stage (birth 2 years old) Preoperational staue ‘Concrete operations (apes 7-11) Format operations (Geniming at ages 11-13) Piaget proposed that during all development stages, the child experiences their environment using whatever mental maps they have constructed. If the experience is a repeated one, it fits easily - or is assimilated - into the child's cognitive structure so that they maintain mental "equilibrium". If the experience is different or new, the child loses equilibrium, and alters their cognitive structure to accommodate the new conditions. In this way, the child constructs increasingly complex cognitive structuresHow Piaget's theory impacts learning: C Curriculum - Educators must plan a developmentally appropriate curriculum that enhances their students’ logical and conceptual growth. [ Instruetion - Teachers must emphasize the critical role that experiences, or interactions with the surrounding environment, play in student leaming. For example, instructors have to take into account the role that fundamental concepts, such as the permanence of objects, play in establishing cognitive structures. Constructivism Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences We construct our own understanding of the world we live in, Each of us generates our own “rules” and mental models," which we use to make sense of our experiences ing, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences. ‘The guiding principles of Constructivism: Learning s a search for meaning, Therefore, learning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. | Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts and parts must be understood in the context of wholes. Therefore, the learning process focuses on primary concepts, not isolated facts. ~ In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to perceive the world and the assumptions they make to support those models. ‘The purpose of learning is for an individual to construct his or her own meaning, not just memorize the “right” answers and repeat someone else's meaning. Since education is inherently intendisciplinary, the only valuable way to measure learning is to make assessment part of the learning process, ensuring it provides students with information on the quality of their learning. ‘How Constructivism impacts learning: T Curriculum - Constructivism calls for the elimination of a standardized curriculum. Instead, it promotes using curricula customized to the students’ prior knowledge. Also. it emphasizes hands-on problem solving L Instruetion - Under the theory of constructivism, educators focus on making connections between facts and fostering new understanding in students. Instructors tailor their teaching strategies to student responses and encourage students to analyze, interpret and predict information, Teachers also rely heavily on open tended questions and promote extensive dialogue among students. | Assessment - Constructivism calls for the elimination of grades and standardized testing. Instead, assessment becomes part of the learning process so that students play a larger role in judging their own progress. 1(C) Purposes of Assessment: Prognostic, Monitoring of Lesrning, Provi Certification, Grading and Diagnostic 1 Feedback, Promotion, Placement, PURPOSES OF ASSESSMENT ‘Teaching and Learning ‘The primary purpose of assessment is to improve student’s learning and teacher's teaching as both respond to the information it provides, Assessment for learning is a ongoing process that arises out of the interaction between teaching and learning. What makes assessment for learning elfective is how well the information is used ‘System improvement Assessment can do more than simply diagnose and identify student's learning needs; it can be used to assist improvements across the education system in a cycle of continuous improvement: ‘ Students and teachers can use the information gained from assessment to determine their next teachingand learning steps. ‘Parents and families can be kept informed of next plans for teaching and leaning and the progress being made, so they can play an active role in their children’s learning, ‘ School leaders can use the information for school-wide planning, to support their teachers and determine professional development needs. # Communities and Boards of Trustees can use assessment information to assist their governance rote and their decisions about staifing and resourcing. * The Education Review Office can use assessment information to inform their advice for school improvement, # The Ministry of Education can use assessment information to undertake policy review snd development at a national level, so that govemment funding and policy intervention is targeted appropriately to support improved student outcomes. 1(d) Classification of assessment: + based on purpose (prognostic, formative, disgnostic and summative) scope (teacher made, standardized). attribute measured (achievement, aptitude, atttule, ete, nature of information gathered (qualitative, quantiativ mode of response (oral and written; selection and supply), ure of interpretation (norm referenced, criterion referenced) andl context (internal, external) CLASSIFICATION OF ASSESSMENT Based on purpose ‘There are three types of assessment: diagnostic, formative and summative. Although are three are generally referred to simply as assessment, there are distinct differences between the three. Prognostic Assessment A prognostic assessment expands the findings of an assessment with analysis of abilities and potentials with a further dimension: the future development of the concerned person, us well as the necessary conditions, timeframe and limits. Finding the right person for an executive position needs a reliable comprehension of the personality as well as the possibilities and limits concerning the personal development. Even an experienced and keen observer of human nature may get deluded, even recognized and proven test procedures may be incomplete or leading. to wrong results — und misjudgments can become expensive in substantial and immaterial ways. Six Goals of the Prognostic Personality and Abilities Assessment Analysis of existing abilities and interests, including the not (yet) known ones and the development to be expected, % Ifneeded, « comparison with job description and profile of requirements, Basic conditions and needs for the development: how it can be enhanced and ensured Period: how long the development will take until the defined goals can be reached. Limits of developmental possibilities, either referring to the defined goals (selection or generally, with a realistic time frame of 3 t0 5 years. > Quality assurance and sustainability: how the results can be monitored and ensured in the tong term ‘The prognostic assessment is suitable for all management levels including executive board and administrative council, but likewise for young people with the aim of a comprehensive potential analysis, ‘Typically. the prognostic assessment is accomplished as an individual one day-assessment, The objectives are defined individually Formative Assessment vey vessment),Formative assessment provides feedback and information during the instructional process, while learning is king place, and while learning is occurring. Formative assessment measures student progress but it can also assess your own progress as in instructor. A primary focus of formative assessment isto identify areas that may need improvement, These assessments typically are not graded and act as a gauge to student's Jeaming progress and to determine teaching effectiveness (implementing appropriate methods and activities). + Types of Formative Assessment: + Observations during in-class activities, «¢ Homework exercises as review for exams and class discussions + Reflections journals that are reviewed periodically during the semester © Question and answer sessions, both formal—planned and informal — spontaneous Conferences between the instructor and student at various points in the semester tivities where students informally present their results + Student feedback collected by periodically % Diagnostic Assessment: Diagnostic assessment can help you identify your student's current knowledge of a subject, their skill sets and capabilities, and to clarify misconceptions before teaching takes place. Knowing student's strengths and weaknesses can help you better plan what to teach and how to teach it, ‘Types of Diagnostic Assessments: «Pro. sts (on content and abilities) + Self-assessments (identifying skills and competencies) + Discussion board responses (on content-specific prompts) « Interviews (brief, private, 10-minute interview of each student) ‘Summative Assessment Summative assessment takes place after the learning has been completed and provides information and feedback that sums up the teaching and learning process. Typically, no more formal leaming is taking place at this stage, other than incidental learning which might take place through the completion of projects and assignments ‘Types of Summative Assessment ‘¢ Examinations (major, high-stakes exams) + Final examination (a truly summative assessment) «Term papers (drafts submitted throughout the semester would be a formative assessment) ‘Projects (project phases submitted at various completion points could be formatively assessed) + Portfolios (could also be assessed during its development as a formative assessment)« Performances ‘Student evaluation of the course (Leaching e Instructor self-evaluation Based on scope ‘Teacher-Made vs. Standardized Assessments icher-made and standardized. In the broadest sense, assessments may be classified into two categories: t ‘Teacher-made assessments are constructed by an individual teacher or a group of teachers in order to measure the outcome of classroom instruction, Standatdized assessments, on the other hand, are ‘commercially prepared and have uniform procedures for administration and scoring, They are meant for gthering information on | 1978), irge groups of students in multiple settings (Karmel and Karm Based on Attribute ATTRIBUTE M ASURED. Achievement Academic performance should be measured in multiple manners and methods such as: teacher observation, berichmark assessments, student portfolios, rubrics, progress monitoring tools, standardized assessments and other local assessments, —Using multiple assessments helps educators determine what is working and not working... and eventually can lead to better outcomes for students. Aptitude ‘The terms intelligence, ability and aptitude are often used interchangeably to refer to behaviour that is used to predict future leaming or performance. However, slight differences exist between the terms. The tests designed to measure these attributes differ in several significant ways, > How can one be improve Aptitude? Although studies seem to suggest that aptitude test scores cannot be improved, other research shows that that may not be the case. Tests such as the Scholastic Aptitude Tests contain many questions that are content-specific, particularly in math areas. Petformance on these specific types of items is trainable. Some experts feel that short-term cramming might not affect aptitude test scores, However, long-term instruction in broad cognitive skills might improve general test performance. Cognitive theory and research suggest that learning ability can be improved by training students in learning strategies. Improving academic aptitude may be possible through a systematic curriculum that complements direct training in learning strategies with both the development of general thinking approaches and the application Of those approaches over a variety of different tasks and content areas ‘What has been learned about training to improve aptitude can be summarized as follows: ¥ Attempts to train aptitude must go well beyond practice and feedback, What's needed is intensive training in strategies involved in task performance along with higher level monitoring and control strategies involved in guiding performance and in transferring skills to new areas, * Educational efforts to improve aptitude need to be long-term,* Abilities of students and methods of training interact, Attempts to train strategies must fit the tested aptitudes of students, * Practice and feedback can be effective when students are already proficient in the ability to be trained. * Intrusive training may be harmful to high aptitude students, * Training ability works best when treatment utilizes some of the student's other strengths, * Some aspects of intellectual aptitude may be more easily trained than others. Attitude Most simply put, attitudes are likes and dislikes. Social psychologists have given various definitions of the concept. Most of them view altitudes as inclinations or predispositions. According to Gordon W Allport defined an attitude to be a mental and neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which itis related Milton Rokeach defined it as a relatively enduring organization of beliefs around an object or situation predisposing a person to respond in some preferential manner, Our response to an object is often in line ‘with what we believe about and how we feel toward that object. Altitudes are, thus, said to have a knowledge/belief (cognitive) component, an emotional or affective ‘component and a Conative or behavioral component. Having an idea or belief about the object is the minimum condition for having an attitude with regard to it. When the object of which you have an idea becomes associated with pleasant or unpleasant events ot with your aspirations and goals, you attach a corresponding affect or an emotional tinge to that object ‘This affected belief energizes und directs your response with regard to the object. An attitude may thus be understood as an idea or belief charged with emotion predisposing an individual t act im a particular way to persons, things, situations, issues, etc. Based on Nature of information gathered (qualitative & quantitative) Research methods are split broadly into quantitative and qualitative methods, ‘Quantitative Research Quantitative research is perhaps the simpler to define and identify. The data produced are alway's numerical, and they are analyzed using mathematical and statistical methods. If thete ate no numbers involved, then it's not quantitative research. Some phenomena obviously lend themselves to quantitative analysis because they are already available as numbers. Examples include changes in achievement at various stages of ‘education, or the increase in number of senior managers holding management degrees. However, even phenomena that are not obviously numerical in nature can be examined using quantitative methods. Sources of Quantitative Data ‘The most common sources of quantitative data include: ‘Surveys, whether conducted online, by phone or in person. These rely on the same questions being asked in the same way to a large number of people: ‘© Observations, which may either involve counting the number of times that a particular phenomenon ‘occurs, such as how often a particular word is used in interviews, or coding observational data to translate itinto numbers: and«Secondary data, such as company accounts, Qualitative Research Qualitative research is any which does not involve numbers or numerical data. It often involves words or Janguage, but may also use pictures or photographs and observations. Qualitative analysis results in rich data that gives an in-depth picture and it is particularly useful for exploring how and why things have happened. ‘Sources of Qualitative Data Although qualitative data is much more general than quantitative, thete are still a number of common techniques for gathering it. These include: + Interviews, which may be structured, semi-structured or unstructured; ‘+ Focus groups, which involve multiple participants discussing an issues *‘Posteards’, or small-scale written questionnaires that ask, for example, three or four focused questions Of participants but allow them space to write in their own words; « Secondary data, including diaries, written accounts of past events, and company reports; and © Observations, which may be on site, or under laboratory conditions‘, for example, where participants are asked 10 role-play a situation to show what they might do. Based on Mode of Response Mode of Response Oral Response and Written Assessments Student oral responses are longer and more complex, parallel to extended written response questions, Just as with extended written response, one evaluates the quality of oral responses using a rubric or scoring guide. Longer, more compli presentations, ted responses would occur, for exumple, during oral examination or oral Written assessments are activities in which the student selects or composes a response to a prompt, In most cases, the prompt consists of printed materials (a brief question, a collection of historical documents, graphic or tabular material, or a combination of these). However, it may also be an object, an event, ot an experienc specified time and within a fixed amount of time. These constraints contribute to standardization of testing conditions, which increases the comparability of results across students or groups Selected-Response Student responses are usually produced —on demand, i.e., the respondent does the writing at a ‘Tests Characteristics Selected-tesponse tests are so named because the student reads a relatively brief ‘opening statement (called a stem) and selects one of the provided altematives as the correct answer S ted-response tests are typically made up of multiple-choice, true-fulse, or matching items, Quite often all three item types are used in a single test. Selected-response tests are sometimes called “objective” tests because they have a simple and set scoring system. If alternative (b) of a multiple-choice item is keyed as the correct response and the student chose alternative (d), the student is marked wrong, regardless of how much the teacher wanted the student to be ti Advantages‘A major advantage of selected-response tests is efficiency ~ a teacher can ask many questions in a short period of time. Another advantage is ease and reliability of scoring. With the aid of a scoring template (such as a multiple-choice answer sheet that has holes punched out where the correct answer is located), many tests can be quickly and uniformly scored Disadvantages Because items that reflect the lowest level of Bloom's Taxonomy (verbatim knowledge) are the easiest 10 write, most teacher-made tests are composed almost entirely of knowledge level items (a point we made initially in Chapter 7). As a result, students focus on verbatim memorization rather than on meaningful earning. Another disadvantage is that, while we get some indication of what students know, such tests tell us nothing about what students can do with that knowledge, ‘Supply - Response Tests Fill “in-the- Blank Fill “in-the- Blank with a word bank is just levels. nother form of matching and only test the lower cognitive Rules Rule I: Position in the blank at the end of the statement. Poor Item A- is used to keep food cold. Better Item To keep food cold use a Rule I: Limit the number of blanks in a statement Poor Item A- Better Iter Pulses of electrical current are sent through wore by a (1) Rule IMl: Keep blanks the same length sends of electri J current through Poor Item American flag is composed of ——— and Better Item American flag is composed of ~ Short-Answer ‘Tests Characteristics Instead of selecting from one or more alternatives, the student is asked to supply a brief answer consisting of a name, word, phrase, or symbol. Like selected-response tests, short-answer tests can be scored quickly, accurately and consistently, thereby giving them an aura of objectivity. They are primarily used for measuring foundational knowledge. Advantages Short-answer items are relatively easy to write, so a test, or part of one, cin be constructed fairly quickly. ‘They allow for either broad o in-depth assessment of foundational knowledge since students can respond to many items within a short space of time, Since students have to supply an answer, they have to recall, rather than recognize, information. Disadvantages This item type has the same basic disadvantages as the selected-response items. Because these items ask ‘only for short verbatim answers, students are likely to limit their processing to that level, and these itemsprovide no information about how well students can use what they have learned. In additio but plausible answers may be difficult to score. Essay Tests Characteri ‘The studentis given a somewhat general directive to discuss one ot more related ideas according to certain criteria. One example of an essay question is "Compare operant conditioning theory and information- processing theory in terms of basic assumptions, typical research findings, and classroom applications" Advantages Essay tests reveul how well students can ree |, organize, and clearly communicate previously learned information, When well written, essay’ tests call on such higher-level abilities as analysis, synthesis, and evaluation, Because of these demands, students are more likely to try to meaningfully learn the material over which they ate tested. Disadvantages Consistency of grading is likely to be a problem. Two students may have essentially similar responses, yet receive different letter or numerical grades. These test items are also very time consuming to grade. And because it takes time for students to formulate andl write responses, only a few questions at most can be given. NATURE OF INTERPRETATION ‘Norm-referenced Norm-referenced assessments compare individual scores to those of a norm-reference group, generally students of the same grade or age. They are designed to demonsi “differences between and among students to produce a dependable rank onder” (Bond, 1996, p.1) and are often used to classify students for ability-grouping or to help identify them for placement in special programs. They are also used to provide information to report to parents Criterion-referenced Criterion-referenced assessinents determine the specific knowledge and skills possessed by a student, In ‘other words, identify “the kind of performances a student can do in a domain, rather than the student's standing ina norm group" (Nitco and Brookhart, 2011, p. 369). St ‘comparing students’ scores to “clearly defined levels of achievement or proficiency 2011, p. 514), such as state or national standards. CONTEXT (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL) idards-bused ussessments involve * (Nitco and Brookhart, Internal assessment is set and marked by the school (i.e, teachers). Students get the mark and feedback regarding the assessment. ‘External assessment is set by the governing body, and is marked by non-biased personnel, Some external assessments give much more limited feedback in their marking. The student's performances are measured periodically in different context during the period of the course, Student's performance in slip tests, weekly tests, monthly tests with behaviour are being taken into account besides assignments and project wok while calculating the internal mark. At the same time, the performance of the students at the end of the course has been measured which is called as external. In other way it is called as formative and Summative evaluation, a) Need for continuous and comprehensive assessment CONTINUOUS AND COMPREHENSIVE ASSESSMENTA teacher needs to know where his leamers stand in terms of their learning. But he cannot always wait till a formal examination is conducted. Learning, particularly at the primary stage, has to be evaluated on a developmental pattern, hence it has to be evaluated in a continuous form. Further, any scheme of evaluation has to cover all the learning experiences of a child, Hence evaluation has to be comprehensive apart from being continuous. In short, as the process of leaming is continuous and comprehensive, any scheme of ‘evaluation has to be continuous and comprehensive Leaming a language basically means acquiring the four major skills: listening, speaking, reading and writing Of these four skills, listening and reading are receptive in the sense that the language learner receives information, knowledge etc., from the spoken or written form of the language, In other words, he/she understands and comprehends what he/she has heard or read. Speaking and writing are skills that involve production on the part of the language learner. Here the language user is using these two skills to ‘communicate, Thus the skills of listening and reading are comprehension skills, and the skills of speaking and writing are expression skills I is apparent that any evaluation in the area of language learning should take into account the evaluation of the learners’ competencies in all the four skills. Different types of test items are to be developed for ‘evaluating learners comprehension and expression. In view of the above, an attempt has been made in this unit to explain the concept of continuous und comprehensive evaluation, as well as the ways and means by which the different language skills can be evaluated, Education is a continuous process. Therefore, evalution and development must go hand in hand ‘Evaluation has to be carried out in every possible situation or activity and throughout the period of formal ‘education of a pupil. Hence, evaluation has to be continuous, By comprehensive evaluation, we mean that evaluation should not concer itself only with knowledge but it shall also take into account the factors that are inherent in students’ growth such as skills, understanding, appreciation, interest, attitude and habits. In other words, evaluation should cover all the learning experiences of the learner in curricular as well as non-cognitive areas. Let us now discuss what to evaluate in learners while we talk about continuous and comprehensive evaluation. Being a teacher, during the course of lesson planning you might have formulated the objectives in behavioural terms, These objectives are called teaching and learning objectives or instructional objectives, ‘These objectives are the criteria against which you as a teacher ate making a value judgement (evaluation), On the basis of the objectives teachers evaluate leamers’ progress and performance. Evaluation should be carried out in relation to learners’ cognitive, affective and psychomotor growth Cognitive growth refers to the intellectual development of learners (such as learners’ knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation). Affective growth emphasizes learners’ attitude, interest and personal development. Psychomotor growth deals with learners’ ability to perform some activity or do some practical work, Therefore, if you want the teaching-learning process to be really effective, you should evaluate the learners continuously and comprehensively Unit 2: Assessment for Learning 2{a) Use of Projects, Assignments, Work sheets, Practical work, Performance based activites, Seminars and Repors Project is the modern method in which the students creativity in designing the content of studies. According to WH, Kilpatrick, —A project is a wholehearted purposeful activity proceeding in a social environment‘Types of Project Individual and Social Projects: In individu according to interest, capacity and altitude project every students problem is solved in their own Group Projects: The problem is solved by the group of pupil in the class. Here the social, citizenship ‘qualities developed. ‘Simple and Complex Projects: In the simple projects the students are completing only one work ata time. It gives the deep information of the project, thus the students get deeper and broader knowledge about the problem. In the complex project the students are carried out more than one work ata time. They are focuses ‘on the work in various activities and dimensions. According to Kilpatrick there are four types of projects. They are > Constructive Project: Practical or physical tasks such as construction of articles, making the models and playing the drama all done in this > Aesthetic Project: Appreciation powers of the students are developed in this type of project through the musical programmes of beautician and appreciation of poems. > Problematic Project: In this type of project develops the problem solving capacity of the students through their experiences. It is bused on cognitive domain, > Drill Projects It is for mastery of skill and knowledge of the students, also increases the cap and efficacy of the students Steps of a Project Method Creat In the first step teacher creates the proper situation to the students in the class. He puts the knowledge of project it should not force but arise of need with them, Selection of the problem ‘The teacher helps the students to select the problem and guide them, Students are having freedom to select the problem. Planning ‘The teacher discuss with the students about the problem in various angles and points. After the free express ‘of student's opinion about the problem, the teacher writes stepwise in the board. Execution ‘The students are stating their work in this step, They are collecting the relevant information and materials a first. The teachers give time and right to the students according to their speed to complete the work with their ability and interest Evaluation ‘Evaluation of the project should be done both by the pupils and the teachers, Here the students evaluating their task. Has done in light of plans and achieved results Reporting and Recording It is the last step of the project method in which each and every step of the work is reported. The reported forms are recorded in book,Role of the Teacher > In project method of teaching the role of a teacher is that of a guide, friend and philosopher not a lictator or commander, + He encourages the students to work cooperatively and alert to avoid the mistakes, > If the students face failure during execution of some steps of the project, the teacher should not execute any portion of the project instead he encourages better methods or approaches t0 get success. > He should have a thorough knowledge of individual children so as to allot them work accordingly. He should have initiative, tact and zest for learning > Teacher should active and alert then he also maintain the democratic atmosphere Merits of Project Method 4 Students get proper freedom to execute the project in accordance with their interest and abilities because they satisfied the needs. ‘4 Habit of critical thinking gets developed among the students through this method. ‘& With this method, students get ample chances which they can develop coondination among their body and mind, |& This method helps in promoting social inter work in group and interact with experts, tion and co-operation among the students, as they have to | Mostly the projects are undertaken in classroom as classroom assignments, because of which load of homework from the students for reduced to considerable extent Demerits of Project Method ¥ This method takes lot of time to plan and execute asingle project Y Itis not possible to design different projects for different topics and also not able to cover all topics in the content ¥ Such method can only be proving su exceptionally gifted, Y Teachers do not possess lot of information regarding the manner in which this method should be used as result and hesitate to use cessful if the teacher is highly knowledgeable, alert and Project learning, is a dynamic approach to teaching in which students explore real world problems and challenges, simultaneously developing ctoss curriculum skills while working in small collaborative groups, Because students are evaluated on the basis of their projects, rather than on the comparatively narrow rubrics defined by exams, essays, and written reports, assessment of project work is often more meaningful to them, They quickly see how academic work can connect to real-life issues and may even be inspired to pursue a career or engage in activism that relates to the project they developed. ASSIGNMENTS: Assignments ate used as learning device and too) for evaluation, There is no doubt that assignment is carefully planned and regulary valued by the teachers to improve the student's attainment. The assignment is one of the most important phases of teaching. Purpose of Assignments > To provide opportunities to students to work and practice independently > To develop self-reliance and initiative.> To develop habits of reading regularly among the students. > To provide opportunities to students to utilize the leisure time profitably. > To provide remedial measures for backward students Kinds of Assignment # Page-by-Page Assignment ‘This type is sometimes called the textbook assignment. It designates the number of pages to be covered. Page-by-page assignment is unsatisfactory, but recent studies have revealed that this type is still widely used in the elementary grades # Chapter Assignment ‘This is another form of traditional or textbook assignment. Like the first type, itis still extensively used in secondary schools and in colleges. Preparation for this type of assignment is left entirely to the pupils. 4 Problem Assignment ‘This type of assignment gets away from the basic texthook idea, It encourages the use of references and stimulates reflective thinking. In this type the problem to be solved is the prime consideration. Special directions and suggestions are important in this type of assignment * Topical Assignment In this kind of assignment the topic to be developed is the prime consideration. This is also a form of textbook assignment which is often given in social and natural science subjects. # Project Assignment ‘This is a special type of assignment which is best adapted to vocational courses, to natural science subjects, and in some measure to social science subjects and others content subjects. In this type of assignment a project is considered a unit # Contract Assignment ‘This form of assignment is extensively used in individualized types of instruction with the main purpose of adjusting the task to the ability and interest of the individual. # Unit Assignment ‘This type is associated with the Mastery Plan and the Cycle Plan of instruction, It is best adapted to the subjects which are divided into units. The so called flexible assignment is used with the unit assignment plan # Cooperative or Group Assignment ‘Cooperative assignment is most frequently utilized in a socialized type of recitation, or in a project method of instruction. Assignment of this type stimulates pupils to do their own thinking and to organize their materials. Here pupils also participate in determining desirable objectives and in deciding what should be one to attain them. Cooper be utilized to advantage in. many high school classes, ative assignment ca ‘& Syllabus Assignment Syllabus assignment is often utilized in the college or university. In this type of assignment, questions and references are given to guide the students. Here again guide questions and other suggestions are given to Insure attention to the important points of the lesson,‘& Drill Assignment I is the purpose of this assignment to strengthen the connections formed in the process of growth in mental motor skills, Memorizing @ poem or mastery of facts or simple combination Facts in Arithmetic are good ‘examples of this type of assignment. Drill assignment, like other type of assignment, should be motivated. Writing Assignments, particularly for portfolio units, often reflect the length and depth of the units themselves. The assignments may last between six and eight weeks and the initial briefing seems a long time ago. ‘Teachers need to @ com and feedback opportunities assignments that are broken down into a series of tasks, builMling in reviews v Prescribe a completion date for each task and provide support to ensure that learners set indi vidual targets to meet the required outcomes of the task. Provide informal oral feedback when required as part of classroom monitoring activities. Review the progress against targets and provide feedback, Provide opportunities for learners to reflect on feedback provided and act on advice given Provide opportunity for consolidation work to be undertaken by less uble learners. make sure that any remedial work is again reviewed and feedback provided before learners progress to the subsequent task. > Create opportunities for learners to participate in peer assessment and selfassessment activities on ‘completion of the overall assignment > Undertake formal assessment of learners work and return assessed work with written feedback within the agreed period. PRACTICAL WORK vvy y Practical work is considered an integral part of students experience in the discipline. Practical work is a necessary part of the learning experience of most stuclents and especially those of science, engineering and health related disciplines. It serves many purposes it can develop essential transferable skills, perhaps associated with information technology, itcan develop subject specitic skills and it can serve to demonstrate and reinforce material of lecture courses Practical work helps them to learn team-working skills, safe working practices and self-dependence. Practical work refers to those activities in which students manipulate and observe real objects and materials in the laboratory and the field. Practical work in the subjects sits within thinking and working scientifically andiis intrinsic to full learning ‘experience for students; itis not an additional component of teaching and learning ‘There should be an expectation that on completing the course students are able to perform a range of procedures with due regard for accuracy and risk management. They should have hands on experience of conducting specific technical and manipulative tasks. Students should be given the opportunity to undertake wotk in which they make their own decisions, for example through an investigation of their choosing over an extended period of time ‘They should be assessed on their ability to plan, observe, record, analyze, communicate and evaluate through this activity. A range of practical activities should be incorporated into the teaching of ideas to ‘enable students to develop their understanding through interacting with objects and observations, It is widely recognized that practical work is a vital element of school and there are a number of high quality resources to support it However, practical work always impact sufficiently on pupil's engagement and leaming.Practical work aims to improve «Clarity of learning outcomes associated with practical work + Bifectiveness and impact of practical work on leaning © Quality rather than quantity of practical work and ‘To ensure that these developments are sustainable WORKSHEET Worksheet commonly refers to a sheet of paper with questions for students and places to record answers. ‘The term may also refer to a single array of data in spreadsheet software of an informal piece of paper that IN accountant uses to record information In the classroom setting worksheets usually refer to a loose sheet of paper with questions or exercises for students to complete and record answers. They are used, to some degree, in most subjects, and have widespread use in the curriculum. These are intended to help a student become proficient in a particular skill that was taught to them in class. They are commonly given to students us homework. They made up ‘of a progressive set of questions that Jeads to an understanding of the topic to be learned, PERFORMANCE-BA: D LEARNING In the act of learning, people obtain content knowledge, acquire skills and develop work habits and practice the application of all three to real world situations. Performance-based leaming and assessment represent a set of strategies for the acquisition and application of knowledge, skills and work habits through the performance of tasks that are meaningful and engaging to students, Performance-based learning. and assessment achieve a balanced approach by extending traditional fact-and-skill instruction, Performance- based learning and assessment are not a curriculum design. Whereas we decide what to teach, performance- bused learning and assessment constitute a better way to deliver the curriculum. Teachers do not have to give up units of study or favorite activities in a performance-based classroom, Because authentic tasks are rooted in curriculum, teachers can develop tasks based on what already works for them. Through this process, assignments become more authentic and more meaningful to students, Performance Tasks Performance tasks build on earlier content knowledge, process skills and work habits and ate strategically placed in the lesson or unit to enhance leaming as the student pulls it all together. They are both an integral part of the learning and an opportunity to assess the quality of student performance. When the goal of teaching and learning is knowing and using, the performance-based classroom emerges. Performance tasks range from short activities taking only a few minutes to projects culminating in polished products for audiences in and outside of the classroom. In the beginning, most performance tasks should fall on the short ‘end of the continuum Performance Task Assessment Performance task assessment lists are assessment tools that provide the structure students need to work more independently and to encourage them to pay attention to the quality of their work. Assessment also ‘enables the teacher to efficiently provide students with information on the strengths and weaknesses of their work, In creating performance task teachers Focus on what students need to know and be able to do, One result is that teachers can more consistently and fairly evaluate and grade students work. Information from performance task assessment also helps students set learning goals and thus helps teachers focus subsequent instruction, Before they submit their work, students do a final inspection of their own graphs and completethe self-assessment column, During this self-assessment step, students often find ways to improve their work. Peer assessment can also take place at this time, Experiences with peer assessment often improve students’ self-assessing skills. The final step is for the teacher to assess the work and at the same time, ‘evaluate the student's self-assessment. When discrepancies are found between the student's self-assessment and the teacher's assessment of the student's work, the teacher may decide to hold conferences with the students who need work on improving the accuracy of their self-assessment. Strategy for Assessment for Learning ‘+ Video clips of good practice provided in the file were used in the first training session ‘+ The school believes that Hind sight it would have been better to use examples of good achievability at their also its suitability for their learners. ‘+ All staff is undertaking all units of the training pack. + Atthe end of the training for a unit, staff audit whete they are up to, undertake individual target- setting and then they are required to plan how they are going to meet these targets. Self and peer assessment helps to create a learning community within a classroom, Students who can reflect while engaged in metacognitive thinking are involved in their learning. When students have been involved in criteria and goal setting, self-evaluation is a logical step in the learning process. With peer evaluation, students see each other as resources for understanding and checking for quality work against previously established criteria Collaborative learning Student's progress personally. while collectively working towards a common goal, Students are accountable to one another and, with appropriate direction, will self-manage this. Pupils team to better understand and anticipate difference, recognize it in themselves and others, and use it to their advantage A typical collaborative leaming process: + Students organize their efforts between themselves (group-structured) # Students source material to help them complete the activity + The activity is not monitored by the teacher (although they can help when assistance is requested by the group) + Students assess their own individual and group performance # Success depends on individual strengths Cooperative learning Like the cast and crew of a theatre production, co-operation involves interdependence. Roles and responsibilities are clearly defined but are open for negotiation. This method of collaboration brings with it a strong sense of accountability. In contrast to collaborative learning, a cooperative learning structure takes the following Form + Activities are structured with each student assigned a specific role (leacher-structured) + Teachers supply information for students to read and analyse (or let pupils know where this info can be found) * Teachers observe, listen and intervene where necessary + Students submit work af the end of lesson for evaluatiowassessment + The success of the group depends upon the efforts of everyone involved ‘The benefits of cooperative and collaborative learning ‘The majority of students lear best when they are immersed in lesming, through interaction and supplication A student is more likely to remember something discovered through active participation and peer work than through the passive acceptance of information presented by the teacher.‘As well as making learning more memorable, with collaborative and cooperative learning: «By working with their classmates, students come to recognise, understand and respect cultural differences and different perspectives + Performance is improved. With collaborative/cooperative methods much more valuable than individualistic ways of building student performance and progression «Group work heips students who have difficulty with social skills. Providing « safe and structured space (o interact with others + Confidence is emboldened, with students able to recognise and value the importance of their contributions * Inclusivity is encouraged. There is no such thing as an average child, and collaborative/cooperative methods allow each child to work to their strengths. To help with this, tools such as Class Flow let teachers create study groups (and assignments for cooperative learning) based on each pupil’s ability, level, and learning style. With this approach, children are more likely to play sn active role and sre less liable to become disengaged and frustrated ‘Social Skills ‘+ For cooperative learning to be effective, students must leam Social Skills for successful cooperation. ‘+ Social Skills to develop include: a, Trust Building 1) Get to Know Bach Other Activities 2.) Problem Solving 3.) Adventure Based Leatt . Communication 1) Active Listening 2.) Encouraging Others , Decision Making Strategi 1.) Break A Tie: Rock-Paper-Scissors, One-Potato-Two-Potato, Flip a Coin 2.) Consensus Building Vs. Voting Conflict Resolution 1.) Disagreeing in an Agreeable Way 2.) Secking Assistance When Needed ¢, Leadership Skills 1) Share leadership - Allowing each member to lead on their tsk 2.) Self-assessing social skills and leadership a To Teach Social Skills Means to Help Students Understand: 1. Why they are learning the skill 2. What the skill is 3, Ways the skill will be practiced 4, How well they used the skill and how they can improve their use of the skill ©) Portfolio Assessment ~ its meaning, scope and uses; Plann development and assessment PORTFOLIO ASSESSMENT METHODS PORTFOLIO A Portfolio is a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits that exhibits the student's efforts, progress and achievement in one or more areas, ‘The collection must include student participation in selecting contents the criteria for selection the Criteria for judging merit and evidence of student Self- reflectionThe greatest value of portfolios is that in building then Jeaming process and its assessment. " Portfolio Ass: traditional assessment techniques in Education. tudents become actives participants in the sment is one of a several authentic and non- Portfolio Assessment Possess Several Features And Essential Characteristics Which Are: A portfolio is a form of assessment that students do together with their teachers. The teacher's guide the students in the planning, execution and evaluation of contents of the portfolio “Together, they formulate the overall objectives for constructing the portfolio. As such students and teachers in interact in every step of the process in developing a Portfolio, A portfolio represent a selection of what the students believe are best included from among the possible collection of things related to the concept being studied. It is the teacher's responsibility to assist the students in actually choosing from among a possible set of choices. To be included in the portfolio. However the final selection should be done by the students themselves since the portfolio represents ‘what the students believe are important considerations A portfolio provides samples of the students work which show growth over time, By reflecting on their own learning (self-assessment) students begin to identify the strengths and weakness in their work. ‘These weakness then become improvement goals. ‘The criteria for selecting and assessing the portfolio contents must be clear to the teacher and the students. At the outset of the process. I the criteria are not clear at the beginning then there is tendency to include Among Unessential components in the portfolio and to include those which happen to be available at the time, The portfolio is prepared at each step of the process, the students need to refer to the agreed set of criteria for the construction and development of the portfolio. Purposes of portfolio Assessment ‘Why should we resort to portfolio assessment methods? Portfolio assessment has several purposes and rationale for its use First portfolio assessment matches assessment of teaching. The final outputs to be assessed are products of classroom discussions and classtoom work and are not simple diversions from the tedium of classroom activities, Second portfolio assessment has a clear goals. In fact, they are decided on the beginning of instruction and are clear to teacher and student alike. In cognitive testing the objectives are set at the beginning but the actual iterns may or may not reflect achievement of such objectives. In portfolio assessment however the students control the items to be included and therefore are assured that the goals are achieved. Third, portfolio assessment gives a profile of a learner abilities in term of depth, breadth, and wth, Forftio assessment enable the students to demonstrate quality work done without pressure and constraints of time presents in traditional testing through the help of resource. Fourth, portfolio assessment is a tool for assessing a variety of skills not normally testable in a single setting for traditional testing. The portfolio can show written, oral and graphics output of students in a variety of way which demonstrate skills developed by students. Fifth portfolio assessment develops awareness of own learning students. Students have to reflect on their own progress and the quality of their work in relation to known goals. This is achieved at each stage of the progress since the students continually refer to the set of goals and objectives set at the beginning, Every portfolio must obtain the following essential elements:1. Cover Letter “About the author” and “What my portfolio shows about my progress as a learner (written at the end, but put at the beginning), The cover letter summarizes the evidence of a student’s earning and progress. 2. Table of Contents with numbered pages. 3. Entries — both core (items students have 0 include) and optional (items of student’s choice). The ements will be required for each student and will provide a common buse from which to make decisions on assessment. The optional items will allow the folder to represent the uniqueness of each student, Students can choose to include “best” pieces of work, but also a piece of work which gave trouble or one that was less suc ons why 4, Dates on all entries, to facilitate proof of growth over time. 5. Drafts of oral and written products and revised versions; i. first drafts and correctedrevised versions 6, Reflections can appear at different stages in the learning process (for forn purposes.) and at the lowet levels can be written in the mother tongue or by students who find it difficult to express themselves in English ve and/or summative Assessing and Evaluating the Portfolio According to Paulson, Paulson and Meyer Portfolios offer a way of assessing student learning that is different from the traditional methods. Portfolio assessment provides the teacher and students an opportunity to observe students in a broader context taking risk developing creative solution and learning to make judgments about their own performances, PORTFOLIO INCLUDE THE FOLLOWING: ‘Thoughtfulness (including evidence of students monitoring of their own comprehension meta reflection and productive habits of mind). Growth and development in relationship to key curriculum expectancies and indicators Understanding and application of key proce Completeness correctness and appropriateness of products and processes presented in the portfolio Diversity of entries (e.g use of multiple formats to demonstrate achievement of designated performance standard). SAMPLE OF RATING SCALE FOR COVER LETTER cognitive folating to seltipeer assessment ‘= Selfipeer assessment with rating scales © Checklist with criteria (such as: clear preset spelling/pronunciation), depending on the task. © Teacher/peer observation = Leaming log © Answer key jon, relevant vocabulary, correctGuided reflection on the task One of the more significant aspects of Portfolio assessment is its “Collaborative Approach” in which students and teachers work together to identify especially to significant or important artifacts and processes to be capture in the portfolio, Student-Teacher Conferences ‘The main philosophy embedded in portfolio assessment is “Shared and active assessment”, The teacher should have short individual meetings with each students, in which progress is discuss and goals are set for a future meeting, The teacher and the student keep careful documentation of the meeting noting significant agreements and finding cach individual session. The formative evaluation process of the portfolio assessment is facilitated, Indeed the use of portfolio assessment takes time but in the end it gains fteacher Finally, student-teacher conference can also be used for summative evaluation purposes when the students present his final portfolio product and where final grades ate determined together with the teacher. This conference can be prepared in pairs, where students practice presenting their portfolio. di) Self, Peer and Teacher Assessments Peer Assessment It is widely recognized that when learners are fully engaged in the learning process, learning increases. A fundamental requirement of Assessment for Learning is for learners to know what they have to lear, why it is required and how itis to be assessed, When leamers are able (0 understand the assessment criteria progress is often maximized, especially when individuals have opportunities to apply the assessment criteria to work produced by their peers as part of planned classroom activities. Peer assessment using the predefined assessment criteria is the next stage to evaluate Jeamer understanding and consolidating Jeaming. ‘Benefits of organizing peer assessment activities ‘© Ieamers clarifying their own ide © Checking individual’s unders learmer’s work. ind understanding of the learning intention fanding of the assessment criteria and how it is to be applied 10 Self-Assessment Once learners are able to use the assessment criteria appropriately and can actively contribute t0 peer- assessment activities, the next step is to engage them in self-assessment tasks. Self-assessment is a very powerful teaching tool and crucial to the Assessment for Learning process. Once learners ean engage in peer-assessinent activities, they will be more able to apply these new skills to undertaking objective ‘assessment of their own work. We all know it is easy to find fault in other people's work, but it is a far more challenging process to judge one's own work. Once learners can assess their own work and their current knowledge base, they will be able to identify the up in their own learning; this will aid learning and promote progress sind contribute to the self-management of learning, Teachers need ‘© Provide opportunities for learners to reflect on their own work ‘© Ensure they provide individuals with the necessary support so that they are able to acknowledge shortcomings in their own work © Support learners through the self-assessment process so that strengths in their work are fully recognized and weaknesses are not exaggerated to the point that they damage learner’s self-esteem. Unit 3: Assessment of Learning4) Dimensions of learning: cognitive, affective and performance Cognitive learning Cognitive leaning is the mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses. It has so many thinking skills such as Convergent, Divergent, Critical, Problem Solving and Decision Making. Convergent thinking is characterized by rigidity, conformity and unquestioning acceptance of authority whereas divergent thinking stimulates a {questioning frame of mind and discourages blind acceptance. Critical thinking is a general term that covers all thinking processes that strive to get below the surface of something: questioning, probing, analyzing, testing and exploring. At the same time, Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems Affective learning Affective domain describes the way people react emotionally and their ability to feel other living things’ pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, ‘emotion and feelings. Performance based assessment Direct, systematic observation and rating of student's performance of an educational objective, ‘often an ongoing observation over a period of time and typically involving the creation of products. ‘The assessment may be a continuing interaction between teacher and student and should ideally be part of the learning process. The assessment should be « real-world performance with relevance {o the students and leaming Community by Assessment of cognitive leaming: ‘types and levels of cognitive leaming: understanding and application: + thinking skills -convergent, divergent, critical, problem solving, and decision making: + items and procedures for ther assessment Cognitive assessment and student learning Cognitive learning is the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience and the senses. It encompasses processes such as knowledge, attention, memory and working memory, judgment and evaluation, reasoning and computation, problem solving and decision making, comprehension and production of language, etc, Human cognition is conscious and unconscious, concrete or abstract. as well as intuitive (like knowledge of a language) and conceptual (like a model of a language). Cognitive processes use existing knowledge and generate new knowledge. It is important to understand the relationship between cognitive assessment and student leaming, particularly in the context of determining a student's need for special education services. Defining intelligence can he rather complicated. Some define intelligence as it relates to the general interpretation of the global IQ as derived from intelligence tests. or achievement tests. Others claim that intelligence should be analyzed at a more specific level by examining each of the cognitive functions which make up the global IQ Convergent and Divergent Thinking Convergent thinking To converge means to tend towards or meet in one point or value*. To diverge means to tend from 2 common point in different direction’, Convergent thinking is characterized by rigidity, conformity and unquestioning acceptance of authority. It is a stereotyped behavior. Divergent ThinkingDivergent thinking is « kind of healthy departure from the beaten track. It stimulates a questioning frame of mind and discourages blind acceptance. It is a goal-directed activity aimed at a destination ‘one is only dimly aware of. One becomes venturesome and exploratory rather than being a slave to conventional mode of thinking. ‘Why do majority of teachers encourage convergent thinking mostly in class? Perhaps, it safeguands their ego and status. They find it easier to practice. This kind of teaching contributes to success in the present mode of examination where in pure recall-type questions predominate. Since very little time and opportunity would be provided for discussion or debate, the syllabus could be covered within the stipulated time. Such teachers are unimaginative and unproductive ‘How does a teacher who promotes divergent thinking conduct his/her class? He tends to encourage independent thinking, suspend judgment and be tolerant toward those who differ from 82 him. He has an open mind and whenever he gives a definition he would also encourage students to redefine in a simpler language than what is presented in the text book. Students feel free to suggest ideas for discussion and not remain tongue-tied or insecure. Critical Thinking ‘Training children in the art of critical thinking or reasoning will be effective, limited of course by ‘the natural intellectual endowments of children. Critical thinking is a general term that covers all thinking processes that strive to get below the surface of something: questioning, probing, analyzing, testing and exploring, Itis not a negative term as such, although it can sound it. Critical thinking requires detective-like skills of persistence to examine and re-examine an argument, in order to take in all the angles and weigh up evidence on every side. To think critically is never to take something on face value but to question and think independently about an issue, however authoritative a writer or thinker may be. ‘There are several stages involved in critical reading: Identifying the author's line of reasoning Critically evaluating the line of reasoning, Identifying evidence in the text Evaluating the evidence Questioning surface appearances and assumptions Identifying the writer"s conclusions Deciding whether the evidence supports the conclusions, VvVVVVY Problem Solving An individual faces a problem when he finds obstacles in his attempt to reach a desired goal. If the ‘goal could be reached easily then there is no need for any reasoning. Problem-solving is a mental process that involves discovering, analyzing and solving problems. ‘The ultimate goal of problem-solving is to overcome obstacles and find a solution that best resolves the issue. The best strategy for solving a problem depends largely on the unique situation. In some cases, people are better off leaming everything they can about the issue and then using factual knowledge to come up with a solution, In other instances, creativity and insight are the best options.Nature of Problem-Solving + Goal specific + Deliberate and purposefil + Attempts at the removal of interference + Results in novel procedures or novel products Decision Making Decision making is the process of making choices by setting goals, gathering information and assessing alternative occupations. Selected-response assessment (Items and procedure for assessment) Objective Type To mitigate some of the evils of the essay type examinations, objective tests seem to be very useful. Modern educationists lay much stress on this type of tests to supplement the traditional type of tests. Objective tests are of a large variety. ‘An objective type of test item is one which the response will be objective. Objective type test item broadly classified into two: Supply type (Recall Type - The respondent has to supply the responses) and Selection type (Recognition Type ~ The respondent has fo select the responses from among the given responses). Objective Type —4 Types «True — False Items (Alternate Response Type) + Multiple Choice Items Matching Type Items and ‘+ Completion Type Test Advantages of Objective Type Items + A large amount of study material can be tested in a very short period time + Economy of time, « Objectivity of scoring «No bluffing « It reduces the subjective element of the examiner to the minimum and + If carefully planned, it can measure the higher mental process of understanding, application, analysis, prediction and interpretation, Limitations of Objective type items © Difficulty in preparing good items. © Problem of guessing. © Problem of cheating© Inefficiency in testing complicated skills High printing cost and ‘o Emphasis on testing superficial knowledge. Matching Items A matching item consists of two columns: one column of stems or problems to be answered, and another column of responses from which the answers are to be chosen. Traditionally, the column ‘of stems is placed on the left and the column of responses is placed on the right. Short Answer Type « A question requiring three value points at most may be defined as a + Value points diminish the subjectivity. + Help in ensuring wide coverage of content Advantages of Short answer Type Items « Large portion of the content can be covered in a test. «No opportunity for guessing. + Easy to construct, because it measures a relatively simple outcomes. # It can be made quit objective by carefully fixing the value points. « Useful in evaluating the ability to interpret diagrams, charts, graphs, etc. If carefully prepared, deep level objectives understanding, application and problem solving skill can be evaluated. Limitations of Short answer Type Items «It is more subjective than the objective type of items. It may encourage student to memories fact and develop poor study habits. « Mechanical scoring is not possible Essay Type + IL is free response test item. « Help in ensuring a wide coverage of content and variety of objectives. « Help in evaluating complex skills. Advantages Essay Type Items + Easy to prepare. + Useful in measuring certain abilities and skills « Permit the examinee to write down comprehensively w Promote originality and creative thinking. « Possibility of guess work can be eliminated. + Reduce chance on the spot copying « Low printing cost Limitations of Essay Type Items + Minimum validity. * Lack of reliability «No objectivity. «Rote memory is encouraged, « Itis.a time consuming test item. ') Assessment of affective leaming: attitude and values, interest, self-concept: assessment AFFECTIVE LEARNIL short answer question. he knows about something ms and procedures for theirAffective domain describes the way people react emotionally und their ability to feel other living things’ pain or joy. Affective objectives typically target the awareness and growth in attitudes, emotion and feelings. Attitude Meaning and Definition of Attitude An attitude is a variable which directly observed, but itis inferred from overt behaviour both verbal and non-verbal responses. In more objective term the concept of attitude may be said to connote response tendency with regard to certain categories of stimuli. In actual practice the term attitude has been most frequently associated with emotionally toned responses. The deep rooted feelings are the attitudes which cannot he changed easily. ‘An attitude is defined as a tendency to react in certain way toward a designated class of stimuli or an object. Values Meaning and Definition of Values ‘The term value is more sociological concept. The values fall in the realm of ethics, economies, aesthetics and religion. They exist as they are experienced in human minds and translated into human actions. The value determines the direction of human actions. Thus values are the significant determinant for individual differences. The values are related to feelings and beliefs of an individual which are deep rooted. The value is defined in terms of sentiments and emotions likes and dislikes ete. Characteristics of values ‘The following are the characteristics of value «IL is the satisfaction of human wants ‘# It is the psychological needs of a person. «It isa generalized and that guides individual behavior and it is an organized ends. + It is an outcome of human choices among the competitive human interest. + ILis the psychic-energy invested in the personality of an individual # It is the real determinant of human behavior and relationship between subject and object. « It is socially approved desires and goals, and experiences of life which guides the actions and behavior are known as values. Interest Interest is the integral part of one's personality. It is an acquired trait from the environment. Personality is a wider term including all the psycho-physical dispositions, behaviors, views, Interests and attitudes of an individual. Adjustment has some relevance with interests, According to Kelly, interests of an individual really important information about the make-up of his personality. Interests are one of the determinants of the individual differences, Definition of Interest The following are some important definitions of the term interest. “An interest Wy. is a tendency to become absorbed in an experience and to continue it” - Bingham,‘The following are the main characteristics of Interest 1. Interests are not necessarily related to ability or aptitude. 2. Interest can be hereditary as well as acquired from environment, through the interests are mainly acquired. 3. Interests are fairly stable, cannot be changed easily. 4, Interests of an individual resemble with his parents or family interests. 5. Interests are the aspects of personality of an individual. 6. Interests are related to aptitudes and achievements, Self-concept One's self-concept (also called self-construction, self-identity, and self-perspective or self- structure) is a collection of beliefs about oneself that includes elements such as academic performance, gender roles, sexuality and racial identity. Generally, self-concept embodies the answer to "Who am 1?". Self-concept is a cognitive or descriptive component of one’s self (e.g. "Tam a fast runner"), Self- concept is made up of one’s self-schemas, and interacts with self-esteem, self-knowledge and the social self to form the self as whole. It includes the past, present, and future selves, where future selves (or possible selves) represent individuals’ ideas of what they might become, what they would like to become, or what they are afraid of becoming. Possible selves may function as incentives for certain behavior. ©) Assessment of Performance: tools and techniques for assessment of skills Performance based assessment Direct, systematic observation and rating of student's performance of an educational objective, ‘often an ongoing observation over a period of time and typically involving the creation of products. ‘The assessment may be & continuing interaction between teacher and student and should ideally be part of the learning process. The assessment should be « real-world performance with relevance (o the students and leaming Community. Assessment of the Performance is done using rubric or analytic scoring guide to aid in objectivity Performance based assessment is a test of the ability to apply knowledge in a real life setting. Evaluation of the product of learning experiences can also be used to evaluate the effectiveness of teaching methods. Stiggins: Defines this Assessment as used of performance criteria to determine the degree to which a student has met an achievement target. Important elements of performance based assessment include clear goals or performance criteria clearly articulated and communicated to the Learner; the establishment of a sound sampling that clearly envisions the scope of an achievement target and the type of learning that is involved. Attention to extrancous interference and establishment of a clear purpose for the data collected during the assessment before the assessment is undertaken, keeping in mind the needs of the groups involved (Leachers, Students, Parents, etc.) Unit 4: Preparing a Report on Assessment Guided scheme) ACHIEVEMENT TEST 1 for construction and administration of Achievement Test(Test design, items and question paper , markingAny test designed to as objectives. “Major steps involved in the construction of achievement test * Planning of test # Preparation of a design for the test # Preparation of the blue print # Writing of items Preparation of the scoring key and marking scheme « Preparation of question-wise analysis a) Planning of test *# Objective of the Test Determine the maximum time and maximum marks b) Preparation of a design for the test « Important factors to be considered in design for the test are: # Weightage to objectives * Weightage to content # Weightage to form of questions * Weightage to difficulty level. ©) Weightage to objectives This indicates what objectives are to be tested and what weightage has to be given to each objective. ess the achievement in any subject with regard to a set of predetermined BE onjcts 1 Kuowkie [3 | [> [endertanting! 2 [8 3 [Appl [ «6 + fambsis | 8 s Kote | « | 16 [[e fevainaion [2 [5 FTotat 2 100 This indicates the various aspects of the content to be tested and the weightage to be given to these different aspects. [Su.Nol Content MarksPereentage| 1 Sub topie-1| 15 60 2 Subtopic-2| 10 | 40 Total 25 | 100 €)Weightage to form of questions This indicates the form of the questions to be included in the test and the weightage to be given for each form of questions,SL.No [Form of questions |No. of Questions [Marks [Percentage 1 [Objective type W 7 28 2 _ [Short answer type 7 4 56 3 _ [Essay type 1 4 16 Total 2 25 100 )Weightage to difficulty level : This indicates the total mark and weightage to be given to different level of questions. SL No|Fonn of questions|Marks|Percentage 1 [Easy 5 20 2 Average 1s 60 3 [Difficult s 20 Total 100 g)Preparation of the blue print Blue print is a three-dimensional chait giving the placement of the objectives, content and form of questions. Objectives T |Application| Analysis Synthesis|Evaluation| Form of Ot ich o |se|eosa elolsalelo) sale a z 1 z/2 4 z z Sub Topte- 1 @ 2 | ay io} lao a 1 7 2 7 2 Sub Topte— o 10, ay a o| 2 | o jo|2 ° o | z 25 Note: © ~ Objective Type. SA ~ Short Answer Type. E ~ Essay Type ‘The number outside the bracket indicates the marks and those inside indicates the number of questions. Writing of items «The paper setter writes items according to the blue print. « The difficulty level has to be considered while writing the items. # It should also check whether all the questions included can be answered within the time allotted. # It is advisable to arrange the questions in the order of their difficulty level. In the case of short answer and essay type questions, the marking scheme is prepared. ‘In preparing marking scheme the examiner has to list out the value points to be credited and fix up the mark to be given to each value point.