energies

Article
Induction Heating for Variably Sized Ferrous and Non-Ferrous
Materials through Load Modulation
Senthil Rajan Ramalingam 1 , C. S. Boopthi 1 , Sridhar Ramasamy 1, *, Mominul Ahsan 2, *
and Julfikar Haider 3

1 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology,
Chennai 603203, India; [email protected] (S.R.R.); [email protected] (C.S.B.)
2 Department of Computer Science, University of York, Deramore Lane, York YO10 5GH, UK
3 Department of Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University, John Dalton Building, Chester Street,
Manchester M1 5GD, UK; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.R.); [email protected] (M.A.)

Abstract: Induction heating (IH) is a process of heating the electrically conducting materials especially
ferromagnetic materials with the help of electromagnetic induction through generating heat in an
object by eddy currents. A well-entrenched way of IH is to design a heating system pertaining
to the usage of ferromagnetic materials such as stainless steel, iron, etc., which restricts the end
user’s choice of using utensils made of ferromagnetic only. This research article proposes a new
scheme of induction heating that is equally effective for heating ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic
materials such as aluminium and copper. This is achieved by having a competent IH system that
embodies a series resonant inverter and controller where a competent flexible load modulation (FLM)




is deployed. FLM facilitates change in operating frequency in accordance with the type of material

 chosen for heating. The recent attempts by researchers on all metal IH have not addressed much on
Citation: Ramalingam, S.R.; Boopthi, the variable shapes and sizes of the material, whereas this research attempts to address that issue as
C.S.; Ramasamy, S.; Ahsan, M.; well. The proposed induction heating system is verified for a 2 kW system and is compatible with
Haider, J. Induction Heating for both industrial and domestic applications.
Variably Sized Ferrous and
Non-Ferrous Materials through Load Keywords: induction heating; load flexible modulation; series resonant inverter; non-ferromagnetic
Modulation. Energies 2021, 14, 8354. materials
https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248354

Academic Editor: Byoung Kuk Lee

1. Introduction
Received: 25 October 2021
Traditionally, heat energy is produced by burning combustible substances, which re-
Accepted: 7 December 2021
sults in energy wastage and environmental deterioration. Over the years, these drawbacks
Published: 11 December 2021
forced researchers to invent new heating methodologies. In the recent past, induction
heating (IH) methods based on magnetic coupling have evolved tremendously because of
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
their innate advantages such as no leftovers, cleanliness, safety, and high efficiency [1–3].
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
In induction hardening, aside from the reduced processing time, cost reduction and less
published maps and institutional affil-
iations.
decarburisation are also added advantages [4]. However, the method also has drawbacks
such as a shorter austenitisation period, which is insufficient to provide a uniform carbon
distribution, resulting in variances in a martensitic block size that depends on the local
carbon concentration. As a result, the tensile strength of the steel is lower than that of the
conventionally heat-treated steel [5]. In the metal melting process for diecasting, a DC
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
induction heater with high-temperature superconductor (HTS) coils can save both energy
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
and time [6]. With the advent of power electronic switches and power converter circuitries,
This article is an open access article
the IH phenomena gained the attention of researchers. The IH system essentially comprises
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
two important components—namely, the working coil and work bit (load). Traditionally,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
IH is a combined recipe of electromagnetic induction and joule heating. IH is a non-contact
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
process of heating electrically conductive metal by generating eddy currents in the metal
4.0/). using the principle of electromagnetic induction. Thus, the eddy current, based on the joule

Energies 2021, 14, 8354. https://doi.org/10.3390/en14248354 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

es 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18

generating
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 eddy currents in the metal using the principle of electromagnetic induction. 2 of 18
Thus, the eddy current, based on the joule heating principle, flows against the resistivity
of the metal producing heat in the metal. The conventional topology used in IH consists
of an AC to DC converter and the load. However, this system can only be used for fer-
heating principle,
romagnetic materials flows against
of high resistance with low the skin
resistivity
depthof andthehigh
metal producing heat
permeability, and in the metal.
The conventional topology used in IH consists of an AC to DC converter and the load.
therefore, the use of this technique on different other metals with low resistance in dif-
However, this system can only be used for ferromagnetic materials of high resistance with
ferent applications is challenging [7–11].
low skin depth and high permeability, and therefore, the use of this technique on different
Many research initiatives and techniques have been proposed to heat
other metals with low resistance in different applications is challenging [7–11].
non-ferromagnetic materials [12–16] and non-metallic materials [17] using IH. The prime
Many research initiatives and techniques have been proposed to heat non-ferromagnetic
inference from this body of research is that non-ferromagnetic material has much lower
materials [12–16] and non-metallic materials [17] using IH. The prime inference from this
resistance than ferromagnetic materials, which results in drawing more current from the
body of research is that non-ferromagnetic material has much lower resistance than fer-
inverter, which requires higher-rated components, increasing the switching losses and
romagnetic materials, which results in drawing more current from the inverter, which
costs of the system. The resistance of non-ferromagnetic materials has been increased by
requires higher-rated components, increasing the switching losses and costs of the sys-
increasing the switching frequency, which also causes a decrease in the skin depth.
tem. The resistance of non-ferromagnetic materials has been increased by increasing the
However, dueswitching
to an increase in thewhich
frequency, switching also frequency,
causes a decreasehigh switching losses
in the skin are inev-
depth. However, due to
itable. The idea of increasing the resistance of non-ferromagnetic
an increase in the switching frequency, high switching losses are inevitable. materials is imple- The idea of
mented by the high turns
increasing theratio of theofIH
resistance coil, which increases
non-ferromagnetic conduction
materials losses in by
is implemented thethe high turns
system, making the system unstable. The resistance in the circuit
ratio of the IH coil, which increases conduction losses in the system, making causes some damping in the system
the series RLC circuit. ItThe
unstable. determines
resistancewhether or notcauses
in the circuit the circuit
somewill naturally
damping resonate
in the seriesin RLC circuit. It
the absence ofdetermines
a driving source. Circuits that will resonate in this manner are
whether or not the circuit will naturally resonate in the absence of a driving considered
to be underdamped, while those
source. Circuits that that
will will not are
resonate considered
in this manner are to be overdamped.
considered to beThere is
underdamped, while
also a condition known as critical damping, which is the smallest amount
those that will not are considered to be overdamped. There is also a condition known as of damping
that can be applied
criticalwithout
damping, causing
whichoscillation [18]. amount of damping that can be applied without
is the smallest
Many researchers have put[18].
causing oscillation forth their research contribution in IH either through
new topologies of Many converter or through
researchers havecontrol
put forthalgorithms [19–28].
their research Research by
contribution in Saha and through new
IH either
Kim suggested a seriesofinverter
topologies converter using third-harmonic
or through modulation
control algorithms to increase
[19–28]. Researchtheby re-Saha and Kim
sistance of ferromagnetic materials [29]. Here, in this method, the operating
suggested a series inverter using third-harmonic modulation to increase the resistance of frequency
was three times higher thanmaterials
ferromagnetic that of the switching
[29]. Here, infrequency.
this method, Onthetheoperating
other hand, the input
frequency was three times
voltage was three
highertimes
than lower
that of than the traditional
the switching frequency. pulse Onfrequency
the other modulation.
hand, the input There-
voltage was three
fore, to deliver the rated
times lowerpowerthan the with a low input
traditional pulsevoltage, a highmodulation.
frequency current was drawn fromto deliver the
Therefore,
the system; inrated
turn,power
the system
with acapacity
low input increased,
voltage, aand highthe choicewas
current of switches
drawn from became a
the system; in turn,
cumbersome the procedure. To overcome
system capacity increased, thisandissue,the achoice
power of factor
switchescorrection
became acircuit was procedure.
cumbersome
combined with To the system,this
overcome whichissue,increased
a powerthe factorinput voltage and
correction solved
circuit the low input
was combined with the system,
voltage problem.
which However,
increasedlarge, passive
the input components
voltage and solved contributed to thevoltage
the low input poor cost ef-
problem. However,
fectiveness oflarge,
the IH passive
system components contributed toincreased
and also unnecessarily the poor cost effectiveness
additional passiveof the
com- IH system and
ponents in thealso unnecessarily
topology [30]. increased additional passive components in the topology [30].
In a research In a research
study, Park and study, JungPark and Jung demonstrated
demonstrated a technique aoftechnique of heating
heating both fer- both ferro-
romagnetic and magnetic and non-ferromagnetic
non-ferromagnetic materials [12]. materials
Inspired [12].byInspired by theirthe
their research, research,
authorsthe authors of
this
of this research research
paper carriedpaperthe carried
researchthe research
forward forward byschemes
by proposing proposing schemes
to use a simpleto use a simple
control technique for heating all metals with different
control technique for heating all metals with different shapes and sizes. Figure 1 shows shapes and sizes. Figure 1 shows
two different two
systemsdifferent systemsdifferent
for heating for heating pan different
shapes and pansizes.
shapes and sizes.

(a) (b)
Figure 1. Heating metal of different shapes and sizes: (a) planar cooktop and (b) curved cooktop.
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, 8354 3 of 18

Figure 1. Heating metal of different shapes and sizes: (a) planar cooktop and (b) curved cooktop.

Flexible load modulation (FLM) was achieved with the help of a controller in this
Flexible
system. load modulation
Two switches (FLM) in
were deployed was achieved
this prototypewith
forthetwohelp of a controller
different in this
modes, which
system.
had Two switches
different switching were
anddeployed
resonantinfrequencies
this prototype forfor
eachtwomode.
different
Themodes,
inductorwhich had
in the
different switching and resonant frequencies for each mode. The inductor
resonant tank circuit was kept constant, whereas two different capacitors were available in the resonant
tank
for circuit
each mode.wasDepending
kept constant,
on thewhereas
metal two
used, different
the modecapacitors were available
was selected with the for
helpeach
of
mode. Depending on the metal used, the mode was selected with
switches available. When any load was removed, the system would come to its initial the help of switches
available. From
condition. Whenthe anyliterature
load wassurvey,
removed,it isthe systemthat
inferred wouldtherecome
is a to its initial
need condition.
to simplify the
From the
system, literature
along survey, it switching
with reducing is inferredandthatconduction
there is a need to simplify
losses without the system,
using along
additional
with reducing
high-rated switching
passive and conduction
components losses without
and to increase using
the system additional high-rated passive
efficiency.
components and to increase the system efficiency.
In this research study, the FLM method for heating different metals by a series res-
onanceIn circuit
this research study, The
is proposed. the FLM method
control for heating
algorithm different
thus devises themetals by a series
operational modes,res-
onance circuit is proposed. The control algorithm thus devises the
minimising the magnitude of resonant current by increasing the resistance of the metal, operational modes,
minimising
as the magnitude
shown in Figure of resonant
2. This topology doescurrent by increasing
not require any power thefactor
resistance of thecircuit
correction metal,
as shown
and in Figure
hence making it 2.
costThis topology
effective anddoes
withnot require power
improved any power factor
density. correction circuit
Furthermore, since
and hence making it cost effective and with improved power density. Furthermore, since
the switching frequency is different and less than that of the operating frequency, a very
the switching frequency is different and less than that of the operating frequency, a very
small switching loss is incurred. The turn ratio of the IH coil is kept low to achieve very
small switching loss is incurred. The turn ratio of the IH coil is kept low to achieve very
low conduction losses. This paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents the system
low conduction losses. This paper is organised as follows: Section 2 presents the system
description and proposed methodology. The results are discussed in Section 3, and the
description and proposed methodology. The results are discussed in Section 3, and the
concluding remarks are given in Section 4.
concluding remarks are given in Section 4.

Aluminium Copper Stainless Steel Iron

18

16

14

12
Resistance (Ohm)

10

0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Frequency (kHz)

Figure
Figure2.2.Frequency
Frequencyvs.vs.resistance
resistanceofofdifferent
differentferromagnetic
ferromagneticand
andnon-ferromagnetic
non-ferromagneticmaterials
materials(data
(data
taken
takenfrom
from[31,32]).
[31,32]).

2.2.Design
DesignofofInduction
InductionHeating
HeatingSystem
System
2.1. System Description
2.1. System Description
In this proposed induction heating system, input was received by 220 V DC bus from
In this proposed induction heating system, input was received by 220V DC bus from
three different sources—namely, 220 V AC supply (grid), PV array, and battery. For this
three different sources—namely, 220V AC supply (grid), PV array, and battery. For this
system, the 220 V AC supply taken from the grid could be reduced to the desired voltage
system, the 220V AC supply taken from the grid could be reduced to the desired voltage
with the help of an autotransformer and the controlled rectifier. The output of the PV
with the help of an autotransformer and the controlled rectifier. The output of the PV
array was fed to the DC–DC converter in order to convert it into the required voltage and
array was fed to the DC–DC converter in order to convert it into the required voltage and
transfer it to the 220 V DC bus. When there was no PV power, the battery was discharged
transfer it to the 220V DC bus. When there was no PV power, the battery was discharged
to the load, whereas the battery was charged when the PV power was available. This is the
to the load, whereas the battery was charged when the PV power was available. This is
function of the nanogrid, which automatically controlled the charging and discharging of
the battery based on the availability of other sources and the load. A half-bridge resonant
converter was connected to the DC bus. This converter was used to change the operating
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, 8354 4 of 18

the function of the nanogrid, which automatically controlled the charging and discharg-
ing of the battery based on the availability of other sources and the load. A half-bridge
resonant converter was connected to the DC bus. This converter was used to change the
frequency
operatingof the IH coil.
frequency Several
of the combinations
IH coil. of inductor
Several combinations of and capacitor
inductor were controlled
and capacitor were
bycontrolled
switches by (S3switches
and S4) to (S3change
and S4) thetooperating
change thefrequency.
operatingTofrequency.
control the Toswitches in the
control the
resonant
switchestank andresonant
in the to give PWM pulses
tank and to MOSFET
to give PWM pulses(S1 and S2), a controller
to MOSFET (S1 andwas
S2),employed.
a con-
This controller
troller changedThis
was employed. thecontroller
pulses generated andpulses
changed the the switches
generatedin and
the the
resonant tank
switches in as
per
thethe mode tank
resonant selected.
as perThethe block
mode diagram of the
selected. The proposed
block diagramsystem is shown system
of the proposed in Figureis 3.
shown in Figure 3. Here, the induction heater was powered by the nanogrid,
Here, the induction heater was powered by the nanogrid, which was used to reduce the which was
used to reduce
electricity bill andthealso
electricity bill and
the burden on also the burden
the grid. on the grid.
The nanogrid wasThe nanogrid
employed aswas em-
a valuable
ployed as
addition to athis
valuable
studyaddition
because to this
it is anstudy because
emerging it is an emerging
technology that has technology
considerablethat has
benefits
considerable
for both consumersbenefits
andfordistributors.
both consumers and distributors.

220V DC Bus

220V AC Step Down Controlled

Supply Transformer Rectifier S3 S4
Full Bridge
IH
Resonant Load
Coil
Converter
DC-DC S1 S2
PV Array
Converter
Controller

Battery

Figure 3. Block diagram of the proposed induction heating system.

Figure 3. Block diagram of the proposed induction heating system.

2.2. System Topology

2.2. System Topology
In this system, flexible load modulation (FLM) was proposed to heat both ferrous
In this system, flexible load modulation (FLM) was proposed to heat both ferrous
and non-ferrous metals with the help of various types of operations. FLM was achieved
and non-ferrous metals with the help of various types of operations. FLM was achieved
with the help of a controller in this system. Two switches were deployed in this prototype
with the help of a controller in this system. Two switches were deployed in this prototype
system for two different operational modes (ferrous and non-ferrous), which had dif-
system for two different operational modes (ferrous and non-ferrous), which had different
ferent PWM pulses. The inductor in the resonant tank circuit was kept constant, whereas
PWM pulses. The inductor in the resonant tank circuit was kept constant, whereas two
two different capacitors were available for each mode. Depending on the metal to be
different capacitors were available for each mode. Depending on the metal to be heated,
heated, the mode was selected by means of the resistance of the metal with the help of the
the
switches was
mode selected by means of the resistance of the metal with the help of the switches
available.
available.
Figure 4 presents circuit diagrams for heating ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The
Figure
circuit 4 presents
diagram circuita diagrams
comprised DC voltage forsource
heating
andferrous and non-ferrous
a half-bridge metals. The
resonant converter.
circuit
This converter was made up of two MOSFET switches—S1 and S2. The outputconverter.
diagram comprised a DC voltage source and a half-bridge resonant of this
This converter
converter wasinto
was fed made
the up of two
IH coil MOSFET
through switches—S1
various combinations and S2. The output
of inductors, of this
capacitors,
converter was fed
and switches. Theinto the IH
switches S3coil
andthrough
S4 played various combinations
key roles in the mode ofselection.
inductors,Forcapacitors,
exam-
and
ple,switches.
if switchThe switches
S3 turned onS3theand S4 played
receiving key roles
controller, theincommand
the mode to selection.
operate For
the example,
series
ifresonant
switch S3inverter
turned on the receiving
in mode 1, hencecontroller,
the PWMthe command
required for to operate
mode the given
1, was series to
resonant
the
inverter
MOSFETs, in mode
and the1, hence the PWM
capacitor requiredrequired
for thisfor mode
mode was1, selected
was givenwithto the
the help
MOSFETs,
of relayand
the capacitor
circuit, required
coupled with theforcontroller.
this modeIfwasthe selected with the
load changed, thenhelp of relaytocircuit,
according coupled
the load, the
with the controller. If the load changed, then according to the load, the mode of operation
was selected based on the resistance of the metal that required heating.
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, 8354 5 of 18

mode of operation was selected based on the resistance of the metal that required heat-
ing.mode of operation was selected based on the resistance of the metal that required heat-
ing.

S1
C1 S1
C1 Lr Rpot
Lr Rpot
VDC
VDC S3 Cr1
S3 Cr1
S2 S4
S2 Cr2
C2 S4 Cr2
C2

Figure 4.
4. Proposed
Proposed circuit diagram forfor
ferrous and non-ferrous heating modes.
Figure
Figure 4. Proposedcircuit
circuitdiagram
diagram for ferrous
ferrous and
and non-ferrous
non-ferrous heating
heating modes.
modes.

2.3. Modes
ModesofofOperation
Operation
2.3. Modes of Operation
2.3.1. FerrousHeating
2.3.1. Ferrous HeatingMode
Mode
2.3.1. Ferrous Heating Mode
In the
In
ferrous
thethe
ferrous heating
heating
ferrous
mode,
heatingmode,
as shown
mode,asasshown
shown in
ininFigure
Figure 5,5,the
Figure 5, theequivalent
equivalentvoltage
the equivalent
for
voltagefor
voltage
the
theseries
forthe
resonant
series
series inverter
resonant
resonant was half
inverter was
inverter as
was that
half asasof
half the
that
thatofofinput
the voltage
theinput
input voltage(220(220V)
voltage V) that
(220V) was
that
that transferred
was
was transferredto the
transferred
load.
to the Figure
load.
to the load. 6Figure
shows
Figure 6 the
6 shows PWM
showsthe pulses
thePWM
PWM required
pulses
pulses requiredfor for
required the MOSFET
for the
the MOSFET
MOSFET switches.
switches.
switches.

C1 C1 S1 S1 CC11 S11

Lr Lr RpotRpot LLr r RR
pot
pot

VDC
VDC VDC VDC
S3 Cr1 S3 Cr1
S3 Cr1 S3 Cr1
S2 S4 S2 S4
C2 S2 Cr2 C S2 Cr2
C2 S4 Cr2 C22 S4 Cr2

(a) (b)
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
(a) (b) 6 of 18
Figure 5. Circuit diagrams for ferrous heating mode: (a) S1 in ON state; (b) S2 in ON state.
Figure 5. Circuit
Figure5. diagramsfor
Circuit diagrams forferrous
ferrousheating
heatingmode:
mode:
(a)(a)
S1 S1 in ON
in ON state;
state; (b) (b) S2ON
S2 in in ON
state.state.

Figure 6.
Figure 6. Theoretical
Theoreticalvoltage
voltagewaveforms
waveformsforfor
ferrous heating
ferrous mode.
heating mode.

Based
Basedon
onthethepulses,
pulses,it itwas evident
was evidentthat thethe
that switches S1 and
switches S2 worked
S1 and alternatively.
S2 worked alternatively.
switch S1
When the switch S1 waswas switched
switched on,
on, the
the power
powerfrom
fromthe
thesource
sourcewas
wastransferred
transferredtotothe
the coil
coil through
through S1, LS1,
r , RL r, ,RC
pot pot, ,Cand
r1 r1, and
S3. S3. After
After that,
that, switch
switch S1 S1
waswas turned
turned off,
off, andand
S2 S2
waswas
turned
turned on; the power flow was in the direction through S3, Cr1, Rpot, Lr, and S2. The
maximum power supplied to the load at resonance frequency is given by Equation (1).
Vin2
Pf = (1)
4 R pot
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 6 of 18

on; the power flow was in the direction through S3, Cr1 , Rpot , Lr , and S2. The maximum
power supplied to the load at resonance frequency is given by Equation (1).
2
Vin
Pf = (1)
4R pot

where Pf is the maximum power in the ferrous heating mode, Vin is the input voltage to
the inverter, and Rpot is the resistance of the metal at the load. The operating frequency of
the series resonant inverter in this mode remained the same as the switching frequency.
Equation (2) provides the resonance frequency for an LC circuit.

1
Fs = √ (2)
2π LrCr

where Fs is the resonance frequency, Lr is the coil inductance, and Cr is the resonant
capacitance. The ferrous heating mode can be used to heat ferromagnetic materials such as
iron, stainless steel, etc. Equation (2) can also be rewritten by including the Q factor as

R pot Q
Fs = (3)
2πLr

where Q is the quality factor which is the measure of the quality of the resonant circuit and
it can be expressed by Equation (4).
s
1 Lr
Q= (4)
R pot Cr

Equations (2) and (3) hold true for an ideal lossless circuit. However, there are losses
in this case that represent both the reduced load and active resistance of the winding.
Therefore, it can be written as Equation (5).

1
q
Fs = 2πF02 − α2 (5)
2π
where F0 is the natural frequency without any losses, and α is the damping attenuation in
nepers per second, which can be expressed as Equation (6).

R pot
α= (6)
2Lr

2.3.2. Non-Ferrous Heating Mode

In the non-ferrous heating mode, shown in Figure 7, the operating frequency of the
inverter was twice the switching frequency. The PWM pulses are listed in Figure 8.
With these pulses, the energy was transferred to the load and pulses when the switch
S1 was ON or S2 was ON. For the first condition, when S1 was in the ON state, the energy
transfer was through S1, Lr , Rpot , Cr2 , and S4, and for when S2 was in the ON state, the
energy flow was in the direction through S4, Cr2 , Rpot , Lr , and S2. The maximum power
available in this mode is given by Equation (7).

Vin 2
Pn f = (7)
4R pot

where Pnf is the maximum power in the non-ferrous heating mode, Vin is the input voltage
to the inverter, and Rpot is the resistance of the metal at the load. This mode of operation is
generally used to heat non-ferromagnetic materials such as aluminium; since the resistance
of these materials is low, the increased operating frequency was used to increase the
resistance of the material to help heat it to the same degree as the ferromagnetic materials.
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Energies 2021, 14, 8354 7 of 18

In In
thethe non-ferrous
non-ferrous heating
heating mode,
mode, shownininFigure
shown Figure7,7,the
theoperating
operatingfrequency
frequencyofofthe
the
inverter
inverter waswas twice
twice thethe switching
switching frequency.
frequency. ThePWM
The PWMpulses
pulsesare arelisted
listedininFigure
Figure8.8.

C1 C1 S1 S1 C1C1 S1S1

Lr Lr RpotRpot LrLr RR pot

pot

VDC
VDCVDC VDC
S3 C S3 C
S3 Cr1 r1 S3 Cr1r1
S2 S2 S4 S2S2 S4
C2 C2 C2C2
S4 C S4 C
Cr2 r2 Cr2r2

(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 7. Circuit
Circuit diagramsfor
diagrams fornon-ferrous
non-ferrous heating
heating mode:
mode: (a) S1
S1in
inON state; (b)(b)
S2S2in in
ONON state.
Figure 7. Circuit
Figure 7. diagrams for non-ferrous heating mode: (a) (a)
S1 in ON ON state;
state; (b) S2 in ON state.state.

Figure 8. Pulses and load voltage waveforms for non-ferrous heating mode.
Figure 8. Pulses and load voltage waveforms for non-ferrous heating mode.
Figure 8. Pulses and load voltage waveforms for non-ferrous heating mode.
With these pulses, the energy was transferred to the load and pulses when the
2.4. With
switch S1these
Selection was pulses,
ON
of the or S2the
Operationalwasenergy
ON.
ModeForwasthetransferred
first condition, to the
when load and inpulses
S1 was the ON when
state,the
the
switch
energy S1 transfer
was ONwas or S2through
was ON. S1,For
Lr, the
Rpot,first condition,
Cr2, and S4, andwhen S1 was
for when S2 in
was theinON
the state, the
ON state,
This study was designed for the heating of various metals of different sizes with the help
the energy
energy transfer flow
was was in the direction
through S1, Lr, Rpotthrough
, Cr2, andS4, S4,Cr2and
, Rpotfor
, Lrwhen
, and S2.S2 The
was maximum
in the ON power
state,
of different operational modes. The mode selection algorithm was controlled with the help of
theavailable
energy flowin thiswas mode
in theis direction
given by Equation
through S4, (7).Cr2, Rpot, Lr, and S2. The maximum power
circuit breakers and allows heating of the metals V in 2 in the desired mode, as shown in Figure 9.
available in this mode is given by Equation nf =
(7).
For each mode of operation, aPseparate V4inR2 pot
circuit breaker was implemented in the (7)hard-
ware system; to change thepower P nf
modeinofthe =operation, a specific (7)
where Pnf is the maximum 4non-ferrous
R pot heating circuit
mode, Vbreaker was closed, and
in is the input voltage
the
to remaining
the inverter, breaker
and R was
is open
the at
resistancethat ofparticular
the metal instant.
at
where Pnf is the maximum power in the non-ferrous heating mode, Vin is the input
pot the load.Thus,
This for
mode a particular
of operationmode,
voltage is a
specific
generallycircuit
used breaker
to heat was allotted.
non-ferromagneticThus, the breaker
materials suchS3 was
as
to the inverter, and Rpot is the resistance of the metal at the load. This mode of operation is used
aluminium;to operate
since the
the system
re-
insistance
ferrousused
generally heating
of these mode,
to materials
heat and S4 the
is low, wasincreased
non-ferromagnetic used foroperating
materialsnon-ferrous
suchfrequency heatingwas
as aluminium; mode.
used Firstly,
to
since the re-when
increase
the
themetallic
resistancepot was
of the placed
material in the
to IH
help system,
heat it to voltage
the same and current
degree
sistance of these materials is low, the increased operating frequency was used to increase as could
the be measured,
ferromagnetic ma- and
then, the
terials. pot resistance was calculated by using the expression
the resistance of the material to help heat it to the same degree as the ferromagnetic ma- mentioned in Figure 9.
After
terials. that, the pot resistance at switching frequency was compared with the calculated
2.4.
pot Selection ofIfthe
resistance. theOperational
conditionMode was satisfied, then the switch S3 would be turned ON and
ferrous
2.4. heating
Selection of themode wouldMode
Operational be selected; otherwise, it would move to the next condition.
Here, the pot resistance at twice the switching frequency was compared with the calculated
pot resistance; if it was satisfied, the S4 would be turned ON. However, if the condition
was not satisfied, the system would stop. Under each mode of operation, specific values of
resonant tank capacitor and inductor were connected to the system, and the breakers were
used to isolate the unwanted part of the system, which was not required during each mode
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, 8354 8 of 18

This study was designed for the heating of various metals of different sizes with the
help of different operational modes. The mode selection algorithm was controlled with
of operation. The values of the resonant capacitors and resonant inductors for each mode
the help of circuit breakers and allows heating of the metals in the desired mode, as
of operation are shown in Table 1.
shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Flowchart for operational mode selection.

Figure 9. Flowchart for operational mode selection.

TableFor each parameters

1. Circuit mode of operation,
for different amodes
separate circuit breaker was implemented in the
of operation.
hardware system; to change the mode of operation, a specific circuit breaker was closed,
Parameters breaker was open
and the remaining FerrousatHeating Mode
that particular Non-Ferrous
instant. Heating
Thus, for Mode
a particular
mode, a specific circuit
Vin (Volts) breaker was allotted.
220Thus, the breaker S3 was used
220 to operate the
system in ferrous heating mode, and S4 was used for non-ferrous heating mode. Firstly,
Capacitance (C1) (mF) 1.0 1.0
whenCapacitance
the metallic(C2)pot
(mF)
was placed in the IH1.0system, voltage and current1.0 could be meas-
Pot resistance (ohms)
ured, and then, the pot resistance was calculated 15.2 by using the expression 9.8 mentioned in
Inductance (Lr) (uH) 160 160
Figure 9. After that, the pot resistance at switching frequency was compared with the
Capacitance (Cr) (nF) 253 63.3
calculated
Resonantpot resistance.
frequency (kHz) If the condition 25 was satisfied, then the switch 50 S3 would be
turned ON and ferrous heating mode would be selected; otherwise, it would move to the
next condition. Here, the pot resistance at twice the switching frequency was compared
withTothedesign the hardware
calculated of the system,
pot resistance; first,
if it was the rated
satisfied, thepower of thebe
S4 would system
turned was decided;
ON. How-
after that, available input voltage was set to keep the current in the circuit minimum.
ever, if the condition was not satisfied, the system would stop. Under each mode of op-
Therefore, as per the proposed design, a 2 kW system with 220 V input voltage was used
eration, specific values of resonant tank capacitor and inductor were connected to the
to test and verify the system’s functionality. Theoretically, from the power (P) formula
system, and the breakers were used to isolate the unwanted part of the system, which
(Equation (8)), the rated current (I) of the system with an approximate value of 18 amps
was not required during each mode of operation. The values of the resonant capacitors
could be obtained. Therefore, to be on the safe side, 20 A was taken as the rated current in
and resonant inductors for each mode of operation are shown in Table 1.
hardware.
P=V×I
Table 1. Circuit parameters for different modes of operation.
(8)
As there is an electrical separation between the working coil and the workpiece in an
Parameters Ferrous Heating Mode Non-Ferrous Heating Mode
IH system, the energy is transferred via magnetic coupling. The electrical counterpart of
V in (Volts) 220 220
the IH load can be described as a transformer with a short-circuited secondary winding
 mula (Equation (8)), the rated current (I) of the system with an approximate value of 18
amps could be obtained. Therefore, to be on the safe side, 20A was taken as the rated
current in hardware.
𝑃 =𝑉×𝐼 (8)
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 9 of 18
As there is an electrical separation between the working coil and the workpiece in an
IH system, the energy is transferred via magnetic coupling. The electrical counterpart of
the IH load can be described as a transformer with a short-circuited secondary winding
becauseititresembles
because resemblestransformer
transformer operation
operation with
with thethe secondary
secondary circuits
circuits [23].[23]. Figure
Figure 10 10
depicts the electrical equivalent model of the IH load.
depicts the electrical equivalent model of the IH load.

Figure 10. IH system’s electrical equivalent load model.

Figure 10. IH system’s electrical equivalent load model.

By
By applying
applying KVL
KVL to the above
to the above equivalent
equivalent circuit,
circuit, the the resultant
resultant(Equations
(Equations(9) and (10))
(9) and
(10)) is as follows:
is as follows:
jω1 s=L1(+jωRs L1 )1I+
V1 = ( V 1 − ) I1ω−s IjMω
R1jM 2 s I2 (9) (9)
0 = − j0ω= + (jω
Mjω+s I( RM2 +
s I 1− R2s L
+2 )jω
I 2s L ) I (10) (10)
1 2 2
ω s = 2ΠFs
ωs = 2ΠFs
(11)
(11)
where current I2 is given by Equation 12.
where current I2 is given by Equationjω (12).
IM
I2 = s 1
(12)
R2 + jω jω
s L2s I1 M
I2 = (12)
By substituting Equation (13) in Equation R2 +(10),
jωs Lthe
2 expression can be defined by
Equation (13).
By substituting Equation (13) in Equation j(10), ω s I 1 the
M expression can be defined by
Equation (13). V1 = ( jω s L1 + R1 ) I 1 − jMω s ( ) (13)
R2 + jωjω s Ls2 I1 M
V1 =can
The preceding equation
( jωbe 1 + R1 ) I1 −
s Lsimplified jMωs ( and imaginary
into real
) parts and equate (13)
R2 + jωs L2
the real part as Rpot (Equation (14)) and the imaginary part as Lr (Equation (15)).
The preceding equation can be simplified into real and imaginary parts and equate
M 2ω 2
s R2
R =R +
the real part as Rpot (Equation (14))
pot
and
1
the imaginary part as Lr (Equation (15)). (14)
R22 + ω s2 L22
M2 ωs2 R2
R pot = R1 + (14)
R22 + ωs2 L22

M2 ωs2 L2
Lr = L1 + (15)
R22 + ωs2 L22
The mutual inductance can be expressed as Equation (16).

( R pot − R1 )( R22 + ωs2 L22 )

M2 = (16)
ωs2 R2

The equations were used to calculate the equivalent resistance and inductance (Rpot
and Lr ), and the determined values were used in the simulation.
For the corresponding resonant frequency values, the resonant tank capacitor was
calculated by Equation (17).
1
Cr = (17)
4π 2 Fs2 Lr

3. Results and Discussion

In this section, the hardware implementation and results of the proposed study,
followed by the simulation results of two operating modes, are discussed.
 4π Fs L r

3. Results and Discussions

In this section, the hardware implementation and results of the proposed study,
followed
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 by the simulation results of two operating modes, are discussed. 10 of 18

3.1. Simulation Results of Heating Different Metals

MATLAB software was used
3.1. Simulation to of
Results obtain simulation
Heating results that used operating con-
Different Metals
ditions similar to theMATLAB
experimental conditions.
software was usedThe simulation
to obtain results
simulation of 2 that
results KW used
poweroperating con-
conversions according to different modes for different sizes of different metals are shown
ditions similar to the experimental conditions. The simulation results of 2 kW power
here. The input conversions
voltage andaccording
operatingto frequency variation
different modes according
for different sizestoofthe operating
different metals are shown
modes were alsohere.
determined.
The input voltage and operating frequency variation according to the operating
modes were also determined.
3.1.1. Analysis of Results with Ferrous Heating Mode
3.1.1. Analysis of Results with Ferrous Heating Mode
The operational waveform of the ferrous heating mode is shown in Figure 11.
Switches S1 and S2 hadThe operational waveform
complementary of the ferrous
switching heatingThe
operations. mode is shown
working in Figure 11. Switches
frequency
S1 and S2 had complementary switching operations. The working frequency and the
and the switching frequency both were the same. The Lr and Cr values selected for this
switching frequency both were the same. The L and Cr values selected for this mode were
mode were 160uH and 253nF, respectively. From Figure 12, rit could be inferred that the
160 uH and 253 nF, respectively. From Figure 12, it could be inferred that the equivalent
equivalent inputinput
voltage (220V) in ferrous heating mode was twice the input voltage
voltage (220 V) in ferrous heating mode was twice the input voltage (±110 V). The
(±110V). The magnitude of the output voltage was nearly half of the input voltage.
magnitude of the output voltage was nearly half of the input voltage. Therefore, the series
Therefore, the series resonant inverter transmitted the power of 1kW in the resonant
resonant inverter transmitted the power of 1 kW in the resonant frequency of 25 kHz.
frequency of 25kHz.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 18

Figure 11. Switching waveforms for ferrous heating mode during simulation.
Figure 11. Switching waveforms for ferrous heating mode during simulation.

Figure
Figure12.
12.Power
Powerand
andvoltage
voltagewaveforms
waveforms(input
(inputand
andoutput)
output)for
forferrous
ferrousheating
heatingmode
modeduring
duringsimulation.
simulation.

3.1.2. Analysis of Results with Non-Ferrous Heating Mode

The non-ferrous heating mode could achieve twice the working frequency (50 kHz)
than the other mode switching frequency (25 kHz). Here, switches S1 and S2 were turned
on and off alternatively at double the frequency, which is shown in Figure 13.
From Figure 14, it can be proved that the magnitude of the output voltage (±110V)
was half of the input voltage (220V). The output current of this mode was 14A, which
Figure 12. Power and voltage waveforms (input and output) for ferrous heating mode during simulation.
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 11 of 18
3.1.2. Analysis of Results with Non-Ferrous Heating Mode
The non-ferrous heating mode could achieve twice the working frequency (50 kHz)
than the other mode switching frequency (25 kHz). Here, switches S1 and S2 were turned
3.1.2. Analysis of Results with Non-Ferrous Heating Mode
on and off alternatively at double the frequency, which is shown in Figure 13.
From Figure 14, The non-ferrous
it can heating
be proved mode
that the could achieve
magnitude of the twice
outputthe working
voltage frequency (50 kHz)
(±110V)
was half of the input voltage (220V). The output current of this mode was 14A, whichS2 were turned
than the other mode switching frequency (25 kHz). Here, switches S1 and
on and off alternatively at double the frequency, which is shown in Figure 13.
was higher than that of the ferrous heating mode.

Figure 13. Switching

Figure waveforms
13. Switching for non-ferrous
waveforms heating mode
for non-ferrous during
heating modesimulation.
during simulation.

From Figure 14, it can be proved that the magnitude of the output voltage (±110 V)
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW
was 12 ofwas
half of the input voltage (220 V). The output current of this mode was 14 A, which 18

higher than that of the ferrous heating mode.

Figure
Figure14.
14.Power
Powerand
andvoltage
voltagewaveforms
waveforms(input
(inputand
andoutput)
output)for
fornon-ferrous
non-ferrousheating
heatingmode
mode during
during simulation.
simulation.

3.2.Experimental
3.2. ExperimentalResults
ResultsofofHeating
HeatingDifferent
DifferentMetals
Metals
3.2.1.Hardware
3.2.1. HardwareImplementation
Implementation
Figure 15
Figure 15 shows
shows thethe complete
complete hardware
hardware integration
integration setup
setup of
of the
the 2KW
2 kW induction
induction
heating system that was tested at all different modes of operation and for different
heating system that was tested at all different modes of operation and for different types types
and sizes of metals. In ferrous heating mode, stainless steel with the shape of a bowlbowl
and sizes of metals. In ferrous heating mode, stainless steel with the shape of a and
and of
size size
8 of
cm×8 cm × 3.7cm
3.7cm was was used.
used. On Onthe the other
other hand,
hand, forfor thenon-ferrous
the non-ferrousheating
heatingmode,
mode,
copperwith
copper withthe
theshape
shape of
of aa bowl
bowl and
and size
size of cm ××3.7
of 88 cm 3.7cm
cmandandaluminium
aluminiumwith
withthe
theshape
shape
of a bowl and size of 16 cm × 3.2 cm were used. Figure 16 shows the working
of a bowl and size of 16cm × 3.2cm were used. Figure 16 shows the working coils used for coils used for
heating different shapes of metals. The first one was used to heat rod-type metals,
whereas the second one was used to heat flattened surface vessels.
 3.2.1. Hardware Implementation
Figure 15 shows the complete hardware integration setup of the 2KW induction
heating system that was tested at all different modes of operation and for different types
Energies 2021, 14, 8354
and sizes of metals. In ferrous heating mode, stainless steel with the shape of a bowl and
12 of 18
size of 8 cm× 3.7cm was used. On the other hand, for the non-ferrous heating mode,
copper with the shape of a bowl and size of 8 cm × 3.7 cm and aluminium with the shape
of a bowl and size of 16cm × 3.2cm were used. Figure 16 shows the working coils used for
heating
heatingdifferent
differentshapes of metals.
shapes The The
of metals. first one
firstwas
oneused
wastoused
heat to
rod-type metals, whereas
heat rod-type metals,
the second
whereas one
the was used
second to heat
one was flattened
used to heat surface vessels.
flattened surface vessels.

Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Figure15.
Figure 15. Experimental
Experimentalset-up
set-upof
of22kW
kWinduction
inductionheating
heatingsystem.
system.

(a) (b)
Figure16.
Figure 16.Working
Workingcoils
coilsfor
for(a)
(a)heating
heatingrods
rods(b)
(b)heating
heatingflat
flatvessels.
vessels.

Heatingmetals
Heating metalsofofdifferent
differenttypes
typesand
anddifferent
differentsizes
sizesisisone
oneofofthe thecomplex
complexbarriers
barriers
that the proposed system overcomes. Metals such as aluminium,
that the proposed system overcomes. Metals such as aluminium, copper, stainless steel,copper, stainless steel,
and iron of different sizes can be heated using different operating modes
and iron of different sizes can be heated using different operating modes proposed. Since proposed. Since
non-ferromagnetic materials
non-ferromagnetic materials have
havevery
verylowlowresistance,
resistance,ininorderorder to to heat
heat them,
them, thethe re-
resis-
sistance
tance of the
of the materials
materials should
should be increased.
be increased. In order
In order to increase
to increase the resistance,
the resistance, switch-
switching,
ing,
as as as
well well
theasresonant
the resonant frequency,
frequency, needsneeds
to betoincreased,
be increased,
which which results
results in the
in the heating
heating of
of low-resistance
low-resistance metals.
metals. Table 2Table
shows2different
shows metals
different metals sizes
of different of different sizes and
and cross-sectional
cross-sectional
areas areas and to
and the temperature the temperature
which they weretoheated
whichinthey were heated
the proposed in the
system. Theproposed
temper-
system. The temperature was measured using Fluke Ti401 at the central area of the object
ature was measured using Fluke Ti401 at the central area of the object from a distance of
approximately
from a distance 40of
cm with five repetitions
approximately 40 cm withfor each
fiveset measurement.
repetitions for each Thesetthermal images
measurement.
for
Theheating
thermaldifferent
imagesmetals are shown
for heating in Figure
different 17, are
metals in which
shown theintemperature
Figure 17, in distribution
which the
in different metals
temperature can be in
distribution seen. The output
different metalswaveforms
can be seen. were
Themeasured using a digital
output waveforms were
storage
measuredoscilloscope (Keysight
using a digital InfiniiVision
storage oscilloscopeDSOX2002A).
(Keysight InfiniiVision DSOX2002A).
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, 8354 13 of 18

Table 2. Performance characteristics of metals in different heating modes.

Calculated Time Taken to Attain

Type of Metal Dimension (cm) Weight (gm)
Temperature, T (◦ C) Calculated Temperature (s)
ALUMINIUM
Diameter = 16
Aluminium bowl 155 367 ◦(b)
C 656
Thickness = 3.2 (a)
Diameter = 2.6
Aluminium rod 369 ◦ Cflat vessels.
Figure 16. Working coils for (a)47heating rods (b) heating 700
Length = 3.2
COPPER
Heating
Diameter = 8metals of different types and different sizes is one of the complex barriers
Copper bowl 166 377 ◦C 965stainless steel,
that the proposed
Thickness = 3.7 system overcomes. Metals such as aluminium, copper,
Diameter = 1.16
and iron of different sizes can be heated using401
different
◦C operating modes proposed. Since
Copper round bar 35.1 1000
Length = 3.7
non-ferromagnetic materials have very low resistance, in order to heat them, the re-
STAINLESS STEEL (S4)
sistance of the materials should be increased. In order to increase the resistance, switch-
Diameter = 8
ing, as well=as 889 ◦ C
3.7the resonant frequency, needs to be increased, which results in the heating
Stainless steel bowl 144 333
Thickness
ofDiameter
low-resistance
= 1.72 metals. Table 2 shows different metals of different sizes and
Stainless steel round bar cross-sectional 68 906 ◦ C 591
Length = 3.7 areas and the temperature to which they were heated in the proposed
CAST IRON system. The temperature was measured using Fluke Ti401 at the central area of the object
Diameter
from = 16 of approximately 40 cm with five
a distance
Iron pan 152 315 ◦ Crepetitions for each set
765measurement.
Thickness = 3.2
The thermal images for heating different metals are shown in Figure 17, in which the
Diameter = 1.7
temperature 53 400 ◦ C 768
Length = 3.2distribution in different metals can be seen. The output waveforms were
Iron rod
measured using a digital storage oscilloscope (Keysight InfiniiVision DSOX2002A).

(a) (b)

(c)
Figure17.
Figure 17.Thermal
Thermalimage
imageofofheating
heatingdifferent
differentmetals:
metals:(a)
(a)stainless
stainless steel;
steel; (b)
(b) aluminium;
aluminium; (c)
(c) copper
copper
(power rating: 2kW and time period: 100
(power rating: 2 kW and time period: 100 s).s).

3.2.2.Practical
3.2.2. PracticalResults
ResultsofofFerrous
FerrousHeating
HeatingMode
Mode
Figure
Figure1818
presents the experimental
presents resultsresults
the experimental of ferrous heating mode
of ferrous operation,
heating wherein
mode operation,
the outputthe
wherein voltage wasvoltage
output +108.9 was −108.9 V,toand
V to +108.9V the output
−108.9V, and current wascurrent
the output approximately
was ap-
8.59 A. In this8.59A.
proximately mode, In
as this
the ferrous metals
mode, as have high
the ferrous resistance,
metals a resonant
have high frequency
resistance, of
a resonant
25 kHz was applied to heat the ferrous metals. The switching frequency applied for this
mode was nearly 25 kHz.
 Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18
Energies 2021, 14, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 18

Energies 2021, 14, 8354 14 of 18

frequency of 25kHz was applied to heat the ferrous metals. The switching frequency ap-
frequency of 25kHz was applied to heat the ferrous metals. The switching frequency ap-
plied for this mode was nearly 25kHz.
plied for this mode was nearly 25kHz.

Figure
Figure 18.
18.Output
Outputwaveforms
waveformsforfor
ferrous heating
ferrous mode
heating during
mode experiment.
during experiment.
Figure 18. Output waveforms for ferrous heating mode during experiment.
3.2.3.Practical
3.2.3. PracticalResults
ResultsofofNon-Ferrous
Non-Ferrous Heating
Heating Mode
Mode
3.2.3. Practical Results of Non-Ferrous Heating Mode
As presented
As presentedininFigure
Figure19,19,the
theexperimental
experimental results
results of non-ferrous
of non-ferrous heating
heating modemode
As presented in Figure 19, the experimental results of non-ferrous heating mode
operationindicate
operation indicatethat
thatthe
theoutput
outputvoltage
voltagewas
wasnearly
nearly +108.3to
+108.3V to −108.3and
V −108.3V, V, and the output
the output
operation indicate that the output voltage was nearly +108.3V to −108.3V, and the output
current
currentwaswasapproximately
approximately13.2A.
13.2 A.The resonant
The andand
resonant switching
switchingfrequency
frequencyapplied for this
applied for this
current was approximately 13.2A. The resonant and switching frequency applied for this
mode
modewas was50kHz.
50 kHz.Here,
Here,a two-times
a two-times higher operating
higher frequency
operating frequency could increase
could the pot
increase the pot
mode was 50kHz. Here, a two-times higher operating frequency could increase the pot
resistance,
resistance, which
whichresulted
resultedininthe
thevessel
vesselbecoming
becomingheated. ThisThis
heated. mode modehadhad
higher output
higher output
resistance, which resulted in the vessel becoming heated. This mode had higher output
current
current when
when compared
compared with
withthe
theferrous
ferrousheating mode
heating duedue
mode to low
to resistance.
low resistance.
current when compared with the ferrous heating mode due to low resistance.

Figure 19. Output waveforms for non-ferrous heating mode during experiment.
Figure 19.
Figure 19. Output
Outputwaveforms
waveformsfor
fornon-ferrous
non-ferrousheating mode
heating during
mode experiment.
during experiment.

3.3. General Discussion

From the simulation and experimental results, it was concluded that in ferrous heating
mode, regardless of the voltage given as the input, half of that voltage magnitude was
obtained on the output side. For example, if 220 V was provided in the input side, in
simulation, ±110 V was obtained, while in the experiment, ±108.9 V was obtained as the
output, which means the magnitude of the output voltage was half of that of the input
voltage on both positive and negative sides. Likewise, in non-ferrous heating mode, the
output voltage was nearly half of the input voltage. For example, if 220 V was given as
the input, the simulation output was nearly ±110 V, and the experimental output was
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 15 of 18

around ±108.3 V. Furthermore, the experimental results demonstrate that the proposed
method successfully heated several types of pots. The comparison of the results between
the simulation and experiment is shown in Table 3. The results clearly demonstrate that
the system worked equally efficiently both in ferrous and non-ferrous heating modes.

Table 3. Comparison between simulation and experimental results.

Switching Simulation Results Experimental Results

Types of
Frequency Output Voltage, Output Current, Output Power, Output Voltage, Output Current, Output Power,
Metal
(kHz) Vo (V) Io (A) Po (W) Vo (V) Io (A) Po (W)
Ferrous 25 ±110 V 9A 990 ±108.9 V 8.59 A 935.5
Non-ferrous 50 ±110 V 14 A 1540 ±108.3 V 13.2 A 1429.6

This proposed FLM method may have some limitations such as noise and vibration
for lightweight vessels due to resonance. It can be used to heat other non-ferrous metals
and can also be implemented in a system with a power higher or lower than 2 kW. Park and
Jung [12] proposed a system for heating different metals, whereas in this research, different
shapes, as well as different metals, were used for heating; moreover, in the previous
study, the series resonance inverter was powered by using the AC source, followed by
the rectifier, whereas in this study, the AC source was replaced by DC source, so the
rectification stage was eliminated, resulting in the reduction in the size of the circuit and
the cost. While the authors of the previous study selected aluminium and stainless steel
for their work, here, we used four different metals—aluminium, copper, stainless steel,
and iron. A half-bridge series resonant inverter with a modified version was proposed for
heating ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic pans [11], which operated in two operating
modes such as first-harmonic and third-harmonic operating modes, and when compared
with [12], it had reduced circuit components but still consisted of a rectifier. The herein
proposed structure was an optimal one that catered to two important traits of induction
heating system—namely, variable load and variable size. At the outset, the overall structure
(Figure 3) seemed to be a complex one since the microgrid had been represented with
many sources. Induction heating was one such entity applied in a microgrid, and therefore,
the IH structure was not a complex one. Additionally, another added advantage of the
proposed scheme was the single-stage inversion as the rectification stage was discarded.
This made the proposed IH structure sufficiently simple. The various methods used in the
literature for variable-load induction heating systems, compared with the current system,
are shown in Table 4. The major advantages of this proposed system are cost effectiveness,
wide heating capability, lower power consumption, improved power density, etc.

Table 4. Comparison of different variable-load induction heating systems.

Study Key Technology Scheme Topology Remarks

The authors proposed a modified topology
Modified half-bridge series
Millan et al. [11] Selective harmonic scheme of half-bridge inverter with two operation
resonant inverter.
modes of selective harmonics.
LAM was proposed by the authors to vary
Load adaptive modulation the input voltage magnitude of IH coil and
Park and Jung [12] Full bridge series resonant converter.
(LAM) series resonant inverter’s operating
frequency based on the pot resistance.
Examined the input resistance of different
Tanaka [15] - Half-bridge series resonant inverter. metals and determined the finest condition
for a high-frequency inverter.
The authors applied this method for
Shoji et al. [20] - Buck–boostfull-bridge inverter. induction cookers with left and right sides to
heat all metals.
Here, FLM was proposed to heat various
loads with variable sizes by using a
Proposed system Flexible load modulation (FLM) Half-bridge resonant converter
half-bridge resonant converter without any
rectification stage.
Energies 2021, 14, 8354 16 of 18

4. Conclusions
In this proposed research, the use of flexible load modulation (FLM) was implemented
to achieve heating of a wide range on both ferromagnetic and non-ferromagnetic materials.
The modes of operation depend upon the workpiece such that for ferrous-type materials,
the switching frequency was 25 kHz, and it was 50 kHz for the non-ferrous materials. The
frequency variation achieved through this flexible load modulation was simulated and
realized as a hardware prototype for a 2 kW system.The results demonstrated that the
suggested scheme was very effective for variable shapes and sizes in both ferrous and
non-ferrous materials. The effectiveness of heating with respect to the time duration for
different workpieces was investigated and duly captured through a thermal camera. The
research proposed here can be extended by imparting an artificial intelligence system for
improving the system response.

Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, S.R.R., C.S.B. and S.R.; methodology, S.R.R., C.S.B., S.R.,
M.A. and J.H.; software, S.R.R., C.S.B. and S.R.; validation, S.R.R., C.S.B., S.R., M.A. and J.H..; formal
analysis, S.R.R., C.S.B., S.R., M.A. and J.H.; investigation, S.R.R., C.S.B. and S.R.; resources, C.S.B. and
S.R.; data curation, S.R.R., C.S.B. and S.R.; writing—original draft preparation, S.R.R., C.S.B. and S.R.;
writing—review and editing, S.R.R., C.S.B., S.R., M.A. and J.H.; visualisation, C.S.B., S.R., M.A. and
J.H.; supervision, C.S.B., S.R., M.A. and J.H.; project administration, C.S.B. and S.R. All authors have
read and agreed to the submitted version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in the article.
Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank the team of Manchester Met University for
their all kinds of support for this research and for preparing the manuscript.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Nomenclature
VDC Input DC voltage for the system
Lr Resonant tank inductor
Cr Resonant tank capacitor
ts Time period of PWM pulses
Gm Maximum voltage gain
Pf Maximum power in ferrous heating mode
Pnf Maximum power in non-ferrous heating mode
FLM Flexible load modulation
IH Induction heating
Rpot Resistance of the material to be heated
Fs Resonance frequency
Fsw Switching frequency
PWM Pulse width modulation
Pr Rated power

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