Definitions

Inclined Planes

Normal force: the force acting along an imaginary line drawn perpendicular to the surface

Circular motion

Uniform circular motion: a force acting on an object in a perpendicular direction to the velocity

Average speed: the rate of change of distance calculated by the formula average speed = distance

Period: the amount of time one cycle or one event takes to occur; the length of time taken for one
wavelength to pass a given point; in circular motion, period refers to the time taken to complete one
revolution (symbol, 𝑇𝑇; SI unit, s)

Centripetal acceleration: the acceleration experienced by any object moving in a circular path
directed towards the centre of motion (symbol, 𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐; SI unit is m/s2 )

Centripetal force: the force acting on an object travelling in a circle that constantly either pulls or
pushes the object in towards the centre of motion (symbol, Fc; SI unit is N)

Gravitational force and fields

Newton’s law of universal gravitation: the force of attraction between each pair of point particles
that is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square
of the distance between them

Gravitational fields: the region of space surrounding a body in which another body experiences a
force of gravitational attraction

Gravitational field strength: the net force per unit mass at a particular point in the gravitational field

Orbits

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion:

1) all planets move about the Sun in elliptical orbits, having the Sun as one of the foci
2) a radius vector joining any planet to the Sun sweeps out equal areas in equal lengths of time
3) the squares of the sidereal periods of the planets are directly proportional to the cubes of
their mean distance from the Sun

Recall that Kepler’s third law can be derived from the relationship between Newton’s Law of
Universal Gravitation and uniform circular motion

Law of Conservation of Energy: the total energy of a system remains constant; energy can neither be
created nor destroyed, rather, it transforms from one form to another
 Electrostatics

Coulomb’s law: like electric charges repel and opposite electric charges attract, with a force
proportional to the product of the electric charges and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between them.

Electric field strength: the intensity of an electric field at a particular location

Electric fields: regions around an electrically charged particle or object within which a force would
be exerted on other electrically charged particles or objects

Electrical potential energy: the capacity of electric charge carriers to do work due to their position in
an electric circuit.

(Understand: work done when an electric charge is moved in an electric field!!)

Pages 170-175, chapter 6.3

Students should be able to recall that:

- electric charge can be positive or negative, define electrical potential difference, and solve
problems involving electric potential (Unit 1Topic 3: Electrical circuits).
- describe examples of each of Newton’s three laws of motion (Unit 2 Topic 1: Linear motion
and force).

Magnetic fields

Magnetic field: a region of space near a magnet, electric current or moving electrically charged
particle in which a magnetic force acts on any other magnet, electric current or moving electrically
charged particle

• recall how to represent magnetic field lines, including sketching magnetic field lines due to a
moving electric charge, electric currents and magnets • recall that a moving electric charge
generates a magnetic field

recall that electric current-carrying conductors and moving electric charges experience a force when
placed in a magnetic field

Students should be able to recall that electric charge is conserved at all points in an electrical circuit

Electromagnetic induction

Magnetic flux: a measurement of the total magnetic field that passes through a given area; a
measure of the number of magnetic field lines passing through the given area (symbol, 𝜙; SI unit,
Wb)

Magnetic flux density: the strength of a magnetic field or the number of magnetic field lines per unit
area (symbol, 𝐵𝐵; SI unit, Wb/m2 or T)

Electromagnetic induction: the production of an electromotive force (EMF) or voltage across an

electrical conductor due to its dynamic interaction with a magnetic field
Electromotive force: a difference in potential that tends to give rise to an electric current

Faraday’s law: when the magnetic flux linking a circuit changes, an electromotive force is induced in
the circuit proportional to the rate of change of the flux linkage

Lenz’s law: the direction of an induced electric current always opposes the change in the circuit or
the magnetic field that produces it

When an induced current flows through the solenoid, the magnetic field produced by the solenoid
has a polarity that repels the incoming permanent magnet pole. It repels the magnet and forces you
to do work. If you didn’t have to do work you would get electricity for no effort. Lenz’s law is one
expression of a fundamental law of nature – the law of conservation of energy: ‘The total energy of
a system remains constant; energy can neither be created nor destroyed, rather, it transforms from
one form to another.’

Electromagnetic radiation: radiant energy consisting of synchronised oscillations of electric and

magnetic fields, or electromagnetic waves, propagated at the speed of light in a vacuum

How transformers work [in terms of Faraday’s Law and electromagnetic induction]:

Transformers: device that uses mutual induction to vary alternating voltages. Two coils are wound
onto a common soft iron core, which concentrates the magnetic flux moving through the coils.

Alternating current is passed through primary coil (input) which creates a changing magnetic field in
the iron core. This induces an alternating current of same frequency in the secondary coil (output).
The voltage induced in the secondary coil depends on number of turns on primary and secondary
coils

• Students should be able to recall the properties of gamma radiation (Unit 1 Topic 2: Ionising
radiation and nuclear reactions). Students should be able to recall the properties of waves (Unit 2
Topic 2: Waves)

Special relativity

Frame of reference: the abstract coordinate system that defines location of the observer

Inertial frame of reference: any frame of reference with respect to which the acceleration of the
object of observation remains zero

Postulates of special relativity: the first postulate states that the laws of physics are the same in all
inertial frames of reference; the second postulate states that the speed of light in a vacuum has the
same value c in all inertial frames of reference

Muons:

A muon is a subatomic particle that travel at a velocity near the speed of light (>0.99c). But the
muons are short-lived with an average life span of 2.2 microseconds and quickly decay into an
electron and two neutrinos.
Scientists set up equipment on the top of a mountain Mount Washington and measured how many
muons were present: 563 per hour. Then at sea level they repeated the count. Using Newtonian
calculations only 27 per hour should have been detected, but they counted 409 per hour, as
predicted by special relativity:

- The distance was 1910 m in the scientists’ perspective, but in the muon’s frame of reference
the distance was just 183 m. This is a consequence of ‘length contraction’.
- The mean lifetime from scientists’ frame of reference is 23 μs, but from muon’s frame of
reference mean lifetime is 2.2 μs. So to the scientists, the muons took longer to decay. This
is known as ‘time dilation’.

Notes: Above can all be calculated using known formulae. Also, dilation means enlargement??

Simultaneity:

Two events occurring simultaneously in one reference frame are not simultaneous in any other
reference frame [that is moving relative to the first], even if both frames are inertial.

As the consequence of constant speed of light:

Time dilation: the difference of elapsed time between two events as measured by observers moving
relative to each other

- Proper time interval: measured in the frame of reference in which the object is at rest
- Relativistic time interval: measured in the frame of reference in which the object is in
motion (symbol, 𝑡𝑡; SI unit, s)

Length contraction: an observer at rest relative to a moving object would observe the moving object
to be shorter along the dimension of motion

- Proper length: measured in the frame of reference in which the object is at rest
- Relativistic length: measured in the frame of reference in which the object is in motion
(symbol, 𝐿𝐿; SI unit, m)

Rest mass: the mass of an object when measured in the same reference frame as the observer.

Relativistic momentum: the momentum of an object when measured in the frame of reference in
which the object is in motion (symbol, 𝑝𝑝𝑣𝑣; SI unit, Ns)

• recall the mass–energy equivalence relationship

It turns out that as speed approaches c, the momentum approaches infinity (Figure 3). The amount
of effort needed for each increment of velocity becomes larger and larger until it can’t get any faster.
This implies a cosmic speed limit

Describe: above phenomena w/ experimental evidence, explain why no object can travel at c,
explain paradoxical scenarios a) twin’s paradox and b) ladder in barn paradox

Students should be able to define momentum and impulse, solve problems on momentum and
impulse, recall Newton’s laws of motion (Unit 2 Topic 1: Linear motion and force).
 Paradoxes

Twin’s

There is a pair of 25-year-old twins, and one of them takes off in a spaceship travelling at very high
speeds, while the other twin remains on Earth. When the travelling twin returns they have aged
differently according to the concept of time dilation (Figure 1). The question is: which twin has aged
more?

Resolution: The travelling twin must change velocity at the beginning and end of the trip and also
when turning around in space, so even if these acceleration periods are small they are not travelling
in uniform motion.

So the Earth twin [inertial reference frame] measures proper length and the travelling twin measures
the contracted (shortened) length. But as both twins agree on the relative velocity, the travelling
twin must measure a shorter time (to cover the shorter length) and thus returns to Earth having
aged less.

Calculations: proper and relativistic time formula

Barn

Imagine a barn, 40 m wide, with a door on each end. A runner has a pole that is exactly as long as
the barn (at rest) runs into the barn. According to relativity, in the reference frame of farmer/Earth,
the pole is moving and experiences length contraction so the farmer can shut both doors
momentarily. But from the pole’s frame of reference, the barn suffers length contraction. The pole is
too long for the barn. In one reference frame, the pole fits in the barn, in the other it does not.

Resolution: Mistaken assumption of absolute simultaneity. In relativity, simultaneity is relative to

each observer, making whether the pole fits also relative to each observer. The runner’s idea of
simultaneity is when she sees both doors close at the same time. But because she is approaching the
exit door and retreating from the entrance door, she will see the exit door close first then open, then
the entrance door close and then open. That will not be simultaneous, so the pole doesn’t fit. The
farmer’s idea of simultaneity is the same but as he is at rest relative to the doors, and thus judges
the doors to close simultaneously, so pole fits.

Flashlight on a train

Imagine an observer sitting on an embankment at the side of a train track. A train is the moving
frame of reference and the embankment is the stationary frame.

Imagine in the centre of train carriage there is person holding flashlight that sends out a pulse of
light in both the forwards and backwards directions, at the same time. Imagine rear and front dorrs
open automatically when light pulse arrives.

To person holding the device, doors of carriage open simultaneously. But for person on
embankment, rear door opens before front door. This is because stationary observer sees backdoor
move forward to meet the light pulse while front door moves away from the light pulse.

Quantum theory and light

Photon: a quantum of all forms of electromagnetic radiation; a gauge boson responsible for
mediating the electromagnetic force

Planck’s constant: a fundamental constant used in quantum mechanics

Describe: evidence for wave/particle model

a) Young’s double slit experiment

Demonstrates the wave nature of light by allowing two coherent (in phase) beams of light to overlap
on a screen to form an interference pattern.

- the banded diffraction pattern: when crests met crests or troughs met troughs, there would
be constructive interference and bright bands. When crest met trough, there’d be
destructive interference and dark bands.

b) black-body radiation

Black-body radiation: the radiation emitted by a black body from the conversion of thermal energy; a
black body is a perfect absorber or emitter of radiation.

- Black body: an object that absorbs all radiation, doesn’t reflect any light shining onto it

Wien’s displacement law: the black-body radiation curve for different temperatures peaks at a
wavelength that is inversely proportional to the temperature.

UV catastrophe: two problems: 1) classical physics could not explain the shape. 2) There was a
discrepancy at low wavelengths + theoretically at very high temperatures, a black body should emit
enormous amounts of UV, X-rays and gamma rays – but in practice it did not.

Planck proposed that the energy released by a black body was, in fact, emitted by atoms, and that
these atoms could only vibrate at certain frequencies that were multiples of a smallest value. Thus,
the absence of high energy emissions from black bodies is because the vibrating atoms simply aren’t
large enough to provide the necessary energy changes. Also, certain states of vibration of the atoms
were more likely and this accounted for the peak in the frequency distribution curves.
 c) photoelectric effect

Mandatory practical: photoelectric effect. Energy, velocity, electrical potential difference v.

wavelength, frequency. Calculate work function and Planck’s constant

Photoelectric effect: the emission of electrons (or other free carriers) when light shines on a material

The photoelectric effect experiment demonstrates that the number of electrons ejected from a
metal plate is proportional to the intensity of incident light, whereas the kinetic energy of the
ejected electrons is proportional to the frequency of incident light.

- The fact that frequencies lower than a threshold value will not eject an electron suggests
that light energy is quantised. As the frequency increases, the kinetic energy of the ejected
electrons increases, suggesting that light can be conceived as packets of energy (photons).
- The fact that a greater intensity of light causes more electrons to be ejected suggests that
the greater the intensity, the more photons (or packets of energy) are incident on the metal
plate, also confirming the idea of light as a photon.

Threshold frequency: the minimum frequency of a photon that can eject an electron from a surface
(x-axis)

Work function: the minimum energy required to remove an electron from a solid (y-axis)

d) Compton scattering

Compton showed that the X-ray photons behaved like particles with definite momentum
characteristics. The X-rays collided with the electrons in the graphite target. After the collision, the
scattered X-ray photons had reduced energy and longer wavelengths than the photons that had not
been scattered.

In a Compton collision between an X-ray photon and an electron, the change in energy is not
complete and the reduction in energy and wavelength is dependent on the angle of scattering. The
electron involved is scattered or ejected from the graphite in such a way that both energy and
momentum are conserved in the collision.

Students should be able to recall that waves transfer energy, recall that light cannot be modelled as
a mechanical wave because it can travel through a vacuum, recall that a wave model of light can
explain interference and define the concept of resonance in a mechanical system (Unit 2)

Quantum theory and matter

Rutherford’s model (+limitations)

A small, central positively charged nucleus with negatively charged electrons orbiting around it.
 - Gold foil experiment: testing the passage of alpha rays through gold foil. Initially plum
pudding model, but instead of passing through huge deflections were found.

Limitations:

1) any electron revolving in circular fashion undergoes centripetal acceleration and should
continuously radiate electromagnetic energy, lose energy, and spiral in towards the nucleus. Thus
atom should be highly unstable and not exist for any length of time.

2) It could not explain the line spectra of the hydrogen atom: when hydrogen gas is ionised in a
discharge tube, it emits purple light, which is split into four very distinct lines when passed through
prism.

3) protons should repel one another -> theorises existence of neutrons.

Bohr’s model: 3 postulates

1. Electrons in an atom exist in stationary states:

While in these stationary states, electrons orbit the nucleus without emitting energy.

2. Transition between stationary states absorbs or emits electromagnetic radiation.

When an electron moves between stationary states, it is accompanied by the emission or absorption
of a photon. This photon’s energy is given by ∆E = hf .

If energy is added to any atom, then the electrons are forced into higher energy or ‘excited’ states
temporarily by absorbing discrete light quanta. As the atom restabilises, the electron transitions
back down. Each orbital jump results in the emission of a light quantum of discrete predictable
value.

If an atom absorbs too much energy, then the outermost electron will be promoted completely
away from the attraction of the nucleus and will be removed from the atom; the atom is ionised. The
energy required is called the ionisation energy and for the simplest hydrogen atom is equal to 2.17 ×
10 –18 J .

3. Angular momentum of a stationary electron is quantised.

Electrons must orbit at certain fixed radii. Third postulate not about the radius but about the related
quantity, angular momentum: L = mvr.

mvr = nh/2π

where m is the mass of the electron (9.109 × 10–31 kg), v is velocity of the electron, r is the radius of
the electron’s orbit, n = energy level (1, 2, 3, ...), and h = Planck’s constant = 6.626 ×10–34 J s.

Limitations:

- The Bohr model could only successfully explain the spectra of hydrogen and hydrogen-like
ions with one electron.
- Relative spectra intensity: why the intensity of the spectral lines were not all equal. This
suggests that some transitions are favoured more than others.
 - hyperfine spectral lines: there are spectral lines that accompanied the other more visible
lines, called ‘hyperfine lines’.
- Zeeman effect: when hydrogen gas was excited in a magnetic field, the emission spectrum
showed a splitting of lines. This is now known to be due to the magnetic field of the electron.
- stationary states. Bohr proposed that the electrons were in stationary states, but he could
not explain why.

Standard model

Elementary particle: a particle whose substructure is unknown

Antiparticle: particle with the same mass and opposite charge and/or spin to a corresponding
particle, for example positron and electron

Baryons: composite subatomic particles made up of three quarks

Mesons: subatomic particles composed of one quark and one antiquark

• recall the six types of quarks

• recall the six types of leptons

• recall the four gauge bosons

 contrast (and describe-Unit 2) the fundamental forces experienced by quarks and leptons

Particle interactions

Lepton/baryon number: a conserved quantum number of a system

Recall the conservation of lepton number and baryon number in particle interaction

Describe: significance of symmetry

Symmetry: when a particle interaction is subjected to a certain operation and it appears exactly the
same after the operation

1) There are three key types of particle interactions: time-reversal (products become reactants,
vice versa), charge-reversal (all charges are reversed) and crossing symmetry (particle
replaced by antiparticle on other side of reaction)
2) Symmetry is usually upheld in nature and allows physicists to predict new interactions
3) In symmetry operations, energy and momentum is conserved
4) Sometimes symmetry is not upheld (e.g. in the Big Bang). This provides physicists with data
to investigate further.