TRANSFORMER

OVER VIEW

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductors—the transformer's coils. A varying current in the first or
primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a varying
magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a varying
electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is called mutual
induction.

If a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary
winding and electrical energy will be transferred from the primary circuit through the
transformer to the load. In an ideal transformer, the induced voltage in the secondary winding
(VS) is in proportion to the primary voltage (VP), and is given by the ratio of the number of turns
in the secondary (NS) to the number of turns in the primary (NP) as follows:

By appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternating

current (AC) voltage to be "stepped up" by making NS greater than NP, or "stepped down" by
making NS less than NP.

In the vast majority of transformers, the windings are coils wound around a ferromagnetic
core, air-core transformers being a notable exception.

Transformers range in size from a thumbnail-sized coupling transformer hidden inside a

stage microphone to huge units weighing hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of
power grids. All operate with the same basic principles, although the range of designs is wide.
While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits,
transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains")
voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long
distance transmission economically practical.

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

The transformer is based on two principles: firstly, that an electric current can produce a
magnetic field (electromagnetism) and secondly that a changing magnetic field within a coil of
wire induces a voltage across the ends of the coil (electromagnetic induction). Changing the
current in the primary coil changes the magnetic flux that is developed. The changing magnetic
flux induces a voltage in the secondary coil.

Fig 2.1:. Ideal Transformer

An ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent figure. Current passing through the primary
coil creates a magnetic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very
high magnetic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the magnetic flux passes through both
the primary and secondary coils.

Induction law
 The voltage induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from Faraday's law of
induction, which states that:

where VS is the instantaneous voltage, NS is the number of turns in the secondary coil and Φ
equals the magnetic flux through one turn of the coil. If the turns of the coil are oriented
perpendicular to the magnetic field lines, the flux is the product of the magnetic flux density B
and the area A through which it cuts. The area is constant, being equal to the cross-sectional area
of the transformer core, whereas the magnetic field varies with time according to the excitation
of the primary. Since the same magnetic flux passes through both the primary and secondary
coils in an ideal transformer,[26] the instantaneous voltage across the primary winding equals

Taking the ratio of the two equations for VS and VP gives the basic equation for stepping
up or stepping down the voltage

Ideal Power Equation

 Fig 2.2: showing the ideal transformer connections

If the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is
transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. Ideally, the transformer is perfectly
efficient; all the incoming energy is transformed from the primary circuit to the magnetic field
and into the secondary circuit. If this condition is met, the incoming electric power must equal
the outgoing power.

Pin coming = IPVP = Pout going = ISVS

Transformers normally have high efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable

approximation.

If the voltage is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The
impedance in one circuit is transformed by the square of the turn’s ratio. For example, if an
impedance ZS is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary
circuit to have an impedance of Zs (Np /Ns)2. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance
ZP of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be Zp (Np /Ns)2

Transformer Universal EMF Equation

If the flux in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either winding between its
rms voltage Erms of the winding , and the supply frequency f, number of turns N, core cross-
sectional area a and peak magnetic flux density B is given by the universal EMF equation:

If the flux does not contain even harmonics the following equation can be used for half-cycle
average voltage Eavg of any wave shape:
 The time-derivative term in Faraday's Law shows that the flux in the core is the integral
with respect to time of the applied voltage. Hypothetically an ideal transformer would work with
direct-current excitation, with the core flux increasing linearly with time. In practice, the flux
would rise to the point where magnetic saturation of the core occurs, causing a huge increase in
the magnetizing current and overheating the transformer. All practical transformers must
therefore operate with alternating (or pulsed) current.

CONSTRUCTION

There are two general types of transformers, the core type and the shell type. These two
types differ from each other by the manner in which the windings are wound around the
magnetic core.

The magnetic core is a stack of thin silicon- steel laminations about 0.35 mm thick for 50
Hz transformers. In order to reduce the eddy current losses, these laminations are insulated from
one another by thin layers of varnish. For reducing the core losses, nearly all transformers have
their magnetic core made from cold-rolled grain oriented sheet-steel (C.R.G.O). This material,
when magnetized in the rolling direction, has low core loss and high permeability.

In the core type, the windings surround a considerable part of steel core as shown. In the
shell type, steel core surrounds a major part of the windings as shown in figure. For a given
output and voltage rating, core type transformer requires less iron but more conductor material as
compared to a shell type transformer. The vertical portions of the core are usually called limbs or
legs and the top and bottom portions are called the yoke. This means that for single phase
transformers, core type has two legged core whereas shell type has three legged core.
Fig 2.3: showing the over view and the cross section of the core type of transformer

In iron core transformers, most of the flux is confined to high permeability core. There is,
however, some flux that leaks through the core legs and non magnetic material surrounding the
core. This flux, called leakage flux, links one winding and not the other. A reduction in this
leakage flux is desirable
Fig 2.4 :showing the over view and cross section of the shell type of the transformer
as it improves the transformer performance considerably. Consequently, an effort is always made
to reduce it. In the core-type transformer, this is achieved by placing half of the low voltage
winding over one leg and other half over the second leg or limb. For the high voltage winding
also, half of the winding is over one leg and the other half over the second leg. L.V winding is
placed adjacent to the steel core and H.V winding outside, in order to minimize the amount of
insulation required.

During the transformer construction, first the primary and secondary windings are
wound, then the laminations are pushed through the coil openings, layer by layer and the steel
core is prepared. The laminations are then tightened by means of clamps and bolts.

Fig 2.5: showing lamination pattern

 Fig 2.6: showing the transformer which would step up or step down the voltage
whenever required

Low power transformers are air-cooled whereas large power transformers are immersed
in oil for better cooling. In oil cooled transformers, the oil serves as a coolant and also as an
insulating medium which can be shown in the figure below
 PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

BUCHHOLZ RELAY

Buchholz relay is a gas- actuated relay installed in oil-immersed transformers for

protection against all kind of faults. It is used to gives an alarm in case of slow developing faults
or incipient faults in the transformer and to disconnect the transformer from the supply in the
event of severe internal faults. It is installed in the pipe between the conservator and main tank as
shown in fig11 below. This relay is used in oil-immersed transformers of rating above 750kVA
 Fig 5.1 showing the position of the buchholz relay where it has to be placed

Construction

Fig 12 shows the constructional details of Buchholz relay. It consists of a domed

vessel placed in the pipe between the conservator and main tank of the transformer. The device
has two elements. The upper element consists of a mercury type switch attached to a float. The
lower element contains a mercury switch mounted on a hinged type flap located on the direct
path of flow of oil from the transformer to the conservator. The upper element closes an alarm
circuit during slow developing faults whereas the lower element is arranged to trip the circuit
breaker in case of severe internal faults.
Fig5.2: showing the construction of the buchholz relay

Operation

The operation of Buchholz relay is as follows:

 In case of slow developing faults within the transformer, the heat due to the fault causes
decomposition of some transformer oil in the main tank. The products of decomposition
mainly contain 70 % of hydrogen gas. The hydrogen gas being light tries to go into the
conservator and in the process gets trapped in the upper part of the relay chamber. When
a predetermined amount of gas gets accumulated, it exerts sufficient pressure on the float
to cause it to tilt and close the contacts of mercury switch attached to it. This completes
the alarm circuit to sound an alarm.
  If serious fault occur in the transformer, an enormous amount of gas is generated in the
main tank. The oil in the main tank rushes towards the conservator via the Buchholz relay
and in doing so it tilts the flap to close the contacts of mercury switch. This completes the
trip circuit to open the circuit breaker controlling the transformer.

Advantages:

1. It is the simplest form of transformer protection

2. It detects the slow developing faults at a stage much earlier than other forms of protection.

Disadvantages:

1. It can only be used with oil immersed transformers equipped with conservators

2. The device can detect only faults below oil leveling the transformer. Therefore separate
protection is needed for connecting cables.

DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION

The differential protection used for transformers is based on the principle of current
circulation. This type of protection is mostly used for transformers as this responds not only to
inter turn fault but also provides protection against phase-to-phase faults. Following are the
complicated features in transformers and there remedial measures:

1. In a power transformer, the currents in primary and secondary are to be compared.

As these two currents are usually different, therefore the use of identical transformers will give
differential current and operate the relay even under no load conditions. The difference in
magnitude of currents in primary and secondary of power transformers is compensated by
different turn’s ratios of C.T.s. If T is the turn’s ratio of power transformer, then the turns ratio of
C.T.s on lv side is made T times the turn’s ratio of the C.T.s on hv side. When this condition is
fulfilled the secondaries of the two C.T.s will carry same current under normal conditions. And
thus no current will flow through the relay and it remains inoperative.
 3. There is usually a phase difference between the primary and secondary currents of a 3-
phase power transformer. Even if C.T.s of proper transformation ratios are used, a
differential current will flow through the relay under normal condition and cause relay
operation. The correction for phase difference is effected by appropriate connections of
C.T.s. the C.T.s on one side of the power transformer are connected in such a way that the
resultant current fed into the pilot wires are displaced in phase from the individual phase
currents in the same direction as, and by an angle equal to, the phase shift between the
power transformers primary and secondary currents. The table below shows the type of
connections to be employed for C.T.s in order to compensate for the phase difference in the
primary and secondary currents.

POWER TRANSFORMER CURRENT TRANSFORMER

S.NO CONNECTIONS CONNECTIONS
PRIMARY SECONDARY PRIMARY SECONDARY
1 Star with neutral Delta Delta Star
earthed
2 Delta Delta Star Star

3 Star Star with neutral Delta Delta

earthed
4 Delta Star with neutral Star Delta
earthed

Table 1: showing the type of the connection to be connectedfor power and current
transformers

4. Another factor, which has to be considered, is the inrush of magnetizing current.

When the transformer is switched to supply the magnetizing current may assume very high
values momentarily and may cause operation of the relay even though they are transient. This
can be avoided by using relays with time delay characteristics
 Fig 5.3: Differential Protection Circuit
.
Figure shows the differential protection for transformer. In this the power transformer is
delta- star connected. On delta side the C.T.s are connected in star and on the star side the C.T.s
are connected in delta as in fig. Under normal working conditions the circulating currents caused
by the primary and secondary load current in the relay circuit will balance; but under fault
conditions the balance will no longer be there and the relay will be energized to trip the circuit
breakers on the primary and secondary side.
RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION
Windings of many smaller transformers are protected by restricted earth fault (REF)
systems.  Even so, I have come across a lot of installations which would have benefited from
this type of protection, but for whatever reason it has not been installed.
 .

Fig5.4: showing the restricted earth fault protection

The illustration shows the principal of REF protection.  Under normal conditions and
by application of Kirchhoff’s laws the sum of currents in both current transformers (CTs)
equals zero.  If there is an earth fault between the CTs then some current will bypass the CT's
and the sum of currents will not be zero.  By measuring this current imbalance faults between the
CTs can be easily identified and quickly cleared.  Fault detection is confined to the zone between
the two CTs hence the name 'Restricted Earth Fault'.

REF protection is fast and can isolate winding faults extremely quickly, thereby limiting
damage and consequent repair costs.  If CTs are located on the transformer terminals only the
winding is protected.  However, quite often the line CT is placed in the distribution switchboard,
thereby extending the protection zone to include the main cable.

Without REF, faults in the transformer star secondary winding need to be detected on the
primary of the transformer by reflected current.  As the winding fault position moves towards the
neutral, the magnitude of the current seen on the primary rapidly decreases and could potentially
not be detected (limiting the amount of winding which can be protected).  As the magnitude of
the currents remain relatively large on the secondary (particularly if solidly earthed), nearly the
entire winding can be protected using REF.

It should be remembered that the protection as illustrated covers only the secondary of
the transformer.  Sometimes REF protection is added to the primary as well. As it is essential
that the current in the CTs be balanced during normal conditions (and through faults),
historically REF has been implemented using High Impedance Relays.  CT's have also been
specified as matched pairs and the impedance of leads/wires and interconnecting cables has had a
large influence on the functioning of the relay.  Measurement errors associated with these issues
have been responsible for nuisance tripping and the system could be difficult to commission. 
This may be the reason some people avoid the use of REF.   Recent advances in numerical relay
technology have all but eliminated these issues, making the implementation of REF relatively
easy, ensuring no nuisance tripping and simplifying commissioning.