PEOPLES’ FRIENDSHIP UNIVERSITY OF RUSSIA

Institute of Foreign Languages

Department of Foreign Languages in Theory and Practice

COURSE PAPER

«Word-formation patterns of English neologisms

in the “Harry Potter” series of books by J.K. Rowling»
45.03.02 – Linguistics

Submitted by
Gatagova Fariza
Student’s ID № 1032189484
Group 201LVM

Course Paper Advisor

PhD, Professor
_______________________L.B. Arutyunova

Moscow 2021
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CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................3
1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF NEOLOGY AND NEOLOGISMS IN
MODERN ENGLISH............................................................................................5
1.1 Etymology and definition of the concept of neologism...............................5
1.2 Factors influencing the appearance of neologisms.......................................8
1.3 Ways of forming neologism.......................................................................10
1.4 Author's neologisms and their features......................................................16
Conclusions on chapter 1.................................................................................19
REFERENCES....................................................................................................20
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INTRODUCTION

Language is a very mobile structure that is constantly changing. It changes

in response to social and political changes, to technological progress. Modern
English is developing very quickly, and in addition to social changes, cultural
aspects also influence the development of the language, and in addition to the
main types of neologisms, author's neologisms also appear - writers create whole
linguistic systems in their works that allow them to reflect the author's ideas
most accurately.
The interest in the topic studied in this paper is caused by the fact that a
huge number of lexical units are being borrowed from the English language at
the moment. In addition, neologisms are one of the main sources of
replenishment of the vocabulary of the language.
Neologisms are one of the fundamental sources of replenishment of the
vocabulary of the language, these are words that broaden the horizons and allow
us to speak about the fluency of both modern and classical English. In our study,
we consider neologisms as a linguoculturological category, analyze the main
ways of word formation of neologisms, and also separately we will consider the
category of author's neologisms and their features in the paradigm of the «Harry
Potter» series of books by J.K. Rowling.
Universal globalization in the modern world is the reason that the
boundaries between different cultures are being erased. New realities are
emerging, and during the period of the greatest activity of the socio-political and
cultural life of the nation, the influx of new words is especially increasing.
The relevance of the paper is that due to the constant replenishment of the
English language with new lexical units due to changes in the world, as well as
the increasing spread of the English language in the world and the need for the
most practical theoretical and practical development of the problem.
The aim of the study is to study and analyze the ways of word formation of
neologisms in modern English on the example of the «Harry Potter» series of
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books by J.K. Rowling. To reach the aim we should complete the following
tasks. They are:
1. To study the linguists' opinions on neology as a science and the concept
of neologisms;
2. To study the theoretical foundations of word-formation models of
neologisms in modern English;
3. Consider the factors influencing the appearance of neologisms;
4. To identify the specifics of the author's neologisms;
5. To classify J. K. Rowling's neologisms according to the origin and
processes of word formation.
The object of the research is the system of neologisms of the modern
English language.
The subject is various ways to replenish new vocabulary in the English
language.
The research methods used were approved general scientific and linguistic
methods: observation, comparison, generalization, classification of the analyzed
material, interpretation, analysis of dictionary definitions, as well as
systematization and linguistic interpretation of the studied material.
The paper consists of an introduction, theoretical and practical parts,
conclusion and bibliographic list.
The introduction justifies the relevance of the chosen topic and describes
the research material.
Chapter 1 considers various theories of theoretical foundations of the
previously described approaches to the consideration of the concept of
neologisms and neology as a branch of lexicology, as well as factors affecting
the replenishment of the English vocabulary.
Chapter 2 deals with the classification of word formation and the
functioning of neologisms in the «Harry Potter» series of books by J.K.
Rowling.
In conclusion, the results of the study are summarized.
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1. THEORETICAL FOUNDATIONS OF NEOLOGY AND

NEOLOGISMS IN MODERN ENGLISH

1.1 Etymology and definition of the concept of neologism

Despite the fact that the vocabulary of such a global language as English
reacts extremely sharply to changes in society and needs constant study and
description, a special field of science for the study of new vocabulary was not
formulated until the second half of the XX century. Due to the sharp influx of
new vocabulary with the advent of technological progress at the end of the XX
century, it became necessary to form a new branch of lexicology - neology.
Neology is the science of neologisms - new words denoting new concepts that
have not yet entered the active vocabulary of the language [Zabotkina].
Hoad states: the term «Neology» etymologically comes from the Greek
word «neos» meaning «new» and the word Logos meaning «word», the meaning
of this term itself is extracted from a combination of two Greek words [Hoad]
At the same time , Merriam Webster 's dictionary says: «Neology is the use
of a new word or expression or an established word in a new or different sense».
In general, considering all these definitions, we can generalize that neology
studies the appearance of new words. New words can arise literally from
nothing, and at the same time they can exist before that, but later change in their
semantic structure.
There are several points of view regarding exactly what place neology
occupies in modern linguistics and what it consists of. But many classical
lexicologists believe that neology is not limited only to linguistics, it is much
broader and more complex than it seems at first glance. Due to the close
relationship between language and other factors, such as society, this latter
gained access to several subjects and disciplines.
The well-known classical lexicologist J. K. Boulanger states that «neology
is part of the current interactive subgroup about which general-purpose language
and technolects have reached an agreement that establishes close relations
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between society, dictionary compilers, the political situation and, currently, a

huge sector of language industries» (p. 173).
M.T. Cabre states that: «The appearance of a new concept usually
coincides with the appearance of a new designation» (p.204). We can say that
Cabre meant the following: new lexical units, new designations of the
phenomenon arise in parallel with its appearance. Speaking about Cabre's
contribution to the study of neology, first of all it should be said about her
definition of the role of neology in linguistics and language in general. She
argued that «A language that is not constantly updated remains insignificant in
formal and prestigious communication over time» (p.1). Cabre believes that
neology as a field of linguistics is engaged in the study of linguistic phenomena
that appear at the moment in the development of the language used. These
phenomena can be observed at all descriptive levels of language, in phonetics,
phonology, morphology, syntax or vocabulary (p. 204).
In addition, Cabre is one of the first who proved the importance of neology
not only in lexicology, but also in the study of all phenomena and changes
taking place in society. In her opinion, the traditional definition of neology
needs to be changed because it is limited exclusively to linguistic processes and
is currently considered «insufficiently comprehensive» because it cannot
analyze all other aspects that neology covers.
The field of neology currently includes a wide range of research areas at
the political, cultural and social levels (p. 204). In other words, neology analyzes
lexical changes on the scale of related phenomena of politics, culture and other
fields and, thus, makes these changes more noticeable.
And finally, Cabre's last thesis can be pointed out that the emergence of
new terms (neologisms) facilitates communication and reduces the likelihood of
ambiguity. Thus, thanks to further research of neology, it is also possible to trace
the trend of how people simplify interaction with each other against the
background of cultural, political and social changes, participating in the creation
of new layers of vocabulary [Cabre].
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Now we should consider the definition of the concept of neologism.

Both foreign and Russian researchers define the concept of neologism in
approximately the same way.
Some dictionaries give a generalized meaning of the word «neologism».
Thus, in Ozhegov's dictionary, a neologism is «a new word or expression, as
well as a new meaning of an old word» [Ozhegov].
O.S. Akhmanova, under the definition of «neologism», understands a word
or phrase that appeared in order to highlight a recently appeared object or
phenomenon [Akhmanova].
Arnold believes that a word or concept that has not yet entered into
widespread use can be called a neologism. He believes that as soon as the word
becomes widespread and finds a wide range of uses, it ceases to be a neologism
[Arnold].
The opinion of linguist Liu Shuxin (p. 283) corresponds to Arnold's
opinion. He asserts that a word or expression may well be considered as new not
only if it appears from non-existence into existence, but also if it receives the
general approval of users, is widely used and even fully included in the
dictionary. However, when such a word has already existed in the language for a
certain period of time, say, for fifteen or twenty years, then people use it with
ease, then its novelty can cease to be considered novelty. It begins to go beyond
the neologism, turning into a commonly used word [Liu Shuxin].
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1.2 Factors influencing the appearance of neologisms

Speaking about what influences the appearance of neologisms, it should be

mentioned that there are external (social) and internal (linguistic) factors on
which the replenishment and development of the language depends in the future.
To consider the features of changes in the language in a particular era should
always be considering not only intra-linguistic, but also social factors [Krysin].
Linguist F.P. Filin supports this position: «The nature of language changes
turns out to be dual. On the one hand, the language develops according to its
internal laws, the possibilities inherent in it to change in one direction or
another. On the other hand, not all possible changes are implemented. One or
another of their realization is predetermined by social factors related to the
functions of language in society» [Filin].
Neologisms reflect both the general content of public consciousness and its
individual aspects, spheres of society's life. Budagov believes that despite the
fact that lexical changes in the language are caused by a huge number of factors,
the main source of replenishment of the language and changes in existing words
is social reality [Budagov]. L. I. Vinogradova supports this point of view,
arguing that «the reasons for the appearance of new words and new meanings of
old words largely lie in changes in social life, in the development of production
and other areas of human activity, as well as in the development of thinking»
[Vinogradova].
I.A. Sternin states: «The lexical meaning of a word is a kind of knowledge
about the world. That is why it turns out to be closely dependent on the
properties and attributes of objects of the surrounding reality. The meaning of
the word initially exists to fix the knowledge of people obtained in the process
of cognition of the surrounding reality» [Sternin].
Thus, it can be argued that the main source of the emergence of new words
is the need to satisfy the social need for naming new phenomena, as well as for
their comprehension through language. At the same time, external and internal
 10

factors of language replenishment with neologisms are inextricably linked.

External factors (the state of society, social needs, economic and ideological
changes within society) require constant replenishment from the language, and
internal, linguistic factors determine the forms of this replenishment.
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1.3 Ways of forming neologism

There are many classifications of neologisms according to their formation.

I have analyzed the word-formation models proposed by Louis Gilbert,
Zabotkin, Sorokin.
It should be noted that in this sub-chapter the general typology of word-
formation models will be considered. In the practical part of our work, we
consider ways of forming directly author's neologisms. The following section
will be devoted to the formation of author's neologisms.
We proceed to the description of actual word-formation models.

I. Phonological
This way of forming neologisms is created with the help of phonology -
from individual sounds. This type of word formation includes interjection
neologisms, the basis of which is onomatopoeia.
For example «zizz», «wow» «oops»

II. Borrowing
French linguist Louis Gilbert divides loanwords into several groups:
1. The actual borrowing. The origin of such neologisms is taken from the
French language: «petitdejeuner» - a short breakfast. In recent years, the number
of borrowings of Western European languages has sharply decreased; the latest
trend is to increase borrowings from African and Asian languages, to a greater
extent – Japanese.
2. Barbarisms – a weakly assimilated or completely non-assimilated unit of
the English language, with a characteristic level of novelty: «dolčevita» (Italian)
– «sweet life».
3. Xenisms - express objects and phenomena of countries that are not
peculiar to another language: «geisha» – geisha.
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4. Tracing paper. For example: «photonovel»– is a novella made entirely of

photographs, with fragments made in the form of comics.

III. Lexico-semantic (conversion)

Conversion is a non-affixal method of word formation, as a result of which
a word with a different meaning is formed, coinciding in some forms with the
original one.
During conversion, a homonym is formed that is semantically related to the
original word. You can understand the meaning of the neoplasm based on the
meaning of the original word.
Depending on the part of speech being formed, the conversion can be
divided into the following categories:
1. Verbalization (verb formation)
2. Substantiation (noun formation)
3. Adjectivation (adjective formation)
4. Adverbalization (adverb formation)
Let's take a closer look at each of these categories.
1. Verbalization .
Verbalization is usually the most productive conversion model.
Analyzing the verbs formed according to this model, it is possible to
identify several classes of nouns that are able to enter into converse relations
with other words:
1. Specific nouns that perform a certain action. In this case, the derived
verb has the meaning «to do something like this subject». For example: e-mail -
to e-mail (meaning: write an email).
2. Abstract nouns. These include nouns that describe various phenomena of
the spiritual or emotional spheres of life, which have the meaning «to feel these
phenomena». For example: benefit - to benefit.
3. The «time period» model. These verbs denote an action that occurs
during the time period specified by the original meaning of the noun. Describe
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an action denoting being in the time period described by the first meaning of the
original noun. For example: weekend - to weekend (to spend the weekend).
4. The model «animal name/human behavior is similar to animal
behavior». In this case, the «habits» and the nature of the animal's behavior are
adopted. For example: fox - to fox (trick).
5. The «place/place in a similar place» model. These verbs denote actions
for which the original noun is intended as an instrument or means. For example:
bottle - to bottle (pour liquid into different containers, fill the container).
2. Substantiation
In this case, the word, turning into a noun, takes over all its grammatical
characteristics. For example: green (adj.) - a green - greens.
3. Adjectivation
This model is a semantic transformation of the «subject» - «the
characteristic phenomenon of the subject». For example: granny (elderly
woman) - granny (old style).
4. Adverbalization
Adverbalization is the process by which one or another part of speech
begins to function as an adverb. An adverbial word loses its primary indicators
that characterize it as a noun, adjective or verb. This type of conversion is the
least productive at the present stage. This is due to the presence of the suffix –ly
in the language.

IV. Reduction
Reduction can be divided into several categories.
1. Abbreviations
Scientific and technical concepts are subject to reduction, such
abbreviations are used much more often than the definitions themselves.
For example: E.V.A. (extra vehicular activity) – activities outside the
spacecraft.
2. Acronyms
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For example: NOISE - the adversaries and enemies of Microsoft: Netscape,

Oracle, IBM, Sun, and Everyone else.
3. Truncations
For example: company - co.
4. Merging
Words formed by the fusion of two different words.
For example: work + alcoholic = workaholic.
Now we are moving on to models that are united by one concept - word-
formation derivations. In other words, the creation of morphological neologisms
is the creation of new words based on word-formation models existing in the
language.
V. Word compounding
In recent years, the role of word composition has increased significantly,
while the range of models, with rare exceptions, remains the same.
The most common models are:
1. N(noun) + N(noun) = N(noun) and A(adjective) + N(noun) =
N(noun): «babymoon» - a respite provided for the care of a newborn; «mouse
potato» - someone who spends a lot of time at the computer; «hard-line» is an
undeniable idea.
2. Part II(participle II) + A(adverb): laid-back. The words of this model
can most often be found in situations of informal communication. For all its
relevance, the model is not new, because the presence of participial and
gerundial forms in compound words dates back to the Old English period.
3. V(verb) + PP(preposition): be-in, awrite-off. At the same time, more
than 500 units consist of three components: middle-of-he-read, head-to head.
We have considered traditional models. However, new models of word
formation have appeared in the English language at present, here are the most
productive of them:
1. Abbr (abbreviation) + N(noun) = N(noun), for example:e-commerce,
rbreezy, i-phone.
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2. Participle + N(noun) = A(adjective): off-the-shelf.

3. N(noun) + Particle –A(adjective): hands-on. You can also find more
complex models, for example: N(noun) + Prepositional Phrase + N(noun) =
N(noun): right-to-work law. It is obvious that all the components of word-
formation models can change places, forming a different model at the same
time.

VI. Affixation
Such neologisms account for 24% of all neologisms. The number of affixes
used in the formation of new words and their distribution is currently rich and
diverse. Naturally, the units created with the help of new affixes and semi-
affixes have the greatest degree of novelty. The most commonly used are the
following affixes: –on, –ase, –sd, –nik, –manship, eco–,mini–, maxi–, mega–,
cine–, –oholic, –gate, – natcher, a–, flexi–, –ment, –ity. A characteristic feature
of modern affixes is that they are strictly terminologized and assigned to a
certain scientific and technical sphere. For example: accompaniment,
acetylcholine, serendipity. Many word-formation models are the result of the
separation of word-forming elements from neologisms, i.e. affixes expand their
meaning or change it, for example, aholic, isolated from the neologism
norkaholic (from the very common word alcoholic). This neologism has
expanded its meaning and denotes obsession with something: chocoholic,
danceaholic, sugarholic, the meanings of the following word-forming units have
expanded and changed in the same way: super-, counter-, anti–, -ism.
In Laurie Bauer’s book, «Watching English Change» (1994), he writes
about his experiment on the origin of words selected from an appendix to the
Oxford English Dictionary, and then sorted by their origin and the time period
when they appeared in English. The results were as follows: the number of
borrowed words gradually decreases, and the frequency of words from English
affixes, on the contrary, increases. The author claims that in borrowing, the
languages that have lost popularity the most recently are French, German and
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Latin. In addition, the author shows that suffixation is undoubtedly the largest
type of formation of new words with 47.4% of all new formations, although
with a slight decrease in the percentage from the 1880s to 1982. The second
largest group is composite, with a total of 18.5% over many years, but with an
increase in frequency between time periods. Bauer's conclusion is that one can
see trends in the processes of word formation.
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1.4 Author's neologisms and their features

It is necessary to distinguish neologisms from occasional words

(occasionalisms). "Occasional words are words formed at a certain time
moment, in relation to a special case, as one of the varieties of neologisms (in
linguistics)" [Efremova]. In other words, occasionalism can be called a stylistic
neologism (individually stylistic). A neologism created by the author of the
provided literary work with a certain stylistic purpose and, as a rule, not widely
distributed, that is, not included in the vocabulary of the language.
D.E. Rosenthal also identifies stylistic neologism as a separate type of
neologism - formed by the author of a literary work with a specific stylistic task
and, as a rule, has not received extensive distribution, has not been included in
the vocabulary of the language [Rosenthal].
The author's neologisms are the most important and large part of the branch
of neology. As for the definition of the term "author's neologism" itself, there
are also different points of view. V.V. Lopatin believes that author's neologisms
are words formed by artists, publicists, poets to enhance expressiveness
[Lopatin].
Linguist G.N. Leech (p. 42) believes that neologism is defined as the
formation of new words, with which writers can "surpass the usual resources of
the language." He considers neologisms as "one-time formations" with the aim
of embellishing vocabulary, rather than expanding the vocabulary of the English
language.
According to D.M. Zaitaeva, the author's neologism is a word or the
meaning of a word created by a writer, poet, publicist to denote new or fictional
phenomena of reality, new or fictional objects or concepts. The words newly
invented by the author differ from the usual, widely used designations by the
novelty of the internal form or the peculiarity of the combination of elements.
The author's neologisms often do not become dictionary units, although the most
 18

successful and communicatively significant or necessary words are adopted by

the language team and fall into the vocabulary of the language [Zaitaeva].
From neologisms, it is necessary to distinguish occasionalisms - words that
arise "on occasion", in specific conditions of speech communication.
Distinguishing the occasionalisms from neologisms, A.G. Lykov very much
remarks: "Only that which is capable of aging over time can be new."
Occasionalisms, according to A.G. Lykov, are excluded from the factor of
historical development and change [Lykov].
Occasional phenomena are usually individual innovations belonging to
individuals, often writers. Therefore, occasionalisms of various kinds are
sometimes called individual or, just the same, authorial, emphasizing their non-
proliferation in active speech and attribution to a well-known creator. The
principal feature of occasionalisms is not so much their connection with a
certain creator, but the fact that during their formation there was a violation of
the laws of production of certain units in force in the language. From this point
of view, there are no fundamental differences between authorial (writer's)
occasionalisms and occasional ones that do not claim authorship, because in
these three spheres, occasionalisms are mainly created. Sometimes you can find
occasional expressions in periodicals, in author's articles.
Thus, new words that are fixed in the language are called neologisms, and
those that are used only at the moment, only in this case, have the status of facts
of speech, and not language, occasional. The specificity of occasional words lies
in the fact that, serving a certain context, a particular case, a given speech
situation, they do not pretend to gain a foothold in the language, enter into
general use. This is their fundamental difference from neologisms.
The main factor in the appearance of author's neologisms is the need for
unusual, expressive means, which may arise in artistic speech. For the formation
of this type of neologisms, little or completely unproductive models can be used,
sometimes the rules of the model are violated, but this does not reduce, but, on
the contrary, often increases the level of expressiveness of such words.
 19

Performing an artistic function in a particular text, the author's neologisms do

not come out of this text, do not become system units and forever retain the
properties of freshness and novelty in this context.
In conclusion, we note that occasionalisms, as well as neologisms, are
evidence of the viability of the language. They represent the lexical potential of
the language and a kind of one of the reserves of replenishment of the lexical
space of the language.
Having considered different points of view regarding the terms
"neologism" and "author's neologism", and taking into account the fact that the
material for our research was a work of art, in our work we decided to use the
interpretations of concepts given by the Educational Dictionary of Linguistic
Terms and the definition of the author's neologism proposed by D.M. Zaitaeva.
Due to the lack of consensus among linguists on the definition of the terms
proposed above, we believe that it is these points of view that most broadly
reveal the essence of the concepts of "neologism" and "author's neologism".
 20

Conclusions on chapter 1

Summing up, it should be noted that neologism is a linguistic innovation, a

certain lexical and grammatical feature of the language. The main reason for the
appearance of neologisms is changes in society and the accompanying need to
call new phenomena with new words. In addition, the appearance of neologisms
is also influenced by scientific and technological progress and discoveries in
various areas of society. The appearance of neologisms is a kind of response to
changes. A neologism can be called a neologism as long as the speakers feel
novelty in it. As for the factors influencing the appearance of neologisms in
speech, we can say that the lexical system is characterized by two-sidedness: on
the one hand, it reveals a direct connection with the surrounding reality, on the
other hand, it obeys the general linguistic laws of word formation. External,
social factors require constant enrichment from the lexical composition of the
language, and internal, linguistic factors determine the specific forms of this
enrichment. The processes of real reality, socially significant events, requiring
new names, activate certain links of the word-formation system of the language.
Speaking about word-formation models of neologisms, we can say that the
following methods are involved in the formation of words in modern English:
abbreviation, conversion, reduction, borrowing, affixation. These types of word
formation can act independently or in combination with each other. We
examined the classification of neologisms by V.I. Zabotkina and Louis Gilbert
and identified the main word-formation models for constructing neologisms of
the modern English language, examined each of them, demonstrating examples.
 21

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