Evaluation of Clinker Stabilized Fly

Ash-Mine Overburden Mix as Sub-base

Construction Material for Mine Haul
Roads

Soumya Ranjan Mallick & Manoj Kumar

Mishra

Geotechnical and Geological

Engineering
An International Journal

ISSN 0960-3182
Volume 35
Number 4

Geotech Geol Eng (2017) 35:1629-1644

DOI 10.1007/s10706-017-0198-8

1 23
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Geotech Geol Eng (2017) 35:1629–1644
DOI 10.1007/s10706-017-0198-8

ORIGINAL PAPER

Evaluation of Clinker Stabilized Fly Ash-Mine Overburden

Mix as Sub-base Construction Material for Mine Haul
Roads
Soumya Ranjan Mallick . Manoj Kumar Mishra

Received: 26 November 2014 / Accepted: 25 February 2017 / Published online: 9 March 2017
Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2017

Abstract Increase in production capacity of open- 1 Introduction

cast coal mines is realised through deployment of
increasingly larger capacity haul trucks, which require In India energy policy puts major emphasis on meeting
appropriately designed and well maintained haul energy demands through the thermal route and there
roads. Use of fly ash-overburden mix can enhance has been a purposeful thrust towards producing coal
mechanical property of sub-base and at the same time from opencast mines. At one end Surface mining
enhance waste utilisation. This paper reports the necessitates removal of considerable volume of over-
detailed laboratory investigations carried out on burden on the other end thermal plants using coal
development of fly ash composite materials with mine produce huge volume of fly ash. The problem is further
overburden, clinker and evaluation of their suitability compounded in India where ash percentage in thermal
for haul road. Proctor compaction tests, unconfined grade coal is rather high.
compressive strength (UCS) tests, california bearing A typical surface coal mine has about 4–5 km of
ratio (CBR) tests were carried out at different curing permanent haul road in addition to 10–12 km of
periods. The composite with 62% fly ash, 30% branch roads. The hauling truck at times achieve gross
overburden and 8% clinker exhibited adequate vehicular weight of 4000 kN whose tire pressure are
strength value for the haul road application. typically in the range of 600–700 kPa (Tannant and
Kumar 2000). So the haul roads should have sufficient
Keywords Haul road Sub-base
Fly ash
bearing capacity and stiffness. Haul roads with
Overburden material
Clinker
Optimum moisture inadequate material adversely affects mine eco-
content
Maximum dry density
California bearing nomics. Typically haulage cost is around 50% of total
ratio
Unconfined compressive strength cost incurred by a surface coal mine (Thompson and
Visser 2003).
The haul road construction materials are generally
sourced from overburden dump. Those materials are
mud stone, sand stone, crushed gravel etc. Sand,
S. R. Mallick (&)
Department of Mining Engineering, Indian Institute of gravel, clay etc. are used only as filling material. These
Technology, Kharagpur, India materials don’t offer any ground stability. Pot holes,
e-mail: [email protected] sinking, rutting and settlement are major symptoms
observed in all most all mines (Tannant and Regens-
M. K. Mishra
Department of Mining Engineering, National Institute of burg 2001). The grain sizes vary from fine to coarse
Technology, Rourkela, India particles with variable dimensions. It often creates

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instability and environmental problems. Overburden 2 Materials and Methods

material is heterogeneous with equal percentage of
fine and coarse grains (Ulusay et al. 1995). Class F type fly ash was collected in dry state by
Fly ash being very fine and reactive is more electrostatic precipitator from a thermal power unit of
suitable for road construction compared to other Rourkela Steel Plant. The overburden material used
materials. Bulk utilization of fly ash alone or fly ash for the investigation was collected from Basundhara
stabilized with soil and additive has been reported by opencast coal mine, MCL, Orissa. The additive
many researchers (Ghosh and Subbarao 2006; Sahu selected for the study was clinker. The tests carried
2005; Prabakar et al. 2004; Edil et al. 1992). The out to determine Atterberg limits, specific gravity, free
successful use of fly ash to stabilize soils suggests that swell index, grain size distributions, pH, loss on
their use in haul roads would have multiple benefits ignition, compaction characteristics, CBR and UCS
(Tannant and Kumar 2000). Fly ash exhibited some etc. were as per the prescribed Indian standards.
cohesion when moist, which was influenced by the The specific gravity of mine overburden and fly ash
size and number of void spaces, as well as by degree of were determined using volumetric flask method as per
saturation (Ramasamy and Kaushik 2001). Butalia IS: 2720-part 3 (1980). Free swell index was deter-
(2007) reported that fly ash filled voids in the granular mined as per IS: 2720-part 40 (1977). Grain size
pulverized pavement mix, reducing permeability of distributions were carried out through a standard set of
the full-depth reclamation stabilized base layer. There sieves as per IS: 2720-part 4 (1985) by wet sieving.
are many reports on utilization of fly ash either alone The overburden sample retained on the 75 lm sieve
or mixed with lime, gypsum or both. Fly ash has been was oven dried and sieved using IS standard sieves of
extensively used for soil stabilization (Chu et al. 4.75, 2, 1, 0.6, 0.425, 0.212, 0.15, 0.075 mm sizes. The
1955), as embankment material (Raymond 1961), as material passing through the 75 lm size was collected
structural fill (DiGioia and Nuzzo 1972), as a carefully, and grain size distribution analysis was
replacement to cement (Gopalan and Haque 1986; performed using the hydrometer test.
Xu and Sarkar 1994), in roads and embankments The Atterberg limits of mine overburden and fly ash
(Kumar 2005). were determined as per IS: 2720-part 5 (1985) and IS:
Class F fly ash consists of siliceous and alumi- 2720-part 6 (1972). Liquid limit was determined using
nous materials (pozzolans) that lack cementitious standard liquid limit apparatus designed by Casa-
value by themselves, but chemically react with grande. The liquid limit of fly ash was determined by
calcium oxide in presence of moisture to form the cone penetration method as per BS: 1377 Part 2
cementitious compounds (Cockrell and Leonard (1990) due to difficulty in cutting a groove using
1970). Its low specific gravity, ease of compaction, Casagrande device. The liquid limit is the minimum
good frictional properties, freely draining nature moisture content at which the soil can flow under a
and insensitiveness towards change in moisture specified small disturbing force, the disturbing force
content can be usefully utilized for construction of being defined by the method of testing. Plastic limit is
roads and embankments (Pandian 2004). Class F fly the minimum water content at which soil ceases to
ash achieved compressive strength of 6.3 MPa at behave as a plastic material. Shrinkage limit is the
90 days curing and CBR of 172% at 28 days curing maximum water content below which the soil ceases
when mixed with 10% lime and 1% gypsum to decrease in volume on further drying.
(Ghosh and Subbarao 2006). CBR values of soil The pH value was determined as per IS: 2720-part
stabilized with 10 and 20% fly ash and 2.5 and 5% 26 (1987) to identify acidic or alkaline behaviour of
Lime Kiln Dust (LKD) were 69–142% at 7 days of mine overburden and fly ash. The measurement of pH
curing and 164% at 28 days of curing (Cetin et al. was carried out using Systronics scale pH meter with
2010). accuracy up to ±0.02 units. The instrument was
The purpose of the present investigation is to standardized with three standard buffer solutions of
develop a suitable sub-base/base material with fly ash, pH 7.0, 4.0, and 10.0 at 25 °C. Loss on ignition (LOI)
mine overburden and clinker as ingredients and to of mine overburden, fly ash, and clinker was deter-
determine their UCS, and CBR values. mined as per IS: 1760-part 1 (1991).

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Chemical compositions of mine overburden, fly ash 2.1 Sample Preparation

and clinker were determined from EDX (energy
dispersive X-ray) technique. The optimum moisture The following proportions of overburden fly ash
content (OMC) and maximum dry density (MDD) of mixtures were considered as presented in Table 1.
different compositions of (fly ash-overburden-clinker) The aim of the investigation was to evaluate fly ash
were determined by modified proctor test as per IS: utilization prospects to replace a part of the traditional
2720-part 8 (1983). sub-base material. Hence the fly ash amount was kept

Table 1 Various Fly ash (%) Overburden (%) Clinker (%) Fly ash (%) Overburden (%) Clinker (%)
proportions of fly ash, mine
overburden and clinker 90 10 0 70 30 0
88 10 2 68 30 2
86 10 4 66 30 4
84 10 6 64 30 6
82 10 8 62 30 8
80 20 0 60 40 0
78 20 2 58 40 2
76 20 4 56 40 4
74 20 6 54 40 6
72 20 8 52 40 8

Table 2 Physical Property Fly ash O/B

properties of fly ash and
mine overburden Specific gravity 2.10 2.63
Atterberg limits
Liquid limit (%) 31.57 26.90
Plastic limit (%) Non-plastic 17.10
Shrinkage limit (%) – 16.02
Plasticity index (%) – 9.80
Sieve analysis (%)
Gravel ([4.75 mm) – 8
Sand (4.75–0.075 mm) 18 27
(a) Coarse sand 0 13
(b) Medium sand 0 6
(c) Fine sand 18 8
Silt (0.075–0.002 mm) 79.8 57
(a) Coarse silt 52 46
(B) Medium silt 16 10
(c) Fine silt 11.8 1
Clay (\0.002 mm) 2.2 8
Coefficient of uniformity (CU = D60/D10) 4.47 4.25
Coefficient of curvature (CC = (D30)2/D10 9 D60) 1.82 0.94
pH value 7.10 5.5
Free swell index Negligible 18.18

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Fig. 1 Grain size

distribution curve of fly ash
and mine overburden

more than 50%. Clinker was added in the above 150 mm diameter and 175 mm height. The sample
combinations of overburden–fly ash in varying per- was statically compacted in the mould, such that the
centage of 2, 4, 6 and 8% to determine respective height was maintained at 127 mm. A circular metal
geotechnical parameters. Modified Proctor com- spacer disc of 148 mm diameter and 47.7 mm height
paction test were performed to determine the MDD was used to compact the sample.
and OMC of all the mixes. Then samples were
prepared at their respective OMC and MDD. The
raw materials such as fly ash, mine overburden and 2.2 California Bearing Ratio Test
clinker were blended in the required proportion in dry
condition. After dry mixing of the ingredients, CBR test was carried out as per IS: 2720-part 16
respective water content was added to the mixes and (1987). The standard values are 13.44 kN at 2.5 mm
mixed thoroughly. Then the mixture was left in a and 20.16 kN at 5.0 mm penetration. The samples
closed container for uniform mixing and prevents loss were soaked for 4 days in water and were allowed to
of moisture to atmosphere. The wet mixture of amount drain for 15 min before test. Curing periods adopted
corresponding to the required dry density was com- were immediate, 7 days (3 days moist cur-
pacted in the mould. Split mould of 38 mm diameter ing ? 4 days soaking) and 28 days (24 days moist
and 86 mm length was used for preparation of the curing ? 4 days soaking). Two surcharge discs, each
UCS test samples. Samples were prepared with of weight 2.5 kg were placed over the sample. A
uniform tamping. Two circular metal spacer discs of plunger of 50 mm diameter was used to penetrate into
height 5 mm and diameter 37.5 mm each with base the sample at a rate of 1.25 mm/min during the test.
(7 mm height, 50 mm diameter) were used at top and
bottom ends of the mould to compact the sample such 2.3 Unconfined Compressive Strength Test
that the length of the specimen was maintained at
76 mm. Then the discs were removed and an another UCS test was carried out as per IS: 2720-part 10
spacer disc of height 100 mm and diameter 37.5 mm (1991). The samples were 38 mm in diameter and
with a base (height 7 mm, 50 mm diameter) was used 76 mm in height. Samples were cured in a humidity
to remove the sample from mould. The CBR test chamber (relative humidity [ 95%) at 30 ± 2 °C.
samples were prepared using standard CBR mould of The UCS of cured samples were determined in a strain

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Table 3 Chemical composition (% by weight) of mine overburden (O/B), fly ash and clinker
Constituents SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO K2O MgO TiO2 Na2O SO3 LOI

Mine O/B 48.24 29.18 8.36 1.10 0.40 1.30 0.69 – – 10.73
Fly ash 53.11 33.64 6.44 0.55 1.45 0.83 2.05 0.13 – 1.8
Clinker 20.46 4.52 3.57 66.38 0.68 2.01 – 0.16 1.39 0.75

controlled unconfined compression testing machine at 3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties
a strain rate of 1.2 mm/min.
The fly ash was collected in dry state and was in loose
stage. Its average water content was less than 1%. The
3 Results and Discussion fly ash used had a powdery structure with medium to
dark grey colour indicating low lime content (Meyers
The aim of the investigation was to develop and et al. 1976).
evaluate fly ash based composite material to replace The physical properties of fly ash and mine
the common sub-base material typically used in haul overburden are reported in Table 2. The specific
road of an opencast coal mine. The experiments and gravity of fly ash and mine overburden obtained are
their results are reported below. 2.10 and 2.63. The specific gravity of fly ash is found
to be less than that of mine overburden, due to the
Table 4 Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content presence of cenospheres and less iron content. The
values of developed composites including fly ash and mine materials with higher iron content have relatively high
overburden specific gravity (Sridharan and Prakash 2007).
Compositions MDD (Kg/m3) OMC (%) Particle size distribution reflects whether the mate-
rial is poorly, medium or well graded. The particle size
Fly ash 1296 22.3
distribution of the construction material has strong
Mine overburden 1941 14.2
influence over the density. Coal ashes are predomi-
90% FA ? 10% O/B ? 0% CL 1330 19.5
nantly silt sized with some sand sized fractions. It is
88% FA ? 10% O/B ? 2% CL 1341 18.5
observed that fly ash contains more than 50% coarse
86% FA ? 10% O/B ? 4% CL 1369 17.7
grained silts (0.020 mm \ particle size \ 0.075 mm)
84% FA ? 10% O/B ? 6% CL 1408 17.1
and hence belongs to non-plastic inorganic coarse
82% FA ? 10% O/B ? 8% CL 1413 21.3
sized fractions i.e. MLN group. The overburden
80% FA ? 20% O/B ? 0% CL 1428 18.9 contains sand size fraction with appreciable amount
78% FA ? 10% O/B ? 2% CL 1441 16.9 of non-plastic fines or fines with low plasticity
76% FA ? 10% O/B ? 4% CL 1447 16.3 (Fig. 1). It is typically described as poorly graded
74% FA ? 10% O/B ? 6% CL 1478 21.6 sand-silt mixtures and belongs to SM group.
72% FA ? 10% O/B ? 8% CL 1487 17.8 Coefficient of uniformity (Cu) for fly ash and mine
70% FA ? 30% O/B ? 0% CL 1495 16.5 overburden are found to be 4.47 and 4.25 respectively.
68% FA ? 10% O/B ? 2% CL 1499 18.1 Coefficient of curvature (Cc) for fly ash and mine
66% FA ? 10% O/B ? 4% CL 1508 17.1 overburden are found to be 1.82 and 0.94 respectively.
64% FA ? 10% O/B ? 6% CL 1534 16.6 It represents that both fly ash and mine overburden are
62% FA ? 10% O/B ? 8% CL 1559 16.9 poorly graded (Pandian, 2004). Free swell index of
60% FA ? 40% O/B ? 0% CL 1566 16.8 mine overburden is found to be 18.1 (Table 2). Free
58% FA ? 40% O/B ? 2% CL 1576 17.3 swell index of the fly ash is found to be negligible due
56% FA ? 40% O/B ? 4% CL 1589 16.5 to flocculation which confirms to that reported else-
54% FA ? 40% O/B ? 6% CL 1604 16.1 where (Pandian et al. 1995).
52% FA ? 40% O/B ? 8% CL 1619 16.7 Atterberg limits as liquid limit (LL), plastic limit
(PL), plasticity index (PI) and shrinkage limit are

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Fig. 2 Moisture content—

dry density relationship of
composites fly ash-mine
overburden-clinker mixes
containing 10 and 20% mine
overburden

Fig. 3 Moisture content—

dry density relationship of
composites fly ash-mine
overburden-clinker mixes
containing 30 and 40% mine
overburden

important factors in material identification and clas- 26.90% respectively. Though both values are close,
sification. These parameters reflect a few geotechnical overburden material is less workable than that for fly
problems as swelling potential and workability. The ash. The fly ash tested was non-plastic and hence
liquid limit of fly ash and overburden are 31.57 and plastic limit could not be determined. It was also not

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Table 5 CBR values of fly ash-mine overburden mixes in suggests the possible applications of fly ash. The
soaked and un-soaked condition chemical composition of fly ash indicates that it has
Composition CBR (%) not only less calcium content but also the quantity of
(SiO2 ? Al2O3 ? Fe2O3) exceeds 70% (Table 3).-
Unsoaked Soaked
Thus, it is classified as ‘‘Class F’’ type (ASTM C
0% FA ? 100% O/B 26 2.53 618-08a 2008). The fly ash used has more than 93% of
60% FA ? 40% O/B 23.74 1.39 acidic constituents (SiO2 ? Al2O3 ? Fe2O3) where
70% FA ? 30% O/B 24.26 1.64 that for mine overburden is 85%. EDX analysis
80% FA ? 20% O/B 22.26 1.24 confirms that fly ash satisfy the chemical requirements
90% FA ? 10% O/B 21.46 1.09 for use as a pozzolona. Both mine overburden and fly
100% FA ? 0% O/B 18 0.7 ash contains vey less percentage of CaO. But the
clinker contains around 67% of CaO (Table 3).

3.2 Compaction Characteristics

possible to carry out shrinkage limit tests since the ash
pats crumbled upon drying. The tests confirm that fly Compaction is the process of increasing the density of
ash is non-cohesive and has negligible shrinkage limit material by application of mechanical energy such as
thus better suited to geotechnical application. tamping, rolling and vibration. It is achieved by
The pH of overburden and fly ash are found to be forcing the particles closer with a reduction in air
5.5 and 7.1. The pH values indicate that fly ash is voids. Modified proctor compaction has been carried
strongly acidic and mine overburden is neutral out to consider higher standard of compaction.
depending on alkaline oxide content and free lime Maximum dry density of the composites decreased
content. The silica lime reaction is pH dependent. The with increase in fly ash percentage. The OMC of all the
higher the pH, the better is the solubility of silica and composites were between 14 and 20%. The highest
lime-silica reaction in producing pozzolanic products. OMC found was 22.3% for fly ash only. The highest
The pH of the solution increases if presence of lime is MDD obtained was 1941 kg/m3 for mine overburden
in excess of the amount required for the silica to react. only whereas lowest MDD was 1296 kg/m3 for fly ash
But addition of lime in excess than that required for the only due to its non-cohesive nature. The maximum dry
reactions makes pH constant as the solution becomes density values of untreated composites varied between
saturated (Sivapullaiah et al. 1995). 1330 and 1566 kg/m3 (Table 4).
Carbon content is typically assessed by measuring Addition of clinker to fly ash-overburden mixes
LOI as 90% of LOI value (Sear 2001). The carbon resulted in an increase in MDD (Figs. 2, 3). As specific
content of the overburden material and fly ash is 9.65 gravity of clinker is higher than that of fly ash and
and 1.6 respectively. High carbon content adversely mine overburden, replacement of certain percentage of
affects material properties. Chemical composition fly ash or mine overburden by clinker resulted in
increased MDD. In addition to this, clinker particles
Table 6 CBR values of fly ash-mine overburden mixes in are comparatively finer than the fly ash and mine
soaked and cured condition overburden particles. These finer particles occupy the
Composition CBR (%)
void space in the compacted mixture, thus increasing
the MDD of the mixture. Jones (1958), Shastry and
Soaked 7 days cured 28 days cured Kumar (1989) have reported that an addition of lime or
0% FA ? 100% O/B 2.53 3 4.1 cement to soil decreases the dry density of the
60% FA ? 40% O/B 1.39 2.37 3.41 compacted mixture due to flocculation and aggrega-
70% FA ? 30% O/B 1.64 2.43 3.54 tion of soil particles, resulting in an increase void of
80% FA ? 20% O/B 1.24 2.24 3.05 the mix. However, in the present case, with mixes of
90% FA ? 10% O/B 1.09 2.18 2.85 fly ash–mine overburden, no such behaviour is
100% FA ? 0% O/B 0.7 1.3 2.1 observed. It may be concluded that the clinker added
to the fly ash–mine overburden mixture is totally
utilized for hydration of cement reaction rather than

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Fig. 4 CBR values of fly ash-mine overburden-clinker mixes

the reactions like base-exchange, aggregation and resistance to penetration as compared to that of fly ash
flocculation. which possess uniform sizes. As fly ash content
increased in the composite CBR values decreased. In
un-soaked condition CBR values of composites with-
3.3 California Bearing Ratio out additive varied between 18 and 26%. The higher
CBR value in un-soaked condition is due to the
CBR value of a material is typically considered for any capillary forces created at optimum moisture content
road construction application. This method is well and maximum dry density condition in addition to the
established and popular for design of the base and sub- friction resisting the penetration of the plunger
base material for road pavement. In this investigation (Mishra et al. 2003). However when the samples were
CBR tests were carried out to characterize the bearing tested after 4 days soaking, the CBR values were very
capacity of the untreated fly ash-overburden compos- low due to the destruction of the capillary forces.
ite as well as clinker treated fly ash-overburden Soaked condition though a conservative estimate, yet
composite materials. considered for worst scenario. The obtained CBR
The variation of CBR of fly ash-overburden mixes value less than 3% is unsuitable for sub-grade material
for both un-soaked and soaked conditions is shown in (Bowles 1992) and hence need to be stabilized with
Table 5. Mine overburden material showed high CBR additive for haul road application. The CBR values of
value due to irregular grain sizes that offered more composites when tested at different curing periods

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Fig. 5 Effect of curing

period on CBR

Table 7 CBR gain of fly FA (%) O/B (%) CL (%) Curing period (days) CBR (%) CBR gain
ash-mine overburden-
clinker mixes 90 10 0 28 2.85 1
88 10 2 28 43.8 15.36
86 10 4 28 61.72 21.65
84 10 6 28 90.54 31.76
82 10 8 28 108.9 38.21
80 20 0 28 3.05 1
78 20 2 28 47.22 15.48
76 20 4 28 66.5 21.8
74 20 6 28 97.51 31.97
72 20 8 28 117.62 38.56
70 30 0 28 3.54 1
68 30 2 28 58.88 16.63
66 30 4 28 80.4 22.71
64 30 6 28 118.29 33.41
62 30 8 28 139.3 39.35
60 40 0 28 3.41 1
58 40 2 28 54.8 16.07
56 40 4 28 75.01 21.99
54 40 6 28 110.28 32.34
52 40 8 28 132.86 38.96

exhibited little change over uncured results (Table 6). 2–4%, but still unsuitable for sub-base material. Hence
The CBR values of 28 days cured samples almost it was decided to improve the CBR of fly ash and mine
doubled to that at soaked conditions i.e. with a range of overburden mixes using additive.

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Fig. 6 Comparison of CBR values of developed composites with Cetin et al. 2010

Table 8 UCS values of fly Composition UCS (MPa)

ash-mine overburden mixes
7 days cured 14 days cured 28 days cured

0% FA ? 100% O/B 0.34 0.36 0.39

60% FA ? 40% O/B 0.2 0.22 0.25
70% FA ? 30% O/B 0.22 0.24 0.27
80% FA ? 20% O/B 0.17 0.19 0.22
90% FA ? 10% O/B 0.15 0.17 0.2
100% FA ? 0% O/B 0.13 0.14 0.17

Generally additives like cement or lime enhance curing period and clinker percentage have strong
the strength of the soil or fly ash (Collins et al. 1986; effect on enhancement of the bearing capacity of
Ghosh and Dey 2009; Mackos et al. 2009). Clinker is developed composites. It confirms to the observation
an input material for cement preparation. Lime reported elsewhere for soil with class C fly ash
available commercially is relatively expensive. (Ismaiel 2006).
Hence it was decided to develop and evaluate the It is observed that the CBR values increased from
performance with clinker. CBR values were deter- 15.18 to 79.94% and 58.88 to 139.3% at 7 and 28 days
mined for fly ash-overburden material stabilized with of curing respectively as clinker percentage increased
clinker. Clinker was added between 2 and 8%. As from 2 to 8% for 70% FA ? 30% O/B. Thus, increase
clinker was added, each composite showed signifi- in curing period increased the CBR value. Hydration
cant enhancement in CBR values. In soaked condi- of clinker forms calcium silicate hydrate gel that
tion the composite with 88% fly ash exhibited CBR depends on the availability of free lime, the more the
value 8.44% with 2% clinker (Fig. 4a). However as lime the better the gel formation. Continuous increase
clinker percentage increased the composites with in the CBR values with increase in curing period was
higher fly ash content showed higher CBR values observed (Fig. 5). The fly ash mixed with 30% mine
(Fig. 4a, b, c). Thus confining that availability of overburden and 8% clinker shown highest CBR values
silica and alumina adds to strength gain over time. among all developed composites at 7 and 28 days
The composite with 80% fly ash produced 20, 32 and curing respectively. There is strong bond between the
45% CBR at 4, 6 and 8% clinker content respectively. fly ash and mine overburden particles by the cemen-
The maximum CBR value obtained was 139.3% for titious products and hence higher CBR in the
the composite 62% FA ? 30% O/B with 8% clinker composite. The value compares favourably with the
at 28 days curing (Fig. 4c). The results showed CBR result of the soil stabilized with fly ash (10 and

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Fig. 7 UCS values of fly ash-mine overburden-clinker mixes

20%) and Lime Kiln Dust (2.5 and 5%) to be 69 to of CaO. The URM was poorly graded sand with
142% at 7 days curing and greater than 164% at gravel. The specific gravity of URM and fly ash were
28 days curing (Cetin et al. 2010). 2.64 and 2.2 respectively and non-plastic in nature.
CBR Gain is the ratio of CBR value of clinker Unpaved road material mixed with fly ash (10–20%)
treated composite to untreated composite. The CBR and lime kiln dust (2.5–5%) obtained CBR value
gain values obtained were between 15.36 and 39.35 between 69 and 142% at 7 days curing and more than
for 28 days cured composites (Table 7). The compos- 164% at 28 days curing. The CBR value of 62% fly
ite with 62% fly ash and 8% clinker showed maximum ash with 30% overburden and 8% clinker was
gain. There exist optimum quantities of CaO, Al2O3 110% MPa at 7 days curing and increased to 140%
and SiO2 to react among themselves and exhibit at 28 days curing (Fig. 6a, b).
maximum strength value. More availability of those
does not add to strength gain (Sivapullaiah et al. 1995).
The obtained CBR values from present investiga- 3.4 Unconfined Compressive Strength
tion are comparable with that of the samples prepared
from Unpaved Road Material (URM), fly ash and lime The unconfined compression test is one of the widely
kiln dust (Cetin et al. 2010). The fly ash used had 0.7% used laboratory tests in pavement design and soil

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1640 Geotech Geol Eng (2017) 35:1629–1644

Fig. 8 Effect of curing

period on UCS

Fig. 9 Failure profiles of UCS samples

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Table 9 UCS gain of fly FA (%) O/B (%) CL (%) Curing period (days) UCS (MPa) UCS gain
ash-mine overburden-
clinker mixes 90 10 0 28 0.2 1
88 10 2 28 0.35 1.75
86 10 4 28 0.48 2.4
84 10 6 28 0.63 3.15
82 10 8 28 0.99 4.95
80 20 0 28 0.22 1
78 20 2 28 0.41 1.86
76 20 4 28 0.55 2.5
74 20 6 28 0.7 3.18
72 20 8 28 1.12 5.09
70 30 0 28 0.27 1
68 30 2 28 0.52 1.92
66 30 4 28 0.71 2.62
64 30 6 28 0.9 3.33
62 30 8 28 1.4 5.18
60 40 0 28 0.25 1
58 40 2 28 0.47 1.88
56 40 4 28 0.62 2.52
54 40 6 28 0.81 3.24
52 40 8 28 1.29 5.16

Fig. 10 Comparison of UCS values of developed composites with Tannant and Kumar 2000

stabilization applications. It is often used as an index The compressive strength values changed dramat-
to quantify the strength enhancement of materials due ically with addition of clinker. The composites
to treatment. The results of UCS tests for both achieved UCS value between 0.15 and 1.1 MPa which
untreated and treated composites are reported. The were significantly dependent on clinker content as
UCS values of untreated fly ash and overburden well as on curing period. The composite
composites immediately after preparation could not be 70%FA ? 30%O/B with 2–8% clinker shown highest
obtained as they failed immediately after loading. strength (0.32–1.09 MPa) as compared to other com-
Marginal increase in UCS values was observed at posites at 7 days curing (Fig. 7a). The composite 62%
different curing periods (Table 8). FA ? 30% O/B stabilized with 8% clinker achieved

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UCS value of 1.4 MPa at 28 days curing (Fig. 7c). It fly ash with 30% overburden and 8% clinker was
showed availability of additional clinker produced 1.09 MPa at 7 days curing and increased to 1.4 MPa at
enhanced bonding between reactive elements. Each 28 days curing (Fig. 10a, b).
composition exhibited higher strength values with an
increase in clinker content and curing period. These
values are far above the minimum values suggested for 4 Conclusions
sub-grade (Das 1994).
The composite containing 62% fly ash and 30% The investigation evaluated the geotechnical charac-
mine overburden with 8% clinker exhibited maximum teristics of twenty different composite materials with
compressive strength as compared to other composites fly ash as major percentages as a replacement of
at 7, 14, 28 days of curing (Fig. 7a, b, c). Continuous conventional material in the sub-base of surface coal
increase in the UCS values with increase in curing mine haul road. The following conclusions are drawn
period was observed (Fig. 8). Typically the stress from the investigation.
values at the base/sub-base layers of mine haul road
1. Addition of clinker enhanced California bearing
for 35–170 t dumpers are 300–650 kPa respectively
ratio and unconfined compressive strength values
(Tannant and Regensburg 2001). The strength
significantly.
achieved by almost all the mixes in this study is above
2. The curing period as well as the clinker percent-
these values after curing and hence suitable for mine
age has strong influence on the strength behaviour
haul road construction. All the samples in unconfined
of developed composites.
compressive loading conditions exhibited shear type
3. Fly ash mixed with 30% mine overburden and 8%
failure (Fig. 9). Except a few samples all samples
clinker produced highest compressive strength of
failed by shear which reflect the combined influence of
1.4 MPa, and CBR value of 140%.
sample and machine characteristics (Singh and Ghosh
4. The UCS and CBR values of the optimum
2006). Load bearing capacity and longitudinal dis-
composite exceed the minimum required values
placement recording were done till failure i.e. peak
for use in sub-base of haul road.
strength of all the samples.
5. The composite with 62% fly ash and 8% clinker
UCS Gain is the ratio of UCS value of clinker
content exhibits best result for haul road applica-
treated composite to untreated composite. The UCS
tion as a sub-base material.
gain values were between 1.75 and 5.18 for 28 days
6. The fly ash based composite materials would
cured composites (Table 9). There exist optimum
facilitate use of high percentage of fly ash in haul
quantities of CaO, Al2O3 and SiO2 to react among
road while improving the performance of haul
themselves and exhibit maximum UCS value. More
road for better mine economics.
availability of those does not add to strength gain
(Sivapullaiah et al. 1995).
The obtained UCS values from present investigation Acknowledgements The authors acknowledge the financial
assistance provided by the Council of scientific and Industrial
are comparable with that of the samples prepared from Research (CSIR)-New Delhi under EMR-II Scheme Vide letter
mine spoil or coal partings, fly ash and kiln dust No. 22/0474/09/EMR-II dated 12-02-2009.
(Tannant and Kumar 2000). The fly ash used contained
10% CaO. The coal seam partings used was dark grey
siltstone and the mine spoil was yellow to light brown
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