MAINTENANCE WORKS

Federal Republic of Nigeria

Federal Ministry of Works

Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance

Volume II:

Maintenance Works

2013
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

FOREWORD

The vision statement of the Federal Ministry of Works is to elevate Nigerian roads to a standard
where they become National economic and socio-political assets, contributing to the Nation‘s rapid
growth and development, and to make Federal roads functional, safe, pleasurable, and an avenue for
redeeming Nigerians‘ trust and confidence in Government. This vision statement is in tune with the
Transformation Agenda of the President of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, His Excellency, Dr
Goodluck Ebele Jonathan, GCFR. Based on the foregoing, our mission is to use the intellectual,
management and material resources available to the Ministry to make Nigerian roads functional all
the time. The principal goal of the Ministry is to drive the transformation agenda by improving road
transport infrastructure for the overall socio-economic derivable benefits and development of our great
country, Nigeria.

In exercising this mission and in discharging its responsibilities, the Ministry identified the need for
updated and locally relevant standards for the planning, design, construction, maintenance and
operation of our roads, in a sustainable manner. One of the main reference documents for this
purpose is the Highway Manual, which previously included Part 1: Design and Part 2: Maintenance.
Both current parts of the Highway Manual were first published in 1973 and 1980 respectively and
have been subjected to partial updating at various times since then. The passage of time,
development in technology, and a need to capture locally relevant experience and information, in the
context of global best practices, means that a comprehensive update is now warranted.

The purpose of the Highway Manual is to establish the policy of the Government of the Federal
Republic of Nigeria with regard to the development and operation of roads, at the Federal, State and
Local Government levels, respectively. In line with this objective, the Manual aims to guide members
of staff of the Ministry and engineering practitioners, with regard to standards and procedures that the
Government deem acceptable; to direct practitioners to other reference documents of established
practice where the scope of the Manual is exceeded; to provide a nationally recognized standard
reference document; and to provide a ready source of good practice for the development and
operation of roads in a cost effective and environmentally sustainable manner.

The major benefits to be gained in applying the content of the Highway Manual include harmonization
of professional practice and ensuring uniform application of appropriate levels of safety, health,
economy and sustainability, with due consideration to the objective conditions and needs of our
country.

The Manual has been expanded to include an overarching Code of Procedure and a series of
Volumes within each Part that cover the various aspects of development and operation of highways.
By their very nature, the Manual will require periodic updating from time to time, arising from the
dynamic nature of technological development and changes in the field of Highway Engineering.
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

The Ministry therefore welcomes comments and suggestions from concerned bodies, groups or
individuals, on all aspects of the document during the course of its implementation and use. All feed
back received will be carefully reviewed by professional experts with a view to possible incorporation
of amendments in future editions.

Arc. Mike Oziegbe Onolememen, FNIA, FNIM.

Honourable Minister

Federal Ministry of Works,

Abuja, Nigeria

May, 2013
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Highway Manual has been updated by the Road Sector Development Team (RSDT), of the
Federal Ministry of Works, with credit assistance from the World Bank‘s Federal Roads Development
Project (FRDP). This update draws upon the original Manual, which was compiled between 1973 and
1980. The new Manual reflects recent developments in Road Design and Maintenance, in addition to
latest research findings and updated references. Furthermore, it includes accepted practices that
have been developed with the extensive effort of numerous organisations and people involved in the
road sector. The assistance of all who have contributed is hereby gratefully acknowledged. Special
acknowledgement is due to the following persons, who have been particularly involved and provided
specific input that has been incorporated into the Manual:
Review Project Management Team:
Person Organisation
Engr. Ishaq D. Mohammed Director Highways/Unit Manager, RSDT
Engr. Chike Ngwuocha Highway Engineer, RSDT

Peer Review Group:

Person Organisation
Engr. B Giwa Independent Consultant
Prof. Y. A Jimoh University of Ilorin
Prof. K. J. Osinubi Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria
Prof. L. Oyebande University of Lagos
Dr. D. O. A. Osula University of Benin

Thanks are also due to the following organisations that made staff available for the Stakeholder
Workshop and other meetings, in addition to making direct contributions through comments and
advice:
Public Organisations Private Organisations
Federal Ministry of Works – Highway Departments AIM Consultants
Federal Ministry of Environment Aurecon Nigeria Ltd
Federal Roads Maintenance Agency (FERMA) Axion Consult Engineering Resources Ltd
Federal Capital Development Authority Ben Mose & Partners
Federal Road Safety Corps Dantata & Sawoe Construction (Nigeria) Ltd
Nigeria Meteorological Agency Enerco Ltd
Nigerian Geological Survey Agency Etteh Aro & Partners
Nigeria Police Force (Traffic Division) FA Consulting Services Ltd
Nigeria Hydrological Services Agency Intecon Partnership Ltd
Nigerian Meteorological Agency Julius Berger Nigeria Plc
Nigerian Society of Engineers Keeman Ltd
Nigerian Institute of Civil Engineers Multiple Development Services Ltd
Council for the Regulation of Engineering in Mansion Consulting Ltd
Nigeria
Property Mart Ltd
RCC Ltd
Sanol Engineering Consultants Ltd
Setraco Nigeria Ltd
Siraj International Ltd
Yolas Consultants Ltd

This update of the Highway Manual was compiled by the Road Sector Development Team of the
Federal Ministry of Works with the assistance of the consultants Royal HaskoningDHV.
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................................1-1

1.1 Purpose of the Manual ....................................................................................................................... 1-1

1.2 Structural Overview of the Highway Manual ..................................................................................... 1-1

1.3 General Lay-Out of the Manual .......................................................................................................... 1-3

1.4 Scope of this Volume .......................................................................................................................... 1-4

2 Highway Maintenance Methods ...........................................................................................................2-1

2.1 Highway Maintenance ....................................................................................................................... 2-1

2.1.1 Emergency Repairs ........................................................................................................................ 2-1

2.1.2 Routine/Preventive Maintenance.................................................................................................. 2-1

2.1.3 Periodic/Corrective Maintenance .................................................................................................. 2-2

2.1.4 Minor Improvements ..................................................................................................................... 2-2

2.2 Elements of the Highway Structure .................................................................................................... 2-3

2.3 Highway Maintenance Works by Maintenance Types ....................................................................... 2-3

3 Pavement Management Systems .........................................................................................................3-1

3.1 Pavement condition ........................................................................................................................... 3-1

3.2 Pavement Management System ........................................................................................................ 3-1

3.2.1 Network Level ................................................................................................................................ 3-2

3.2.2 Project Level .................................................................................................................................. 3-2

3.3 Functional Condition Analysis ............................................................................................................ 3-3

3.3.1 Pavement Roughness / Riding Quality ........................................................................................... 3-3

3.4 Visual Condition Analysis.................................................................................................................... 3-4

3.4.1 Pavement Distress Identification (Visual Assessment) .................................................................. 3-5

4 SAFETY IN HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE ...................................................................................................4-1

4.1 Safety of the Highway Users during Maintenance Operations .......................................................... 4-1

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4.1.1 Temporary Signs ............................................................................................................................ 4-2

4.1.2 Lamps ............................................................................................................................................. 4-6

4.1.3 Barriers .......................................................................................................................................... 4-7

4.1.4 Signals ............................................................................................................................................ 4-9

4.1.5 Diversions .................................................................................................................................... 4-10

4.1.6 Layout of Safety Design ............................................................................................................... 4-10

4.2 Safety of Highway Personnel during Maintenance Operations ....................................................... 4-14

4.2.1 Protection from Traffic ................................................................................................................ 4-15

4.2.2 Protection from Machines ........................................................................................................... 4-15

4.2.3 Protection from Tools .................................................................................................................. 4-16

4.2.4 Protection from Materials ........................................................................................................... 4-17

4.2.5 Protection from Personnel........................................................................................................... 4-18

4.3 Safety of Highway Maintenance Work............................................................................................. 4-19

4.3.1 Speed Humps ............................................................................................................................... 4-20

4.3.2 Intermediate Flagmen ................................................................................................................. 4-20

4.3.3 Pilot Vehicles ................................................................................................................................ 4-21

5 HIGHWAY MAINTENANCE CREWS ........................................................................................................5-1

5.1 Basic Parameters ................................................................................................................................ 5-1

5.1.1 Number of Crews per District ........................................................................................................ 5-1

5.1.2 Productivity .................................................................................................................................... 5-1

5.1.3 Equipment ..................................................................................................................................... 5-1

5.1.4 Basic Parameters of Maintenance Crew Duties, Staff and Equipment .......................................... 5-2

6 MAINTENANCE AND CONTROL SECTIONS .............................................................................................6-1

6.1 Maintenance Sections ........................................................................................................................ 6-1

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6.1.1 District Road Maps ......................................................................................................................... 6-1

6.1.2 Parameters..................................................................................................................................... 6-2

6.2 Control Sections.................................................................................................................................. 6-5

6.2.1 Cost Accounting ............................................................................................................................. 6-5

6.2.2 Definition ....................................................................................................................................... 6-6

6.2.3 Parameters..................................................................................................................................... 6-6

6.2.4 District Road Map .......................................................................................................................... 6-7

6.2.5 Analysis of Control Section Limits .................................................................................................. 6-7

6.2.6 Temporary Control Sections ........................................................................................................ 6-10

6.2.7 Special Control Sections ............................................................................................................... 6-10

6.2.8 Control Section Numbering ......................................................................................................... 6-11

6.2.9 Control Section Signposts ............................................................................................................ 6-12

7 ROUTINE MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS ................................................................................................7-1

7.1 Duties of Sections Overseers .............................................................................................................. 7-1

7.1.1 Daily Inspection ............................................................................................................................. 7-1

7.1.2 Allocation of Daily Task .................................................................................................................. 7-2

7.1.3 Reports........................................................................................................................................... 7-3

7.1.4 Requests ........................................................................................................................................ 7-3

7.2 Drainage ............................................................................................................................................. 7-5

7.2.1 Drain Cleaning ................................................................................................................................ 7-5

7.2.2 Culvert Cleaning ............................................................................................................................. 7-6

7.2.3 Bridge Waterway Clearing ............................................................................................................. 7-6

7.2.4 Erosion Control .............................................................................................................................. 7-7

7.3 Shoulders .......................................................................................................................................... 7-10

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7.3.1 Grass Cutting ................................................................................................................................ 7-10

7.3.2 Shoulder Repairs .......................................................................................................................... 7-11

7.3.3 Shoulder Clearing ......................................................................................................................... 7-12

7.4 Right Of Way / Road Reserve ........................................................................................................... 7-12

7.4.1 Bush Clearing ............................................................................................................................... 7-12

7.4.2 Tree Felling .................................................................................................................................. 7-12

7.4.3 Branch Lopping or Trimming ....................................................................................................... 7-12

7.5 Bituminous Pavements ..................................................................................................................... 7-13

7.5.1 Pothole Patching .......................................................................................................................... 7-13

7.5.2 Crack Sealing ................................................................................................................................ 7-17

7.6 Gravel Pavement .............................................................................................................................. 7-21

7.6.1 Gravel Pavement Defects............................................................................................................. 7-22

7.6.2 Blading ......................................................................................................................................... 7-31

7.6.3 Gravel Re-Grading ........................................................................................................................ 7-34

7.6.4 Gravel Redressing ........................................................................................................................ 7-38

7.7 Bases ................................................................................................................................................ 7-39

7.8 Drainage Structures ......................................................................................................................... 7-39

7.8.1 Minor Works ................................................................................................................................ 7-39

7.8.2 Touch Painting ............................................................................................................................. 7-40

7.8.3 Rip-Rap Repairs ............................................................................................................................ 7-40

7.9 Highway Furniture ............................................................................................................................ 7-41

7.9.1 Pavement Marking ....................................................................................................................... 7-41

7.9.2 Kilometre Posts ............................................................................................................................ 7-41

7.9.3 Road Sign Repair .......................................................................................................................... 7-41

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7.9.4 Temporary Hazard Signs .............................................................................................................. 7-41

8 PERIODIC MAINTENANCE OPERATIONS .............................................................................................. 8-47

8.1 Duties of Overseers .......................................................................................................................... 8-47

8.1.1 Inspections ................................................................................................................................... 8-47

8.1.2 Allocation of Daily Tasks .............................................................................................................. 8-48

8.1.3 Reports......................................................................................................................................... 8-48

8.1.4 Requests ...................................................................................................................................... 8-48

8.2 Drainage ........................................................................................................................................... 8-48

8.2.1 Drainage Systems......................................................................................................................... 8-49

8.2.2 Surface Water Drainage ............................................................................................................... 8-50

8.2.3 Ground Water Drainage............................................................................................................... 8-59

8.2.4 Transverse Drainage .................................................................................................................... 8-68

8.2.5 Mountain Road Maintenance ...................................................................................................... 8-71

8.2.6 Side Drain Lining .......................................................................................................................... 8-78

8.3 Shoulders .......................................................................................................................................... 8-86

8.3.1 Paved Hard Shoulders .................................................................................................................. 8-87

8.3.2 Unpaved Hard Shoulders ............................................................................................................. 8-87

8.3.3 Soft Shoulders .............................................................................................................................. 8-87

8.3.4 Cycle Tracks and Footpaths ......................................................................................................... 8-88

8.4 Right Of Way (ROW) ........................................................................................................................ 8-89

8.4.1 Periodic Clean-Up ........................................................................................................................ 8-89

8.4.2 Illegal Structures and Buildings .................................................................................................... 8-89

8.5 Bituminous Pavements ..................................................................................................................... 8-90

8.5.1 Prime Coat ................................................................................................................................... 8-90

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8.5.2 Single Surface Dressing ................................................................................................................ 8-99

8.5.3 Double Surface Dressing ............................................................................................................ 8-121

8.5.4 Penetration Macadam ............................................................................................................... 8-130

8.5.5 Bitumen Macadam..................................................................................................................... 8-140

8.5.6 Asphaltic Concrete ..................................................................................................................... 8-153

8.6 Gravel Pavements .......................................................................................................................... 8-193

8.6.1 Gravel Surfacing ......................................................................................................................... 8-193

8.6.2 Gravel Dressing .......................................................................................................................... 8-207

8.7 Bases .............................................................................................................................................. 8-217

8.7.1 Soil Aggregate (Laterite Gravel) ................................................................................................. 8-217

8.7.2 Dry Stone Base ........................................................................................................................... 8-232

8.7.3 Other Bases ................................................................................................................................ 8-250

8.8 Drainage Structure ......................................................................................................................... 8-250

8.8.1 Culverts, General ....................................................................................................................... 8-250

8.8.2 Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts ............................................................................................ 8-251

8.8.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe Culverts .................................................................................................. 8-274

8.8.4 Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts ............................................................................................. 8-288

8.8.5 Masonry Culverts ....................................................................................................................... 8-290

8.9 Bridges............................................................................................................................................ 8-298

8.9.1 Inspection Of Bridges ................................................................................................................. 8-299

8.9.2 Periodic Maintenance of Bridges ............................................................................................... 8-303

8.9.3 Bailey Bridges ............................................................................................................................. 8-304

8.10 Highway Furniture .......................................................................................................................... 8-305

8.10.1 Pavement Markings ............................................................................................................... 8-305

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8.10.2 Road Signs ............................................................................................................................. 8-306

8.10.3 Kilometre Posts ..................................................................................................................... 8-306

8.10.4 Guide Posts ............................................................................................................................ 8-307

8.10.5 Guard Rails ............................................................................................................................ 8-307

8.10.6 Lay-Byes ................................................................................................................................. 8-307

8.10.7 Street Lighting ....................................................................................................................... 8-307

8.10.8 Other Furniture ..................................................................................................................... 8-308

9 IMPROVEMENTS ..................................................................................................................................9-1

9.1 Geometric Improvements ................................................................................................................... 9-1

9.1.1 Sight Lines (Site Distance) .............................................................................................................. 9-1

9.1.2 Pavement Widening....................................................................................................................... 9-3

9.2 Structural Improvements.................................................................................................................... 9-3

9.2.1 Pavement Strengthening ............................................................................................................... 9-3

9.2.2 New Culverts .................................................................................................................................. 9-4

9.3 Ancillary Improvements ..................................................................................................................... 9-5

9.3.1 Drain Lining .................................................................................................................................... 9-5

9.3.2 Erosion Control Structures ............................................................................................................. 9-6

9.3.3 Lay-Byes ......................................................................................................................................... 9-6

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Arrangement of Volumes ...................................................................................................... 1-2

Figure 2: 'Road Works Ahead' Signage ............................................................................................... 4-2
Figure 3: Distance to 'Road Works Ahead' .......................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4: Loose Chippings ................................................................................................................... 4-3
Figure 5: Slippery Surface.................................................................................................................... 4-4
Figure 6: Diversion ............................................................................................................................... 4-5

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Figure 7: End of Construction .............................................................................................................. 4-5

Figure 8: Barriers ................................................................................................................................. 4-7
Figure 9: Drum ..................................................................................................................................... 4-8
Figure 10: Stop and Go Signs .............................................................................................................. 4-9
Figure 11: Single Lane Obstruction (Major) ....................................................................................... 4-11
Figure 12: Single Lane Obstruction (Minor) ....................................................................................... 4-12
Figure 13: Layout for Diversions ........................................................................................................ 4-13
Figure 14: Peripheral Works .............................................................................................................. 4-14
Figure 15: District Road Map ............................................................................................................. 6-13
Figure 16: Layout and Dimensions of Control Section Signposts...................................................... 6-14
Figure 17: Silting of Side Drains .......................................................................................................... 7-5
Figure 18: Erosion of Waterway at Structures ..................................................................................... 7-9
Figure 19: Erosion Repairs .................................................................................................................. 7-9
Figure 20: Pothole Developing ........................................................................................................... 7-13
Figure 21: Repair to Pothole – Excavation ........................................................................................ 7-15
Figure 22: Excavated Pothole Ready for Filling ................................................................................. 7-16
Figure 23: Alligator / Crocodile Cracking ........................................................................................... 7-18
Figure 24: Shrinkage or Stabilisation Cracks ..................................................................................... 7-20
Figure 25: Severe Surface Cracking .................................................................................................. 7-20
Figure 26: Slippage Cracks ................................................................................................................ 7-21
Figure 27: Potholing of Gravel Roads ................................................................................................ 7-22
Figure 28: Rutting of Gravel Roads ................................................................................................... 7-25
Figure 29: Corrugation of Gravel Surface .......................................................................................... 7-27
Figure 30: Dust Problems .................................................................................................................. 7-29
Figure 31: Rutting Requiring Blading ................................................................................................. 7-32
Figure 32: First Pass of Blading ......................................................................................................... 7-33
Figure 33: Completed Blading ........................................................................................................... 7-33
Figure 34: Grading of Gravel Roads .................................................................................................. 7-37
Figure 35: Format of Weekly Report .................................................................................................. 7-43
Figure 36: Format of Request for Assistance .................................................................................... 7-44
Figure 37: Gravel Roads Assessment Form ...................................................................................... 7-45
Figure 38: Surface Water Run-Off ..................................................................................................... 8-51
Figure 39: Desirable Level of Water Table ........................................................................................ 8-51
Figure 40: Side Drain Dimensions ..................................................................................................... 8-52
Figure 41: Side Drain Construction .................................................................................................... 8-53
Figure 42: Shape of Side Drains ........................................................................................................ 8-54
Figure 43: Cut-Off Drains ................................................................................................................... 8-55
Figure 44: Scouring at Outfall ............................................................................................................ 8-57
Figure 45: Protection of Outfall .......................................................................................................... 8-58

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Figure 46: Cascade Drainage ............................................................................................................ 8-59

Figure 47: Lowering of Water Table with Construction of Sub-Soil Drains ........................................ 8-60
Figure 48: Sub-Soil Drain Overlying Impervious Strata ..................................................................... 8-61
Figure 49: Basic Principles of a Sub-Soil Drain ................................................................................. 8-62
Figure 50: Typical New Construction Sand Blanket .......................................................................... 8-65
Figure 51: Sand Blanket in Existing Pavement .................................................................................. 8-66
Figure 52: Transverse Drainage Culvert ............................................................................................ 8-69
Figure 53: Side Drain in Irrigation Zone; Incorrect Application .......................................................... 8-70
Figure 54: Side Drain in Irrigation Zone: Correct Application ............................................................ 8-70
Figure 55: Diagram of a Mountain Pass Showing Basic Drainage .................................................... 8-72
Figure 56: Spur Curves in Mountain Pass ......................................................................................... 8-73
Figure 57: Re-Entrant Curves in Mountain Pass ............................................................................... 8-73
Figure 58: Transition Section in Mountain Pass ................................................................................ 8-74
Figure 59: Lateral Interception Drain ................................................................................................. 8-75
Figure 60: Velocity Control ................................................................................................................. 8-76
Figure 61: Outfall Drain ...................................................................................................................... 8-77
Figure 62: Concrete Lined Side Drain ................................................................................................ 8-86
Figure 63: Surface Dressing Chart .................................................................................................. 8-107
Figure 64: Fuller Curves for Various Aggregate Sizes .................................................................... 8-157
Figure 65: Typical Grading Envelope ............................................................................................... 8-159
Figure 66: Blending Aggregates ...................................................................................................... 8-161
Figure 67: Batch-Mix Plant ............................................................................................................... 8-172
Figure 68: Asphalt Paver .................................................................................................................. 8-174
Figure 69: Asphalt Paver Floating Screed Unit ................................................................................ 8-175
Figure 70: Rolling Configuration of Asphalt Paving ......................................................................... 8-176
Figure 71: Overlap of Adjoining Lane .............................................................................................. 8-182
Figure 72: Overlap Crowned Back Ready for Rolling ...................................................................... 8-182
Figure 73: Joint Overlapping to Prevent Reflective Cracking .......................................................... 8-183
Figure 74: Rolling of Transverse Construction Joint ........................................................................ 8-185
Figure 75: Forces Acting Tiller Wheel or Drive Wheel is Forward ................................................... 8-187
Figure 76: Building up Super- Elevated Curves with Asphalt Mix.................................................... 8-188
Figure 77: Performance of Gravel Wearing Course ........................................................................ 8-196
Figure 78: Expected Loss of Gravel ................................................................................................. 8-198
Figure 79: Gravel Surfacing – Annual Grader Hours ....................................................................... 8-199
Figure 80: Gravel Surfacing – Change in Grading ........................................................................... 8-210
Figure 81: Rothfuch Diagram ........................................................................................................... 8-211
Figure 82: Fuller Curve of Soil Aggregate Base .............................................................................. 8-220
Figure 83: Rothfuch Blending of Aggregates ................................................................................... 8-224
Figure 84: Grading of Blended Gravel ............................................................................................. 8-226

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Figure 85: Aggregate Mixer.............................................................................................................. 8-242

Figure 86: Butt Joint ......................................................................................................................... 8-252
Figure 87: Ogee Joint ....................................................................................................................... 8-252
Figure 88: Replacement of Culvert to Prevent Soil Erosion ............................................................ 8-257
Figure 89: Single Pipe Recommended Excavation Widths ............................................................. 8-267
Figure 90: Multiple Pipe Recommended Excavation Widths ........................................................... 8-268
Figure 91: Simple Rip-Rap Headwall ............................................................................................... 8-271
Figure 92: Concrete Headwall and Rip-Rap Embankment Protection ............................................ 8-272
Figure 93: End Structure for Larger Flows ....................................................................................... 8-272
Figure 94: Plan View of End Structure ............................................................................................. 8-273
Figure 95: Cross Section of End Structure ...................................................................................... 8-273
Figure 96: Corrugated Steel Pipe Culvert ........................................................................................ 8-276
Figure 97: Stitches and Hook and Eye Bolts ................................................................................... 8-277
Figure 98: Pipe-Arch Excavation ..................................................................................................... 8-284
Figure 99: Backfill for Corrugated Steel Pipe Culverts .................................................................... 8-285
Figure 100: Assembly of Corrugated Steel Pipe .............................................................................. 8-286
Figure 101: Masonry Culvert ............................................................................................................ 8-290
Figure 102: Type 1 – Deck Slab Details .......................................................................................... 8-292
Figure 103: Type 2 – Deck Slab Details .......................................................................................... 8-293
Figure 104: Type 3 – Deck Slab Details .......................................................................................... 8-293
Figure 105: Type 4 – Deck Slab Details .......................................................................................... 8-294
Figure 106: Bridge Inspection Record ............................................................................................. 8-309
Figure 107: Bridge Inspection Report .............................................................................................. 8-310
Figure 108: Asphalt Properties Plotted against Binder Content ...................................................... 8-311
Figure 109: Side Drain Capacity Chart ............................................................................................ 8-312

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Highway Maintenance Activities by Maintenance Types ....................................................... 2-4

Table 2: Typical Surface Rating for Paved Road ................................................................................. 3-4
Table 3: Pavement VCI Rating for Paved Road .................................................................................. 3-5
Table 4: General Description of Degree Classification ........................................................................ 3-6
Table 5: General Description of Extent Classification .......................................................................... 3-7
Table 6: Flexible Pavement Maintenance Treatments: ....................................................................... 3-7
Table 7: Pavement Defects, Causes and Maintenance Methods ...................................................... 3-10
Table 8: ―A‖ – Section Crew ................................................................................................................. 5-2
Table 9: ―B‖ - Patching Crew ................................................................................................................ 5-3
Table 10: ―C‖ - Grading Crew ............................................................................................................... 5-3
Table 11: ―D‖ - Bridge Crew ................................................................................................................. 5-4
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Table 12: ―E‖ - Surface Dressing Crew ................................................................................................ 5-5

Table 13: ―F‖ - Gravel Surfacing Crew ................................................................................................. 5-6
Table 14: ―G‖ - Painting Crew .............................................................................................................. 5-7
Table 15: ―H1‖ - Material Production (Gravel) Crew ............................................................................ 5-8
Table 16: ―H2‖ - Material Production (Stone) Crew ............................................................................. 5-8
Table 17: ―H3‖ - Material Production (Premix) Crew ............................................................................ 5-9
Table 18: ―I‖ - Paving Crew .................................................................................................................. 5-9
Table 19: ―J‖ - Survey Crew ............................................................................................................... 5-10
Table 20: Schedule of Control Sections and their Parameters .......................................................... 6-11
Table 21: Side Drain Spacing ............................................................................................................ 8-53
Table 22: Maximum Permissible Velocities ....................................................................................... 8-81
Table 23: Velocity Calculations .......................................................................................................... 8-83
Table 24: Approximate Application Rates .......................................................................................... 8-93
Table 25: Relationship between Traffic and Size of Chippings ....................................................... 8-102
Table 26: Rate of Application of Chippings ...................................................................................... 8-103
Table 27: Traffic Factors .................................................................................................................. 8-104
Table 28: Surface Factors ................................................................................................................ 8-105
Table 29: Aggregate Quality Factors ............................................................................................... 8-105
Table 30: Climatic Factors ............................................................................................................... 8-106
Table 31: Example of Average Particle Size Calculation ................................................................. 8-108
Table 32: Bitumen Spraying Temperatures ..................................................................................... 8-111
Table 33: Rate of Application of Double Dressing Chippings .......................................................... 8-124
Table 34: Binder Application Rates – First Course .......................................................................... 8-126
Table 35: Binder Application Rates – Second Course ..................................................................... 8-129
Table 36: Aggregate Size and Course Thickness ........................................................................... 8-133
Table 37: Coarse Aggregate Application Rate................................................................................. 8-134
Table 38: Penetration Binder Application Rates .............................................................................. 8-135
Table 39: Comparison of Different Asphalts .................................................................................... 8-140
Table 40: Base Course Grading ...................................................................................................... 8-144
Table 41: Binder Course Grading .................................................................................................... 8-145
Table 42: Wearing Course Grading ................................................................................................. 8-146
Table 43: Dense Wearing Course Grading ...................................................................................... 8-147
Table 44: Cycle Track and Footpath Grading .................................................................................. 8-148
Table 45: Comparison of Different Asphalts .................................................................................... 8-153
Table 46: Aggregate Grading ........................................................................................................... 8-158
Table 47: Grading of Aggregates to be blended .............................................................................. 8-160
Table 48: Example of Simplified Grading ......................................................................................... 8-160
Table 49: Blending of Aggregates A, B & C ..................................................................................... 8-162
Table 50: Asphalt Concrete Mix Requirements ............................................................................... 8-168

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Table 51: Recommended Gravel Material Specifications ................................................................ 8-195

Table 52: Practical Limits to Gravel Surfacing ................................................................................. 8-200
Table 53: Typical Grading ................................................................................................................ 8-210
Table 54: Grading of Blended Gravel .............................................................................................. 8-212
Table 55: Grading Tolerances ......................................................................................................... 8-219
Table 56: Base and Sub-Base Gradings ......................................................................................... 8-221
Table 57: Multi Purpose Base Grading ............................................................................................ 8-222
Table 58: Gradings for Blending ...................................................................................................... 8-223
Table 59: Combined Grading of Blended Mix .................................................................................. 8-225
Table 60: Material Grading............................................................................................................... 8-238
Table 61: Material Grading for 75mm Aggregates ........................................................................... 8-239
Table 62: Material Grading for 60mm Aggregates ........................................................................... 8-239
Table 63: Material Grading for 50mm Aggregates ........................................................................... 8-240
Table 64: Material Grading for 40mm Aggregates ........................................................................... 8-240
Table 65: Material Grading for 9mm Fine Fraction .......................................................................... 8-241
Table 66: Pipe Culvert Size and Capacities ..................................................................................... 8-255
Table 67: 0.60 Metre Diameter Pipe ................................................................................................ 8-260
Table 68: 0.75 Metre Diameter Pipe ................................................................................................ 8-261
Table 69: 0.90 Metre Diameter Pipe ................................................................................................ 8-261
Table 70: 1.05 Metre Diameter Pipe ................................................................................................ 8-262
Table 71: 1.20 Metre Diameter Pipe ................................................................................................ 8-263
Table 72: Specifications of Corrugated Steel Pipe Culverts ............................................................ 8-275
Table 73: Pipe Size and Capacity .................................................................................................... 8-279
Table 74: Pipe Arch Sizes per Capacity .......................................................................................... 8-280
Table 75: Drainage Area Capacity ................................................................................................... 8-281
Table 76: Drainage Area Capacity for Pipe-Arches ......................................................................... 8-281
Table 77: Depth of Fill for Corrugated Steel Round Pipes ............................................................... 8-282
Table 78: Depth of Fill for Corrugated Steel Pipe-Arches ................................................................ 8-283
Table 79: Deck Slab Alternatives ..................................................................................................... 8-291
Table 80: Culvert Capacity ............................................................................................................... 8-296

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

1 Introduction

1.1 Purpose of the Manual

In an approach to prolong the lifespan of all roads within the nation and to provide and
maintain an acceptable road network standard, which would positively affect travel time and
vehicle operating costs, it is imperative that correct and appropriate maintenance
procedures be adopted.

The aim of this Manual is therefore to help the maintenance personnel in making sound
decisions in the application of acceptable maintenance methods for the maintenance of the
over 34,000 kilometres of road network within the Nation. The Manual provides an easy
procedural reference book on all aspects of work required in the maintenance and repair of
the nation‘s roads, be it either by own labour or by contractors.

In addition to maintenance methods and procedures, the Manual also covers the issues

 Pavement distress identification

 Pavement management information

 Road user and worker safety procedures

1.2 Structural Overview of the Highway Manual

The Highway Manual consists of two (2) parts, namely

 Highway Manual Part 1: Design;

 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance,

Both parts are subdivided into volumes as per Figure 1: Arrangements of Volumes.

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Code of Procedure

Part 1: Design Part 2: Maintenance

Volume I Volume I
Geometric Design Highway Inventory

Volume II Volume II
Secondary Design Elements Maintenance Works

Volume III Volume III

Pavement and Materials Design Maintenance Costing

Volume IV
Drainage Design

Volume V
Structural Design

Volume VI
Road Traffic Signs and Road Markings

Volume VII
Environmental and Social Management

Figure 1: Arrangement of Volumes

Part 1- Design comprises seven volumes:

 Volume I - Geometric Design

 Volume II Secondary Design Element

 Volume III Pavement and Material Design

 Volume IV Drainage Design

 Volume V- Structural Design

 Volume VI Road Traffic Sings and Road Markings

 Volume VII Environmental Management

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Part 2- Maintenance comprises three volumes:

 Volume I Highway Register

 Volume II Maintenance Works (This Volume)

 Volume III Cost Accounting for Highway Maintenance

1.3 General Lay-Out of the Manual

a. Volumes

Each volume has been designed as a self-contained independent unit which can be
read without cross references to any of the other volumes.

b. Chapters and sub - chapters

As far as possible, each chapter within the individual volumes has been designed to
contain information relevant to the subject matter in that chapter only and, with limited
cross references to other chapters within the volume.

Furthermore, each chapter is divided into sub-chapters where, as far as possible, each
sub-chapter contains instructions on procedures and methods for an individual type of
operation or subject only.

c. Amendments

Although the working procedures and methods outlined within each chapter and sub-
chapter are by experience found to be the most suitable for use in Nigeria at the time of
compilation of the Manual, development in specifications, methods and procedures
over time may necessitate improvements and changes to the methods and procedures
within the chapters and sub-chapters. To facilitate these changes amendments to the
original are issued from time to time.

To facilitate such amendments or additions, the volumes have spring-clip binding covers
for easy insertion of any amendments into the Manual. In addition each page within the
individual volume is marked at the bottom with the manual number, volume number
a n d date of issue of the page (Highway Manual – Part 2 Volume 2, November 2012).

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Thus, amendments marked with a later date than the original page can be easily
identified. Amended pages are distributed to all registered holders of the Manual as
and when they are made. Periodically a complete list of amendments and additions are
issued so that all registered holders of the Manual can insure to have up-to-date copies
of the volumes.

1.4 Scope of this Volume

This volume is an upgrade and revision of earlier editions of the Manual and encapsulates
improvements to specifications, methodologies and maintenance strategies utilised in the
maintenance of the road network within Nigeria.

Although this volume provides guidelines and standards for compliance it is not intended as
substitute for sound engineering judgment and should be supplemented by other relevant
manuals and books where inadequate information are not supplied. Such information and
the use of such codes need to be confirmed by the Department of Federal Ministry of Works,
Housing and Urban Development.

1.5 The International Road Maintenance Manual (PIARC)

The Handbook is aimed at those responsible for the maintenance of bituminous or

unpaved roads in tropical or moderate climates. It is in four volumes: I, Maintenance
of roadside areas and drainage; II, Maintenance of unpaved roads; III, Maintenance
of paved roads; and IV, Maintenance of structures and traffic control devices.
Volume I also contains a list of terms and a general index for all volumes. General
methods are proposed for each activity (with some exceptions) under the headings:
The task; Effects; Resources; and Maintenance method. Where appropriate, options
are considered for carrying out the work by heavy equipment, tractor based
methods or labour based methods. Operations are grouped into routine or periodic.
Routine operations are normally small scale or simple and are carried out once or
more per year. Periodic operations are normally large scale, requiring specialist
skills and resources, and are carried out after a number of years. Emergency work
is dealt with as the need arises.

This handbook is a valuable supplement to this Highway Manual Part 2: Volume II –

Maintenance. It is published by Crowthorne Transport Research Laboratory, 1994.

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

2 Highway Maintenance Methods

2.1 Highway Maintenance

Highway maintenance is defined in Nigeria as the preservation of a road in a safe and

satisfactory condition for conveyance of traffic at all times. Thus growing traffic demand
must be met by growing standards. There are four (4) main types of maintenance activities,
namely

 Emergency Repairs

 Routine/Preventive Maintenance

 Periodic/Corrective Maintenance

 Minor Improvement

2.1.1 Emergency Repairs

These are works carried out to repair sudden failures of the road and or structures on the
road. These range from the repair of failures affecting traffic flow such as wash-off sections
of road or structure, subsidence and slope failures.

2.1.2 Routine/Preventive Maintenance

Routine maintenance may be defined as those treatments that are applied to a pavement in
order to keep the pavement functioning properly. As such, routine maintenance is
sometimes referred to as ―reactive maintenance.‖ This suggests that it is work that is
performed as a reaction to a specific distress. Routine maintenance is performed on
pavements as they begin to show signs of deterioration. Filling a pothole is an example of a
routine maintenance activity. It cannot be scheduled before the pothole appears and it
should not be left unattended once the pothole has developed.

Routine maintenance should be planned and scheduled. The intent is to repair early
pavement deterioration, delay failures and reduce the need for corrective or emergency
treatments. Although routine maintenance does not include activities that are

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

intended to increase the structural or load carrying ability of a pavement, it does extend the
useful life and level of service (e.g. ride). Performing routine maintenance activities on
pavements in good condition will be very effective in extending the life. The effectiveness of
the treatment is directly related to the condition of the pavement.

Preventive maintenance applies to lower-cost treatments to retard a pavement‘s

deterioration, maintain or improve the functional condition and extend the pavement's
service life. With various short-term treatments preventive maintenance can extend
pavement life an average of 5 to 10 years. Applied to the right road at the right time when
the pavements are mostly in good condition preventive maintenance can improve the
network condition significantly at a lower unit cost and also assists the Highways
Department in the budgetary process and optimization of available funds. An effective
preventive maintenance program depends on adequate funding.

For the Department to have an effective preventive maintenance program all personnel
associated with the care and maintenance of our highways need to understand the basis
and benefits of such a program and then be able to educate the public.

2.1.3 Periodic/Corrective Maintenance

Periodic maintenance includes activities undertaken at intervals of several years to preserve

the structural integrity of the road or to enable the road to carry increased axle loadings.
Periodic maintenance is carried out at regular, but relatively long, intervals. As such, they
can be budgeted for on a regular basis and can be included in the recurrent budget.

The differences between routine and periodic maintenance occur in the timing and cost.
Periodic maintenance is the scheduled and pre-planned maintenance or upgrading of a road
surface or pavement structure. A well maintained and implemented routine and preventative
maintenance program has a direct influence on the periodic maintenance requirements.

2.1.4 Minor Improvements

Minor improvements are normally defined as improvements, which can be done within the
financial capacity of the funds allocated in the budget for highway maintenance such
as small improvements to the geometry, replacement or strengthening of small sections of
weak pavements or additional overlays of limited thicknesses to existing weak pavement
sections.

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Improvements such as replacement or strengthening of entire lengths of roads; large

realignments or upgrading that are beyond the financial capacity and scope of highway
maintenance are major works, which will normally be handled by the Design and
Construction Division of the ministry and financed from the capital budget. However, if within
the capability of the maintenance organization, they could be carried out and financed from
supplementary funds allocated for ―Improved Maintenance‖.

2.2 Elements of the Highway Structure

Highway maintenance works can be logically divided into ten basic elements, where each
will contain a number of functions of both routine and periodic maintenance work. These
basic elements are

 Administration

 Drainage

 Shoulders

 Right of way / Road reserve

 Bituminous pavements

 Gravel pavements

 Bases

 Drainage structures

 Highway furniture

 Services and miscellaneous

2.3 Highway Maintenance Works by Maintenance Types

The following lists of works are not exhaustive but contain the basic maintenance
functions, which will require inspection, planning, estimating, budgeting, execution and
reporting to be done on a regular cycle of operations and will include the training and use
and allocation of all staff and should be read in conjunction with Section 3 of the FERMA
Operations Manual:
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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Table 1: Highway Maintenance Activities by Maintenance Types

Administration

Routine and periodic maintenance

Budget allocation

Procurement of materials, plant and equipment

Prioritizing of work

Allocation of teams to carry out work

Daily reporting on work completed

Cost analysis

2. Drainage

Routine Periodic

Drain cleaning Cutting new drains

Culvert cleaning Culvert repair and relaying

Repair outlet and inlet channels and

Bridge waterway clearing
structures

Erosion control

3. Shoulders

Routine Periodic

New grass (including seeding dibbling,

Grass cutting
turf/sodding , top soiling, etc)

Shoulder cleaning (including light

Build-up and widening
grading and filling)

Surface dressing of hard shoulders

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

4. Right of way / road reserve

Routine Periodic

Bush clearing Right of way markers (including surveying)

Tree felling Earthwork

Branch trimming

5. Bituminous pavements

Routine Periodic

Pothole patching (including edge

Prime (Fog spray) and Seal
breaks)

Crack sealing (overpainting, etc.) Single surface dressing (single seal)

Removing sand / silt deposits on

Double surface dressing (double seal)
roadway

Bitumen macadam

Asphaltic concrete

6. Gravel Pavements

Routine Periodic

Pothole patching Gravel surfacing

Regrading and shaping

(including watering and
rolling)

Redressing or re-gravelling
(replacement of missing
material)

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

7. Bases

Periodic

(Please note: If the repair or maintenance of the base is required, the

appropriate re-surfacing will also have to be programmed and carried out).

Lateritic natural gravel base

Cement stabilized base

Bitumen stabilized base

Dry stone base

Concrete

Water bound macadam base

8. Drainage structures

Routine Periodic

Minor repairs Painting steel and timber

Touch painting New culvert

Riprap repairs Replacing timber decks

Major repairs

9. Highway furniture

Routine Periodic

Touch-up pavement Marking New kilometre posts, etc.

Kilometre posts (painting and

New road signs
replacement)

Road sign repair (painting and

Lay-bye construction
replacement)

Re-marking and striping

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

10. Services and miscellaneous

Routine and / or periodic

Periodic

Ferry operation

Lighting operation

Escorts and guards

Research and survey

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3 Pavement Management Systems

3.1 Pavement condition

The condition of the pavement is considered from two points of view, namely that of the road
user and that of the road engineer. Since the road user regards the road as a service, the
condition of the pavement is appraised in terms of those characteristics that affect quality of
travel, notably comfort, safety and operating costs. The engineer, on the other hand,
recognises these functional requirements but also views the pavement as a load bearing
structure to be maintained in good time if it is to remain serviceable at optimum cost.

The assessment of the condition of the pavement is therefore based on functional

descriptions and descriptions related to the condition of the pavement surfacing and
pavement structure.

3.2 Pavement Management System

A Pavement Management System (PMS) is a tool to efficiently manage the continuous

evaluation of the existing road network by evaluating the pavement condition of a road
where the present serviceability of a road or road section, the cause and rate of pavement
deterioration, the pavement loading rate, prediction of optimal time for intervention and the
evaluation of the most economic rehabilitation strategy can be determined.

There are two levels of road management:

 Network level

 Project or maintenance level.

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

3.2.1 Network Level

Pavement management at network level deals with the summary of information related to
the entire or a large portion of the network. As such it involves policy and programming
decisions.

Examples of network level pavement management is the use of the PMS information to:

 Identify and prioritise projects;

 Establish rehabilitation programmes

 Estimate overall short- and long-term needs

 Establish budgetary requirements for major and maintenance works

3.2.2 Project Level

Pavement management at project level deals with detailed and technical information related
to a specific road section or sections.

Examples of project level pavement management, as related to specific road sections,

include the following:

 Details of the road pavement structure

 Condition of the road section

 Determine repair or maintenance requirements for the specific road section or

sections

 Cost estimates and planning

 Feedback and the documenting of actions taken

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Additional information to be collected and documented to form part of the PMS data base,
includes the following:

 Geometric data of the pavement such as length, width, etc.

 Pavement structures and layer thickness

 Present Serviceability Index (PSI) of the pavement

 International Roughness Index (IRI) of the pavement

 Road skid resistance

 Accident records

 Maintenance and construction data

 Weather data, etc.

3.3 Functional Condition Analysis

The functional requirements of a pavement are the required standards of those properties of
the pavement that affect the service it provides to the road user. They are predominantly
those that govern his comfort, safety and speed of travel.

Three of the most important features are:

 Pavement roughness / riding quality

 Skid resistance

 Surface drainage. (Assessed through visual assessments)

3.3.1 Pavement Roughness / Riding Quality

Riding quality is used in the PMS as one index of the functional condition of a section or
sections of road pavement. Riding quality can be combined as part of a visual function index
or used separately as a trigger value or flag for maintenance and rehabilitation action.

The most widely used method of roughness measurement is the International Roughness
Index (IRI). The IRI is defined by the average rectified slope (ratio of accumulated
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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

suspension motion to the distance travelled) of a standard ‗quarter-car‘ (one wheel)

simulation for a travelling speed of 80km/h. Modern technology has developed to the extent
where vertical sensors placed at strategic positions (wheel path) on a bar mounted at the
front of a vehicle, which measure the undulation or unevenness of a road in mm/m or m/km.

Measurements of the roughness or ride quality are taken on a yearly basis and are
measured in millimetre per metre (mm/m).

Typical surface ratings are as shown below:

Table 2: Typical Surface Rating for Paved Road

S/N RATING REMARKS

1 0 –2 Smooth

2 2 –3 Rough

3 >3 Very Rough

3.4 Visual Condition Analysis

The Visual Condition Analysis (VCI) is performed on pavement distress data collected
through visual assessments of the pavement surface.

The method of analysis combines the visual pavement condition data for individual distress
types into an index representing the general pavement condition. The index is only a
representation of the ‗as-is‘ condition of the pavement, irrespective of the importance of the
road and does not take traffic or functional classification of the road or road section into
account.

The reporting of the condition of roads or road sections within the paved road network is
shown in Table 3:

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Table 3: Pavement VCI Rating for Paved Road

S/N RATING REMARKS INDICATION

Many years of service. No maintenance

1 85 – 100 Very Good
required.

Good Many years of service. Minor maintenance

2 70 - 85
required.

3 50 - 70 Fair Some maintenance required

4 30 - 50 Poor Extensive maintenance and repairs required

5 0 - 30 Very Poor Major rehabilitation or reconstruction required

3.4.1 Pavement Distress Identification (Visual Assessment)

Visible distress is an important input in the assessment of the condition of a pavement

structure. Distress is described by recording its main characteristics, the so-called attributes
of distress, which are namely the type, degree and extent of occurrence. Effective road
maintenance requires an understanding of the types of distress found on a highway.

a. Degree:

The degree of a particular type of distress is a measure of its severity. Since the degree
of distress can vary over the pavement section, the degree to be recorded should, in
connection with the extent of occurrence, give the best average assessment of the
seriousness of a particular type of distress. The degree is indicated by a number where
Degree 1 indicates the first evidence of a particular type of distress ("slight"), Degree 3
indicates a warning (requires attention) degree and Degree 5 indicates the worst degree
("severe"). The general descriptions of degree of each type of distress are presented in
Table 4. These descriptions relate to the possible consequences of each type of distress
and also to the urgency of maintenance or rehabilitation. Degree 1 generally indicates
that no attention is required; Degree 3 indicates that maintenance/rehabilitation is
required in the near future, whereas Degree 5 indicates that immediate
maintenance/rehabilitation is required.

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Table 4: General Description of Degree Classification

Degree Severity Description

0 - No distress visible

Distress difficult to discern. Only

1 Slight the first signs of distress are
visible.

Between slight
2
and warning

Distress is distinct. Start of

secondary defects. (Distress
notable with respect to possible
3 Warning
consequences. Maintenance may
be required in near future, e.g.
cracks can be sealed.)

Between warning
4
and severe

Distress is extreme. Secondary

defects are well developed (high
degree of secondary defects)
5 Severe
and/or extreme severity of
primary defect (Urgent attention
required).

b. Extent:

The extent of distress is a measure of how widespread the distress is over the length of
the road segment. The extent is indicated by a number where Extent 1 indicates an
isolated occurrence (―seldom‖); Extent 3 indicates intermittent (scattered) occurrence
over most of the length of road and Extent 5 indicates the extensive occurrence of a
particular type of distress. The general description of the extent classifications is given in
Table 5

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Table 5: General Description of Extent Classification

Extent Description

Isolated occurrence, not representative of the

1
segment length being evaluated. (seldom)

Intermittent (scattered) occurrence, over parts of the

2
segment length (more than isolated).

Intermittent (scattered) occurrence, over most of the

3 segment length (general0, or extensive occurrence
over a limited portion of the segment length.

More frequent occurrence, over a major portion of

4
the segment length.

5 Extensive occurrence.

The selection of appropriate maintenance strategy will be influenced by the type, severity
and extent of the pavement distresses and the structural and roughness condition of the
pavement.

Table 6 below gives an indication of possible maintenance measures required for flexible
pavements under various distress conditions:

Table 6: Flexible Pavement Maintenance Treatments:

Frequency of Distress

Flexible Pavement
Low Moderate High
Distresses

2 3,6 6,5 15,13

Alligator Cracking

Edge Cracking 2 2,13 13

Longitudinal Cracking 2,6 2,6 6,2,13

Random/Block Cracking 2,3 2,6 12,6,14

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 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

Transverse Cracking 2 2,6 2,6,13

Ravelling/Weathering 3,6,5 6,7 6,12,11

Distortion 13,8 8,13,6,2 8,14,13

Rutting 1 8+6 8,14,12

Bleeding 1,6 6,8 8 + 6 or 12

c. Recommended Pavement Treatments:

 Do nothing

 Crack fill/ seal

 Fog seal

 Scrub seal (broom seal)

 Slurry seal

 Chip seal/armour coat

 Micro surfacing

 Mill and replace

 Cold-in-place recycle

 Hot-in-place recycle

 Thin cold mix overlay

3
 Thin hot mix overlay

 Patching

 Thick overlay

 Total reconstruction

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Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

In general, flexible pavement failures are classified into the following five (5) major
categories, namely:

 Cracks

 Ravelling/weathering

 Rutting

 Bleeding

 Distortion

Table 7 below gives a description and pictorial view of these defects with their causes and
maintenance strategies to ameliorate them.

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Table 7: Pavement Defects, Causes and Maintenance Methods

MAINTENANCE
S/N DESCRIPTION CAUSES PICTURES
METHOD

1. CRACKS

(a) Alligator Crack  Aging and traffic  Scrub Seal

Alligator crack is a series of loading  Slurry Seal
interconnected cracks in an asphalt layer  Insufficient  Thin Cold Mix Overlay
forming a pattern, which resembles an pavement  Thin Hot Mix Overlay
alligator‗s hide or chicken wire. The cracks  structure  Fog Seal
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance

indicate fatigue failure of the asphalt layer  Poor base drainage  Patching
generally caused by repeated traffic  Inadequate base  Chip Seal/Armour
loadings thus allowing water to penetrate support Coat
the surfacing materials and subgrade, and
furthers the damage. Alligator crack, also Alligator Crack on a Flexible Pavement.
called fatigue crack,
usually first begins as a single longitudinal
crack in the wheel path

(b) Edge Crack  High Shoulder  Thin Cold Mix

Edge crack is similar to alligator crack but  Holding Water  Overlay
located within 0.6m of the edge of the  Traffic Loading  Crack Fill
pavement and progresses towards the  Construction Related  Shoulder
wheel path. Pavement edge distress can  Low Shoulder Maintenance
result in worsening of the wheel path  Environmental factors
condition and allow moisture into the
subgrade soils and base materials. Edge
crack also includes the longitudinal crack
associated with concrete base course Edge Crack on a Flexible Pavement.
widening
Volume II: Maintenance Works
 (c) Longitudinal Crack  Reflection Cracks  Scrub Seal/Armour
Longitudinal crack denotes cracks that run  Traffic Loading Coat
predominantly parallel to the centreline. (wheel path cracks)  Crack Seal/Fill
These cracks may be in the wheel paths,  Poor Drainage  Patching
between wheel paths and/or at lane  Environmental (frost
joints such as centreline or action)
shoulder/surface  Improper
Construction
Practices (joint
cracks)
Typical Longitudinal Crack on a Pavement
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance

(d) Random/Block Crack  Aging  Crack Seal/Fill

Random or block cracks divide the  Environmental factors  Chip Seal/Armour
pavement into rough, approximately (Thermal) Coat
rectangular pieces and typically occurs at  Fog Seal
uniformly spaced intervals  Scrub Seal
 Thin Cold Mix
Overlay
 Thin Hot Mix Overlay
 Slurry Seal

Typical Random Crack on a Flexible Pavement

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(e) Transverse Crack  Environmental factors  Crack Seal/Fill
Transverse cracks are those considered (Thermal)  Fog Seal
to extend three-fourths of the width of the  Swelling or shrinkage  Scrub Seal
pavement or more, generally of the subgrade  Chip Seal/Armour Coat
perpendicular to centreline  Reflection cracks  Mill
 Settlement trench,  Patching
backfill  Slurry Seal

Transverse Crack on a Pavement

Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance

2. RAVELLING/WEATHERING
 Asphalt hardening  Fog Seal
Ravelling is the progressive wearing due to aging  Scrub Seal
away of the pavement from the surface  Improper  Chip Seal/Armour Coat
downward caused by the loss of asphalt construction  Thin Cold Mix Overlay
binder and the dislodging of aggregate methods  Thin Hot Mix Overlay
particles  Insufficient asphalt  Slurry Seal
content
 Poor mixture quality

Typical Ravelling on a Pavement

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 3. RUTTING
A rut is a surface depression of the wheel  Insufficient support  Chip Seal/Armor Coat
path due to the deformation of the  Improper construction  Mill
pavement layers or subgrade as a result procedures  Thin Cold Mix
of traffic load.  Poor mixture quality Overlay
 Thin Hot Mix Overlay
 Do nothing

Rutting on a Typical Pavement.

Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance

4. BLEEDING
Bleeding also called flushing is a free film  Improper construction  Chip Seal/Armor Coat
of bitumen on the surface of the pavement practices  Mill
that creates a smooth, shiny, greasy and  Paving over excess  Thin Cold Mix
reflective surface. It is usually found in the asphalt Overlay
wheel paths and becomes quite sticky  Mixture problems (bad oil,  Thin Hot Mix Overlay
when hot stripping aggregate, low
air voids, high AC
content, etc.)
Bleeding of a Flexible Pavement.
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5. DISTORTION / FAILURES
Distortion is defined as that distress in the  Thermal and moisture  Crack Seal
pavement caused by densification, stresses (freeze-  Chip Seal /Armor
consolidation, swelling, heave, creep or thaw) Coat
slipping of the surface or foundation  Static load  Mill
(depressions)  Thin Cold Mix
 Soft AC (shoving) Overlay
 Loss of bonding  Thin Hot Mix Overlay
between base layer  Patching
and surface layer Shoving and major changes in pavement profile
 Inadequate support that requires vehicles to slow from normal
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance

or overloading speeds.
Volume II: Maintenance Works
Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

4 Safety in Highway Maintenance

Safety during highway maintenance operations can be separated into three categories:

 Safety of the highway users

 Safety of the maintenance personnel

 Safety of the highway maintenance work

4.1 Safety of the Highway Users during Maintenance Operations

Every maintenance operation performed on the highway structure and its immediate
surrounds imposes an obstruction to the smooth flow of traffic. As such it is the duty of the
maintenance engineer to ensure that the safety of highway users is protected by adequate
information display and control of traffic movements.

It should be borne in mind by all levels of management from engineers to overseers that the
absence of warning and safety devices may be quoted in a court of law as being tantamount
to negligence. It is therefore in the interest of all personnel to understand and apply the
advice and recommendations given in this chapter.

The means of providing the necessary information to highway users and the methods of
traffic control and guidance may be summarized as:

 Signs

 Lamps

 Barriers

 Signals

 Diversions

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4.1.1 Temporary Signs

Temporary Signs are not restricted to signs such as ―Road Works Ahead‖, but may include
any of several standard dangers, prohibitory or mandatory signs, which are temporary in
time and location for the duration of the maintenance operation. Typical examples of such
use are, “Slippery Surface”, “Overtaking Prohibited” and “Diversion” In the use of
temporary signs it is not sufficient to merely display ―Slow‖, or ―Danger‖. Such signs are
frequently ignored by the motorists and it is therefore necessary to be specific in answering
the questions, ―what”, “where” and “why‖. This will assist in getting the cooperation and
attention of highway users. Examples of useful temporary signs are given below.

a. Road Works Ahead

The sign shown as Figure 2 is a triangle with an red border and with the symbol in black
on a yellow background. The sign is more effective when mounted above a
supplementary sign denoting the forward distance to the obstruction, as shown as Figure
3. The supplementary sign has 10 centimetres lettering in black on a white background.

Figure 2: 'Road Works Ahead' Signage

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Figure 3: Distance to 'Road Works Ahead'

b. Loose Chippings

The sign mounted 30 metres before the beginning of surface dressing operations is more
effective than ―slow‖ signs and flagmen in controlling speed and reducing the risk of
broken windscreens.

The sign is shown as Figure 4 below.

Figure 4: Loose Chippings

c. Slippery Surface

The sign mounted 30 metres before the beginning of gravel surfacing or redressing
operations.

The sign is shown as Figure 5 below.

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Figure 5: Slippery Surface

d. Diversion

Diversion signs should be placed at the commencement of diversions and at any

intersection along the route. The sign is shown as Figure 6 and is a blue circle with a
white symbol. The supplementary sign has a 10 centimetres lettering in white on a blue
background.

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Figure 6: Diversion

e. End of Construction

At the end of the operation site, it is customary to display a sign to signify that the
highway is clear of obstruction. The sign is shown as Figure 7 and has 10 centimetres
lettering in white on a green background

Figure 7: End of Construction

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4.1.2 Lamps

a. Continuous Operation

Where highway maintenance operations are continuous through the hours of darkness
the area of the work should if possible be floodlit by portable generating sets or pressure
kerosene lamps.

All obstacles and approach barriers should be demarcated by flashing red lamps.
Cones, barriers and drums demarcating lane lines should similarly be supported by
flashing real lamps.

Highway maintenance machines in operation or parked outside of the barricaded

working area, should carry roof mounted flashing yellow lamps.

All signs mounted on the highway and shoulders should be manufactured in

reflective materials such as “scotchlite”

All workmen and supervisors within the operation area must wear reflective waistcoats or
where these are not available, white shirts. Hand torches should be available to
flagmen and supervisors to supplement warning lamps if necessary.

b. Overnight Obstruction

Where highway maintenance operations cannot be completed during the daylight hours
and equipment, materials or open working are left upon the pavement overnight,
barriers, cones and drums should be closed up to present the minimum length of
obstruction to traffic. All relevant reflective signs will be maintained in position. Barriers,
cones and drums will be demarcated with red lamps, which will be stationary (non-
flashing) where no work is proceeding. All parked vehicles will be brought inside the area
of the terminal barriers.

For major sites, two genuine, non-sleeping, watchmen will be provided whose
primary task is to maintain all lamps functional. They will be equipped with spare
lamps and torches and reflective waist coats.

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4.1.3 Barriers

One of the primary means of ensuring traffic safety within a working area is to make
adequate segregation of traffic from workmen and machines. The devices used for this
consist of:

 Barriers

 Drums

 Cones

a. Barriers

Barriers should be erected at the beginning and end of the work site where they are
clearly visible to traffic.

A standard barrier is shown as Figure 8. It is painted with alternate diagonals visible

to traffic.

Figure 8: Barriers

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b. Drums

Drums provide good demarcation to corners of worksites, provided that there is sufficient
room to accommodate them. They also make excellent bases for lamps and stop-go
boards.

The drums are painted white with a red band across as shown on Figure 9.

If the drums are to be maintained in position during the hours of darkness, the
drums should be painted with reflective paint, or reflective tape should be applied to the
drums.

Figure 9: Drum

c. Cones

Standard orange plastic highway cones should be liberally used wherever lines are
required for reduction to single lane traffic.

Cones may also be usefully employed to demarcate the centreline when segregating
traffic from half width working operations since they occupy very little space on the
highway.

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4.1.4 Signals

To control traffic in single lane openings and in single lane diversions, signals are required
and the training of staff in the efficient operation of them is essential.

a. Traffic Lights

On major highways and particularly in built-up areas, portable traffic lights and
generator sets are a great asset since they draw greater respect and obedience from
motorists.

b. Stop Go Boards

When portable electrically operated traffic signals are not available, it is customary
to control traffic with a manually operated “Stop-Go” board.

The signal board is shown on Figure 10. It is a circular b lue board with 23
centimetres lettering in white.

Figure 10: Stop and Go Signs

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c. Flagmen

On smaller operations and occasionally in support of traffic lights and stop-go boards it
is necessary to employ flagmen.

It is desirable that flagmen should wear distinctive reflective type waist coats as uniforms
to enhance their authority. They should always be polite and cheerful, never argue with
highway users and merely report to their overseers the registration numbers of vehicles
ignoring signals.

4.1.5 Diversions

Wherever possible on localized operational sites where work is likely to extend over
several days, as in bridge or culvert repair works, a diversion route or access road should
be provided. This is the most efficient means for segregation of traffic from workmen,
materials and machines. It is therefore the safest way providing that it is properly
signposted, controlled and maintained.

4.1.6 Layout of Safety Design

a. Single Lane Obstruction (Major)

Major single lane obstructions are caused by most periodic operations to the
highway pavement. A typical layout of safety devices for such an operation is shown
as Figure 11.

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Figure 11: Single Lane Obstruction (Major)

The symbols used in this and the succeeding figures are as follows:

Temporary signs

Standard cones

Standard drum

Signals, Flagmen

Standard barrier

b. Single Lane Obstruction (Minor)

Minor single lane obstructions are short duration or travelling obstructions such as
potholes patching operations. The simple and more easily transportable sign layout is
illustrated at Figure 12.

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Figure 12: Single Lane Obstruction (Minor)

c. Double Lane Obstruction

For major bridge repairs, or culvert construction causing a long duration localized
obstruction, it is advisable to construct a temporary diversion.

The layout of signs and safety devices is shown as Figure 13.

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Figure 13: Layout for Diversions

Where space permits the construction of only a single lane bypass, signals and flagmen
must be added to the layout with the provision of advance warning signs in respect
to single lane and signals. The layout of signs would then be similar to that shown in
Figure 11.

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d. Peripheral Works

Heavy moving operation, repairs to shoulders, drain laying and tree cutting operations
do not directly obstruct traffic lanes on the highway. Such works adjacent to the
pavement edge can however provide a hazard to traffic if adequate advertising and
demarcation is not provided. A line of cones should be placed along the pavement edge
spaced at 20m interval for the length of the works plus 40m either end. The layout of
signs, etc. is shown in Figure 14.

Figure 14: Peripheral Works

4.2 Safety of Highway Personnel during Maintenance Operations

Primarily, every workman on an operational site is responsible for his own safety. The
sailor‗s axiom of “one hand for the ship and one hand for yourself‖ is equally true for
work on the highways. The entire active labour force must be trained to know what dangers
may be expected from traffic, machines and materials and must be continuously alert to
minimize risk. Some basic assistance and care is required in areas of high risk and these
are summarized below:

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4.2.1 Protection from Traffic

From the foregoing sections of highway users, the principle of segregation of highway users
from maintenance workers was established and the employment of signs, signals, lamps
and barricades was discussed. These are the first lines of defence. Additional safety
measures may be required.

a. Guards

Where workmen are operating in excavations for operations such as culvert laying or
base reconstruction they may not be able to see on-coming traffic in order to assist in
their own safety. In such circumstances, it is customary to position an additional flagman
or guard equipped with a whistle whose primary duty is to alert workmen of impending
danger.

b. Distinctive Clothing

All workmen, equipment operators and junior supervisory staff employed on highways
maintenance operations should be provided with a light weight sleeveless waist coat of a
distinctive and easily visible colour such as yellow or orange. These waist coats shall
have stripes of reflective material for those personnel who are expected to work
during the hours of darkness.

c. Torches

Supervisory staff and employees whose work necessitates their movement across or
near to traffic lanes (e.g. flagmen, paving assistants and overseers) should be provided
with torches for work during the hours of darkness

4.2.2 Protection from Machines

Highway maintenance operations are mechanically assisted, which means that on the
majority of operational sites machines and manpower are working together in close
proximity. During these operations, drivers and operators of equipment have their own
specialized and often exacting tasks requiring high levels of concentration upon the
accuracy of the work they are performing. It is not reasonable therefore to expect such
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operators to give full time consideration to the safety of workmen around them. It is
essential therefore that all manpower employed on highway maintenance operations be
fully trained to be acquainted with the nature of the machine, the job it does and how it
performs that job. In particular, for each and every machine, the training will underline the
dangers that exist for attendant workmen from failures of brakes, frayed ropes, mishandled
controls etc. Attention should be given in planning operations to the following specific
precautions.

a. Protective Clothing’s

Workmen, required to assist machines such as cranes off loading pipe culvert sections
into trenches, should be provided with safety helmets. Workmen, required handling wire
ropes in recovery operations, should be provided with heavy leather gloves.

b. Guard Attendants

Equipment working on loading, off loading, tree felling and similar high risk operations
should be provided with a ground attendant, who may be a trainee driver, to whom the
operator will look for guidance and for whom the safety of associated workmen is a
primary concern.

c. Protection of Excavations

Equipment excavating trenches or loading heavy materials into excavators should not be
permitted closer than the natural angle of repose of the soil unless the shoring has been
specially designed to accommodate these superimposed loads. Where heavy machines
are working adjacent to excavations light railings or barricades should be erected at
the limit of safe working.

4.2.3 Protection from Tools

Accidents involving the use of tools occur either from their improper use or lack of
maintenance of the tools. It is essential therefore that all personnel liable to use tools be
thoroughly trained in their proper use and that all tools returned to store be adequately

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inspected and repaired prior to re-use. Dangers involving the use of tools emanate primarily
from the following:

a. Blunt Cutting Edges

Grass cutting knives, axes and saws with blunt edges cannot perform their work
efficiently and result in operators exerting unnecessary efforts with resultant inaccuracy.
All cutting tools must be regularly inspected and maintained in a high quality condition.

b. Loose Handles

Pick axes, axes and sledge hammers develop loose handles usually due to improper
use as rammers, which damages the eyes of the tools. Regular inspection is essential
and damages tools should be returned to the workshop for repair and rebuilding.

c. Power Tools

The replacement of cutting bits on rotary grass cutters, the adjustment of power saws,
etc. must not be undertaken on site without first disconnecting the sparkling plug. Only
fully trained operators should be permitted to use power tools.

4.2.4 Protection from Materials

Dangerous materials used in highway maintenance operations include fuels, chemicals and
bituminous products. Safety is therefore mainly insurance against burns and fire risks.

a. Fuelling Points

It is frequently necessary to refuel vehicles on site as in the case of rollers, which

cannot economically return to district headquarters for fuelling and larger groups of
equipment on major periodic maintenance operations. Whether this work is undertaken
by a fuelling tanker or from drums, standard fire risk precautions are necessary. Strict
“No Smoking” rules shall be observed, CO2 foam extinguishers shall be available and

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all unnecessary personnel shall be kept clear of the site. Bitumen kettles and distributors
shall extinguish their heaters prior to receiving fuel.

b. Protective Clothing

Operators of bitumen kettles, distributors and pavers shall be issued with heavy leather
gloves and boots. All assistants to distributors and pavers shall be issued with boots.
Distributor spray bars must be enclosed with an anti-splash curtain. The lighting of
heating units of bitumen kettles and distributors is always liable to result in a blow-back.
Only trained operator shall perform this task and they must use the standard torches
provided and stand well clear to one side of the heater.

Should any bituminous material catch fire, it should be fought with CO2 foam, sand
or soil. The only method of extinguishing bitumen fires is by smothering. Water must
never be used.

4.2.5 Protection from Personnel

A major source of danger on all worksites comes from incompetence or carelessness of

fellow workmen. Such behaviour can be due to disability, fatigue, boredom or lack of
understanding of the job requirements.

a. Disability

Employees reporting for work in operational teams with disabling sickness,

drunkenness or under medication which impairs their alertness must not be employed in
active roles. Their lack of efficiency or speed or reaction in emergencies could endanger
the lives of their colleagues.

b. Fatigue

Junior management and engineers when considering the use of overtime to complete
priority works must study the alertness of the labour force at their disposal. Although
most employees are keen to earn overtime payment and genuinely strive hard to
merit it, accident frequency is at its highest in late afternoons and evenings when
concentration is liable to fade.
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c. Boredom

Carelessness and accidents are frequently caused by lack of concentration resulting from
boredom in uninteresting repetitive tasks.

There is sufficient variety of routine maintenance work to be undertaken to enable

overseers to rotate the allocation of unskilled and semi-skilled tasks. The main weapon in
fighting boredom amongst all levels of maintenance employees is the encouragement of
pride in the quality of product. This can be stimulated by competition for the best kept or
most improved highway section.

d. Lack of Understanding

Accidents may occur due to a lack of knowledge or appreciation of the task of fellow
workmen. It is most essential therefore that every member of a team be fully acquainted
with the nature of the work performed by every other member of that team. To ensure
that the team works efficiently and safely every time there must be:

 One correct way to perform an operation

 One correct way to operate a machine or tool

 One correct way to handle and use materials

Accidents may be prevented when these correct ways are:

 Known and practiced by workmen and operators

 Known and enforced by supervisors

 Known and planned accordingly by management

4.3 Safety of Highway Maintenance Work

The quality of maintenance works performed on the highway is most susceptible to

damage during construction and prior to completion of compaction, setting and bedding of
materials. Provided that the correct machines are used, that the operational plan is correct
and that personnel have been adequately trained; then such early damage is most likely to

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be caused by traffic. The precautions listed in Section 4.1 SAFETY OF HIGHWAY

USERS above will go a long way towards control of traffic to the extent it is possible and
segregation of it from the works being constructed. However, it will be seen in the
following chapters that it is frequently necessary to pass over newly completed works and
occasionally over partially completed works.

Under these conditions, damage to the work can be minimized by reduction of traffic speed
to the lowest practical level. These basic methods are employed for this purpose.

4.3.1 Speed Humps

Artificially created humps are frequently employed to reduce vehicle speed on entry to
single lane work sites of a long duration such as bridge repairs and culvert laying
operations. The humps are generally made of premixed paving materials, thick wooden
planks or shaped baulks of wood. In general, these are the least satisfactory of all control
devices since they result in annoyance of the highway user and lessening his desire to
cooperate. They can also constitute a genuine danger unless they are well signposted,
supported by flagmen and illuminated at night. Maintenance engineers are advised to
avoid the use of humps wherever any alternate solution is permissible, since they can
result in:

 Unnecessary damage to vehicles and passengers

 Imposition of impact loads to pavement

 Loss of steering control.

No hump should be placed on a public highway unless it is supported by an advisory sign

showing the safe speed at which it can be negotiated.

4.3.2 Intermediate Flagmen

Where operational sites are of medium to long length, additional flagmen should be placed
at intermediate positions to maintain slow speed. This is usually adequate for all but the
most aggressive of drivers.

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4.3.3 Pilot Vehicles

On longer length operational sites and particularly on single lane operations such as surface
dressing, it is advisable to release streams of traffic behind a pilot vehicle. A light pick-up is
ideal for this purpose of controlling the convoy speed from the front. One pilot vehicle is
sufficient to shuttle convoys alternately from either direction.

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5 Highway Maintenance Crews

5.1 Basic Parameters

Section 2 listed the basic maintenance functions to be carried out under a programme of
routine and periodic maintenance. In broad terms, the routine maintenance works would
normally be undertaken by resident general purpose crews; and that periodic maintenance
works would be undertaken by mobile specialist crews.

This Chapter further expands the analysis of work required and lays down the basic
parameters of maintenance crew duties, staff and equipment holding. The parameters are
approximate and may well require adjustment from district to district to compensate for
variations of work load and degree of mechanical assistance available.

The Tables included in this section, list the functions and composition of the twelve different
permanent highway maintenance crews. Other crews may however be created as required
on a temporary basis to carry out emergency duties.

5.1.1 Number of Crews per District

In general, the number of mobile specialist crews will depend upon the condition of the roads
and work load required. Permanent crews, however, should not exceed the numbers shown
in Table 8 to Table 19 below. An excess of potholes initially can be met by temporary
assignment of work, for e.g. to the painting crew, since obviously no centreline painting
can be undertaken under these conditions.

5.1.2 Productivity

The productivity figures as given in Table 8 to Table 19 are a guide to team planning.

5.1.3 Equipment

Table 8 to Table 19 also list the equipment and vehicles assigned to each crew type.

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No attempt has however been made to quantify the holding of tipping trucks by specialist
teams, since these vehicles may either operate under the control of the material production
crew delivering gravels, stones, etc.

5.1.4 Basic Parameters of Maintenance Crew Duties, Staff and Equipment

Table 8 to Table 19 are given as an indication of the different maintenance crews required,
the functions within the maintenance type as well as recommended labour and equipment
requirements.

Table 8: “A” – Section Crew

No. of
Functions Crew per Productivity Equipment Labour
District

1. Drain One crew Varies with  2 Grass cutting  1 Overseer

cleaning per road functions machines
section of  1 Driver
2. Culvert  1 Tipping truck or
cleaning
approx.  15 Labourers
40km.  1 Tractor and trailer
3. Bridge
waterway  Miscellaneous hand
clearing tools
4. Erosion
control
5. Cutting new
drains
6. Grass
cutting
7. Shoulder
clearing
8. New grass
planting
9. Bush
clearing
10. Tree felling
11. Branch
lopping
12. Pothole
patching
gravel roads
13. Assistance
to specialist
crews

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Table 9: “B” - Patching Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Pothole One crew Up to 25 tons  1 Flatbed Lorry  1 Overseer

patching will normally per day of
be sufficient pre-coated  1 Vibratory  1 Driver
2. Over provided it is stone
painting fully  1 small  3 Operators
(sealing of mechanised compressor and
cracks) for use of air tools  6 Labourers
pre-coated
stone  1 small batching
preferably plant – at depot
designed to
B.S. 1621  Various hand tools
Table 2.

Table 10: “C” - Grading Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Cutting new 1 – 3 crews Up to 8 km per  1 Grader  1 Overseer

drains depending day depending on
on extent of extent of  1 6-ton  1 Driver
2. Grading Roller
shoulders
gravel road corrugation and  2 Operators
holding rutting for simple  1 4½-ton
3. Preparing re-grading. At the  2 Labourers
Roller
surfaces for higher output
prime & seal additional rollers  1 Tractor
re-grading are required.
 1 Water-
4. Redressing bowser
5. Assist with  1 Pulvimixer
bitumen
stabilized
base
construction

Additional labour as required will be drawn from the ―A‗Crew in whose section the
work is being undertaken.

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Table 11: “D” - Bridge Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Erosion 1 Crew Varies with  1 Light Vehicle  1 Overseer

control – functions (4x2)
assistance  1 Driver
to ―A‖ crew  1 Backhoe and
Tractor  2 Operators
2. Culvert
repairs and  1 Concrete mixer –  4 Tradesman
relaying usually at depot
 2 Labourers
3. Manufacture
 Various hand tools
of R.O.W.
Markers

4. Minor
repairs to
structures

5. Touch
painting

6. Rip-Rap
repairs

7. Painting
steel and
timber

8. New culvert
installation

9. Replacing
timber decks

10. Major
repairs to
structures

11. Manufacture
of kilometre
posts

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Table 12: “E” - Surface Dressing Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Sealing 1 Crew 1 kilometre  1 Chip spreader  1 Overseer

Hard per day of 2
shoulders – lane  1 Pneumatic tyred  2 Drivers
highway roller
2. Prime &  8 Operators
Seal  1-2 6-ton tandem
rollers  4 Labourers
3. Single
surface
 2 Bitumen heaters-
dressing
usually at depot
4. Double
 1 Bitumen
surface
distributer
dressing

5. Lay-bye  1 Tractor
construction
 1 Power Broom

Additional labour as required will be drawn from the ―A‖ Crew in whose section the work is
being undertaken.

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Table 13: “F” - Gravel Surfacing Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Rebuild and 1 Crew 0.5 to 1.0km  2 Graders  1 Overseer

widen per day,
shoulders depending  2 6-ton rollers  2 Drivers
on extent of
2. Sealing hard damage and  2 Water bowsers  4 Operators
shoulders – depth of
Assist Crew gravel added  2 Tractors  2 Labourers
―E‖

3. Gravel
surfacing

4. Lateritic
gravel bases

5. Cement
stabilised
bases

6. Bitumen
stabilised
bases

7. Lay-bye
construction

Additional labour as required will be drawn from the ―A‖ Crew in whose section the work is
being undertaken.

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Table 14: “G” - Painting Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Pavement 1 Crew Varies with  1 Light vehicle  1 Driver

markings function (4x2)
 1 Operator
2. Kilometre  1 Road line
post painting painting machine  1 Artisan
Grade 1
3. Road sign
 Miscellaneous
repair and
hand tools  2 Painters
painting
 2 Labourers
4. New
kilometre
post painting

5. Manufacture
of new road
signs

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Table 15: “H1” - Material Production (Gravel) Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

To support 1 Crew 200-500  1 Loader shovel  1 Overseer

Maintenance cubic metres
Crews ―A, C & (m³) per day  1 Dozer (part time  1-2 Operators
F‖ use)
 2 Labourers

Table 16: “H2” - Material Production (Stone) Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

To support Normally not 30,000 tons  1 Crushing and  1 Overseer

Maintenance more than per year screening plant
Crews ―D, E & one (1). In  7-9 Operators
H3‖ some  1 Gravel washing
locations, plant  1 Blaster
districts may
be supplied  1 Dozer (part time)  2 Drillers
from outside
their borders  1 Weighbridge  1 Mechanic
depending
on material  1 Compressor  8 Labourers
availability
 2 Benchers

 Miscellaneous
drilling ancillaries

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Table 17: “H3” - Material Production (Premix) Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

To support Normally not Approx. 35-  1 Batch-mix plant  1 Technical

Maintenance more than 40 tons per
assistant
Crews ―B and I‖ one (1). hour  1 Bulk bitumen
Initially one tank
(1) mobile  1 Overseer
crew should  2 Bitumen heaters
be provided  Operators
in each state  1 Weighbridge
to undertake
 6 Labourers
pre-planned  1 Loader shovel
programmes
working from
stockpiles
prepared by (Usually at depot)
Crew ―H2‖

Additional semi-skilled labour can be drawn from ―E‖ Crew at depot

Table 18: “I” - Paving Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Paving with Normally not Not less than  1 Paver  1 Technical

bitumen more than 40 tons per
assistant
one (1). hour  1 Pneumatic tyred
macadam
Initially one roller
(1) mobile  1 Overseer
2. Paving with crew should  1 6-ton tandem
asphaltic be provided steel wheeled  Operators
in each State roller
concrete
to undertake
 8 Labourers
3. Laying
pre-planned  1 4½-ton three
programmes wheeled roller
bases working from
stockpiles  1 Emulsion trolley
prepared by
Crew ―H3‖

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Additional labour for signalmen to be drawn from ―A‖ Crew in whose section work is
undertaken.

Table 19: “J” - Survey Crew

No. of Crew
Functions Productivity Equipment Labour
per District

1. Placing 1 Crew Varies with  1 Theodolite  1 Surveyor

kilometre function
posts and  1 Level and staff  1 Technical
R.O.W. assistant
markers  1 Light vehicle
(4x4)  4 Labourers
2. Pavement
measurement  Miscellaneous
small instruments
3. Drainage
and tools
survey

4. Bridge
investigations

5. General
survey
assistance to
crews

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6 Maintenance and Control Sections

Each district is divided up into a number of Maintenance Sections for operational purposes
and each Maintenance Section is divided up into a number of Control Sections for
administrative purposes.

6.1 Maintenance Sections

As discussed in Section 2 of this manual, the routine maintenance works required on

highways are undertaken by resident section crews, as summarised in Section 5, Table 8,
which also defines the area of responsibility of one section crew.

A maintenance section is that length of road, or lengths of roads, which is, or are, the limit of
responsibility of one section crew.

To provide the basis for planning of section crews, their numbers, locations and extent of
responsibility, this Chapter lays down the parameters by which the limits of maintenance
sections are defined.

6.1.1 District Road Maps

 The first step in planning is to obtain or prepare a district road map to as large a
scale as is available.

 The second and most important step is to become thoroughly familiar with the road
network by repeated touring.

Figure 15 shows a hypothetical road map of a typical district, with a network of some 460
kilometres of road in various pavement and terrain types. This is used to illustrate the
parameters defined in 6.1.2. below.

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6.1.2 Parameters

The parameters defining the extent, limit and content of a maintenance section are:

 Optimum overall length

 Centre of operation

 Type of roads

 Classification of roads

 Type of pavements

 Control section relationship

 Inclusion of bridges

 Local authority limits

a. Optimum Overall length

Both equipment and labour force have been designed to maintain, on average, a road
length of 40km.

This can be reduced if the road condition is poor or the terrain difficult. Thus in the
mountainous Section No.4 with its large number of culverts and drain erosion problems
the maintenance road length for a section crew is only 34km long; whilst in the relatively
easy and well kept Section No.8, between Shabomi and Gbagba, the maintenance road
length for a section crew is 49km long.

The practical limits are not less than 30km, where labour holding becomes uneconomic
and not more than 50km, where daily inspection by the Overseer becomes difficult and
probably neglected.

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b. Centre of Operation

The centre point of the m aintenance s ection should be the place of residence of
the section crew for efficiency of transport and ease of meeting emergency calls.

Where possible, this should be near or at a town or village, for economy of provision of
housing and for human reasons such as the availability of shops, schools and clinics
(e.g. Sakwa for Section No.9).

Where this is not possible, a road camp should be sited as near as possible to the mid-
point of the road network and preferably on a stream or potential well-point (e.g. km 40
for Section No. 10).

c. Type of Roads

A maintenance section may include roads and branch roads and need not necessarily
confine itself to the limits normally defined for control sections for cost-accounting
purposes. Thus, because of the desire to house labour and centre operations in
Shabomi, Section No.1 extends to Km 10 on the Shabomi-Burutu road and includes
15km of the northern riverine road 15km of the Shabomi-Gbagba road.

d. Classification of Roads

A maintenance section may include both Trunk Roads ―A‖ and Trunk Roads ―F‖ since
both classifications of roads are maintained from the same head and sub-head of the
estimates. Section No. 11 to the east of Shabomi is a typical example of this.

e. Types of Pavements

A maintenance section may include lengths made up of any pavement type, since the
functions of routine maintenance consigned to a section crew are basically identical on all
roads irrespective of pavement type. An example is Section No.1, based in Shabomi,
which contains elements of the premix paved road to Burutu, the surface dressed road to
Gbagba and the gravel surfaced northern riverine road.

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f. Control Sections

The road network and maintenance sections can be divided up into control sections for
the purpose of cost accounting.

Details of the parameters ruling the establishment of control sections are dealt in the
following sub-sections, but it is necessary to bear in mind two major considerations:

 Firstly, control sections are of maximum value in providing cost statistics if they are
kept to the maximum possible length.

 Secondly, all control sections within a maintenance section may only be maintained
by one section crew in order to simplify the input of data.

Thus maintenance section No.2 is ideal in that it contains one trunk road uniform terrain
with identical pavement throughout its length. The length of the control section here is
equal to the length of the maintenance s ection. Conversely, m aintenance s ection
No.1 at Shabomi is the most undesirable situation since it contains four small control
sections.

However, in actual practice i n this particular district, it has been possible to plan 6 of
its 11 maintenance sections to coincide exactly with control sections. Such a situation
will be rare and a balance must be struck between optimum efficiency in the layout of
the maintenance sections together with maximum uniformity of road within the
maintenance section.

g. Inclusion of Bridges

All bridges, ferries and weighbridges included within the territorial area of the
maintenance section will become part of that section and part of the responsibility of the
section crew resident there. Thus, the major bridge within Shabomi town, although a
separate control section, still forms part of the responsibility of section No.1 crew.

Similarly, the ferry crossing the river estuary at Gbagba is part of the responsibility of
section No.7 crew. Here however, the section crew would be provided with additional
labour for the operation of the ferry.

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h. Local Authority Limits

Where a City or Municipal Council exists, the responsibility for maintenance of all roads
within the gazette limits of the council area is usually vested in the council. Under these
conditions those parts of trunk Roads ―A‖ and ―F‖ passing through the council area would
be excluded from the responsibility of the section crew.

Had Shabomi been created a Municipal Council (which fortunately it has not) then
maintenance section No. 1 would have been reduced to 12km of the northern riverine
road and 12km of the Gbagba road. Under these conditions the section would have been
too small and re-planning would be required.

6.2 Control Sections

In sub-chapter 6.1, reference was made to control sections. This sub-chapter (6.2) expands
on the basic purpose of the sub-divisions of highways into control sections and the
parameters defining their establishment.

The use of these control sections is detailed in Volume 3 of the Highway Manual: Cost
Accounting for Highway Maintenance.

6.2.1 Cost Accounting

Cost Accounting is a specific form of accountancy adopted in highway maintenance for the
purpose of:

 Monitoring the cost and efficiency of highway maintenance operations.

 Developing cost-indices for specific types of road, specific types of work and related
labour, material and equipment usage.

 Utilization of cost-indices for estimating, planning, programming and budgeting

purposes.

Cost Accounting is carried out in parallel with Government‗s financial accountancy process,
which it does not replace.

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6.2.2 Definition

In order to develop cost-indices for specific types of road as defined above, it is necessary to
sub-divide the highway network into lengths of road with constant common features.
These sub-divisions are called control sections.

A control section is therefore a typical length of highway where the elements of work
required for its maintenance are relatively constant both in nature, tasks and frequency of
operation. A control section will thus be a typical length of highway on which the cost of
operation is normally constant.

6.2.3 Parameters

To ensure uniformity of elements of work within a control section, the parameters defining its
limits are:

 Pavement type

 Geography

 Geometry

 Traffic

 Exclusion of major structures

 Exclusion of ferries

 Exclusion of branch roads

 Exclusion of major urban areas

Further to simplify the collection and processing of data, a control section shall terminate at:

 An administrative boundary – A district boundary

 A maintenance section boundary

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Having the above parameters in mind, the value of the data collected and analyzed within a
control section will be best and most accurate where control section limits provide:

 The maximum length of road possible

6.2.4 District Road Map

Using the parameter listed above, c ontrol s ections are plotted on the d istrict road map
already developed and showing the maintenance sections.

Figure 15 is an example of this district road map, with control sections plotted to illustrate
the analysis of control section given below. To facilitate description of the parameter the
control section limits are shown on the map by means of small pins numbered 1 to 31 and
summarised in Table 20.

6.2.5 Analysis of Control Section Limits

The following notes expand the definitions of the parameters defining the limits to control
sections as assistance for the establishment of control sections in each district.

a. Pavement Type

Only one part pavement type may be included in any one control section. Thus,
maintenance section No.11 to the east of Shabomi contains one control. Section from pin
(1) to pin (31) on a premix, paved road and one control section from pin (30) to pin (29)
on a gravel surface road.

b. Geography

Geographically roads may lay in country that is mountainous, hilly, rolling, flat, or
marshland. Any one control section should not contain more than one such geographical
feature. Thus maintenance section No.4 contains one control section from pin (14) to pin
(13) in h illy c ountry and one c ontrol s ection from pin (13) to pin (11) in r olling
country. Similarly, the road from Gbagba to Sakwa is divided into two control sections by
pin (25) separating marshland from flat countryside.

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c. Geometry

A control section should contain roads built to one homogenous set of geometric
criteria. The most common example of this is a change in pavement, which causes a
major change in periodic maintenance cost. No visible examples occur on the map,
except the change in design radii of horizontal curves in maintenance section No.4.

d. Traffic

A control section should contain similar and uniform annual daily traffic over its length as
this will determine the frequency of application of periodic maintenance and ideal choice
of pavement type. Generally, an observance of parameters (g) and (h) will satisfy this
condition.

e. Exclusion of Major Structures

Generally all drainage structures are included within the control section in which they are
situated – unless their routine maintenance and/or repair materially affect the costing
of the control section. Major structures, which are likely to create such an effect, are not
included and given a separate control section number. An example of this can be seen in
maintenance section No.1 where a major bridge carries the main road over the river in
Shabomi from pin (1) to pin (2). Separate control sections should be estimated for:

 Temporary bridge minimum 15 m overall span

 Permanent bridge minimum 30 m overall span

f. Exclusion of Ferries

All ferries must be given a separate control section number which shall include the ferry
terminal structure. An example of this is seen on the Gbagba to Sakwa road from pin
(23) to pin (24) within maintenance section No.7.

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g. Exclusion of Branch Roads

A control section shall include only one route and shall exclude any branch roads. This
will ensure compliance with parameters (a), (c) and (d) above and enable accurate
overall route costing. An example of this is seen in maintenance section No. 11 where
the branch road is a control section from pin (29) to pin (30) and the main road is a
control section from pin (1) to pin (31).

h. Exclusion of Major Urban Areas

In major townships non-standard conditions occur frequently. Traffic is frequently

distorted by local buses and taxis and roads are paved to additional width to allow for
parking. Gravel roads are sealed to alleviate dust nuisance, cycle tracks and footpaths
are frequently added, street lighting probably exists and abnormal breaking loads are
applied at intersections. It is normal therefore to consider each road length within major
urban areas as separate control sections.

An obvious example is the main road of a town such as Shabomi in maintenance

section No. 1, which will be so affected and therefore becomes a separate c ontrol
s ection from pin (2) to pin (6). However, in this instance the town has little effect on the
road east of the river, so no separate control section has been established between pin
(1) and pin (31). This could be done at a later stage if the demographics of this section
of road should change by widening or the installation of lights, etc.

Similarly in the example map, the gravel road to the north of Shabomi is provided with
street lights and concrete drains from pin (5) to pin (4) and is therefore a separate control
section from the rural road length from pin (4) to pin (3).

i. Termination at Administrative Boundaries

Where the road passes out of the control of an administrative authority and into that of
another authority the control section must terminate. Such boundaries are state
boundaries, Provincial boundaries and autonomous local or city council boundaries.

j. Termination at District Boundaries

Control sections shall also terminate at district boundaries for simplification of data input.

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k. Termination at Maintenance Section Boundaries

Control Sections shall terminate at maintenance section boundaries for simplification of

data input. The design of labour, statistics input forms would be unnecessarily
complicated if two or more ―A‖ – Section crew overseers were contributing to its
compilation.

l. Maximum Length of Road in Control Sections

One of the primary objectives of Cost Accounting is to develop cost-indices for typical
types of roads and typical types of work. The accuracy of these indices and their use in
planning and estimating is greatly increased with increased length of road under analysis.
Realistic planning of control sections must avoid therefore the tendency to over-fragment
roads into a mass of small control sections. The basic question that needs to be asked is
―does this change in geometry, etc., really affect the cost, nature, or frequency of
operations?‖

6.2.6 Temporary Control Sections

It may be that the collapse of a small timber, the washout of a length of highway, or
widening of a length of pavement, will throw a temporary unrealistic cost onto a
controls Section. Should this occur, the area of activity can be designated a temporary
control section number for the purpose of costing the corrective operation as emergency
maintenance.

6.2.7 Special Control Sections

Where specialist crews are operating on permanently established material resources sites
(e.g. Quarries), these sites shall be designated as control sections.

Examples of these are the operations of ―H2‖- Material Production (Stone) crew and ―H3‖-
Material Production (Premix) crew. This does not necessarily apply to gravel production,
which in most instances will be undertaken by a crew temporarily working on a gravel pit
within a maintenance section exclusively for the use of that ―A‖ - section crew.

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6.2.8 Control Section Numbering

Control section numbering will be based primarily on maintenance sections. Whilst there
may beand usually are more than 10 maintenance sections in a district, there cannot
(practically) be more than 10 control sections in any one maintenance section. Thus, a
three digit code will be used where the first two digits identify the m aintenance s ection
and the third digit identifies the control section.

Table 20 shows a schedule of controls Sections and their parameters in the district shown
on the map of Figure 15.

Table 20: Schedule of Control Sections and their Parameters

MAINTENANCE CONTROL
FROM – TO PIN PARAMETERS
SECTION SECTION

01 011 1-2 e
012 2-6 a, d, g, h, k
013 5-4 a, d, h
014 4-3 a, d, j
015 7-8 a, d, k
02 021 6-9 a, d, g, j
03 031 10 - 12 a, d, g, j, k
04 041 11 - 13 a, b, d, k
042 13 - 14 a, b, d, k
05 051 15 - 16 a, d, k
06 061 17 - 18 a, d, j, k
07 071 18 - 19 a, d, k
072 20 - 22 a, d, g, k
073 21 - 23 a, d
074 23 - 24 f
08 081 22 - 8 a, d, k
09 091 24 - 25 a, b, d
092 25 - 26 a, d
093 27 - 28 a, d, g, j
10 101 28 - 29 a, d, k
11 111 29 - 30 a, d, k
112 1 - 31 a, d, g, k

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6.2.9 Control Section Signposts

A signpost is to be erected on the boundary line between two adjacent control sections
facing the road and on the right side of the road, i.e. in such a way that a person travelling in
the direction of increasing kilometres will see the sign on his right hand.

Figure 16 shows the lay out and dimensions of a control section signpost.

The sign is divided into 4 parts. The right side of the sign is reserved for the c ontrol
section the person is leaving, showing in the top part the initials of the state and the number
of the district and in the bottom part the number of the control section. The left part is
reserved for the control section the person is entering showing in the top part the initials of
the state and the number of the district, in the bottom part the number of the control section.

In cases where two adjacent control sections are situated in the same district, the left and
right upper parts of the sign will read the same. In cases where two adjacent control
sections are situated in different districts within the same state, the left and right upper
part will have the same state initials but different district numbers.

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Figure 15: District Road Map

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LA 2 OG 4

CS 025 CS 123
Figure 16: Layout and Dimensions of Control Section Signposts

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7 Routine Maintenance Operations

The principal operations of routine maintenance are listed in the left hand column of Table 1
of Section 2 of this volume. The operations are described below under their element
headings and in the same sequence as used in Cost Accounting for allocating task
numbers.

7.1 Duties of Sections Overseers

As previously stated a section overseer is allocated responsibility for the routine

maintenance of a road section, or sections, amounting to approximately 40 kilometres. The
section overseer will also be responsible for identifying the need for operations and the
planning and performance of works.

Within the section the overseer will have a road camp which is his depot for storage of a
minimum quantity and range of raw material sand for parking of his basic equipment and
tools.

7.1.1 Daily Inspection

The section overseer will inspect daily his highways by travelling over them and observing
defects in the elements of their structure. These defects he will note for:

 Immediate repair

 Less urgent repair work that can be programmed for repair

 Repair by specialist teams

He will form his observations, where applicable, note also size of team required, equipment
required and approximate material requirement. He will consequently be carrying out the
basic 4 M planning equation of:

 Manpower,

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 Materials,

 Machines plus his own element of

 Management.

He is not involved at his level of management with the fifth M of money.

7.1.2 Allocation of Daily Task

There are everyday tasks of good housekeeping such as grass cutting and drain cleaning.
There are also emergencies such as bush clearing of lesser urgency, pothole repair of
greater urgency or bridge de-snagging of immediate urgency, which must be fitted into a
day‗s programme of work. The relative degrees of urgency are outlined below – Routine
Maintenance Operations.

Depending upon their urgency the section overseers will allot labour, equipment and
material to priority operations, identified on today‗s inspection, for tomorrow‗s work. He will
programme the remainder of his resources to every-day operations.

He will plan to allocate labour, equipment and materials for less urgent operations into
succeeding days maintaining a balance between urgent, less urgent and every-day work
throughout the week.

The section overseer will also plan his own work for the next working day, allocating those
hours available to general inspection of his highways, visits to working sites and standing
supervision on the urgent priority works.

The s ection o verseer will review and where necessary re-plan his programme for the
next four to five days every evening, in the light of his daily inspection and progress on all
works during the day.

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7.1.3 Reports

a. Weekly Report

The section overseer will submit a routine report to the technical officer every week,
summarizing only the routine maintenance, operations of urgent or immediate
categories, which remain outstanding.

The format of this report is shown in Figure 35 at the end of this section.

Note: The weekly report is a reminder to more senior management levels of operations
of work NOT undertaken and which, if delayed, may cause accelerated deterioration of
the highway structure.

b. Monthly Report

The section overseer will also submit a routine statistical report to the technical officer
every month in the form of a “Monthly Labour Allocation‖ sheet. This is a cost
accounting document that shows the allocation of labour to control sections and tasks.
From this document and others received monthly from the supply and mechanical
sections of the district, the cost accounting staff can compile historical records of work
performed in each section. There is therefore no necessity for any other statistical report
covering work actually undertaken by the section overseers. The format of this report is
shown and fully described in Chapter 4 of Volume 3 “Cost Accounting”.

7.1.4 Requests

a. Request for Materials

The section overseer will carry in his depot small stockpiles of fast moving materials such
as gravel, crushed stone and premixed pothole patching material.

Replenishment of stockpiles will be requested by use of a‖ Road Materials Requisition

and Issue Voucher” which is shown and fully described in Chapter 4 of Volume 3
“Cost Accounting”.

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From time to time the section overseer will also need specialist materials such as pipe
culverts and material timber for direct use in the operations. Such materials will be
requested by use of a “Store Requisition and issue Voucher”.

b. Request for Tools

Request for tools and replacement of defective tools will be made by use of a “Stores
requisition and issue voucher” for new tools and a “Stores exchange voucher” for
replacements.

Note: Tools are issued on a borrow basis, so that the persons are responsible for the
tools until they are returned to the Warehouse.

c. Requests for Assistance

Frequently during the course of inspection and planning programme of work the section
overseer will encounter operations which are beyond his capacity to handle with the
limited resources at his disposal. This may be due to any one or combinations of the
following reasons:

 Specialist tools or equipment required; such as pavement marking

 Specialist technology required; such as redressing a soil aggregate deficient in

fines

 Specialist labour required; such as repair to timber bridges

 Too large a job size; such as storm damage erosion or extensive or deep potholing

 Periodic maintenance operation.

Where the need for assistance arises the section overseer will make out a “Request for
Assistance” form and dispatch it immediately or urgently to the technical officer for his
inspection, evaluation and action.

The format of the request is shown at Figure 36 at the end of this section.

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Note: All requests given a priority rating of “Immediate” should be dispatched

immediately by hand in the first available vehicle to district headquarters. Less urgent
requests may be dispatched as convenient and appropriate to the priority accorded to
them.

7.2 Drainage

7.2.1 Drain Cleaning

a. Routine Cleaning

Side (longitudinal) drains fulfil two primary functions of channelling surface water run-off
away from the formation and maintaining the permanent water table sufficiently low to
enable the structural layers of the pavement to develop their full strength. Should side
drains become silted the drain will lose capacity to deal with run-off, which can result in
flooding and the pavement base layers will become saturated and weak. This situation is
illustrated below.

Figure 17: Silting of Side Drains

It is essential therefore that the section overseers continuously inspect side drains and
keep them under constant maintenance. Similarly, outfalls drains and cut-off drains over
embankments must be regularly checked and where necessary cleaned.

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It should be noted that material removed from drains is largely silt and is useless
anywhere in the road structure. Such material must be removed totally from the highway
area and spread in low ground areas within the Right of Way or in old borrow pits.

b. Obstructions

Side drains can become blocked by falling soil, falling trees or man-made obstructions.
These must be immediately cleared to enable free flow drainage gradients to be
maintained. Man-made obstructions most commonly encountered are: drains deliberately
filled to give vehicle access to private property. After clearing the obstruction the section
overseer must immediately report the occurrence to his technical officer in order that
planning permission can be given for the provision of a permanent culvert access.

Note: Treat this operation as Priority: “URGENT”

7.2.2 Culvert Cleaning

During wet seasons silt is frequently deposited in culvert, pipes and on culvert floors.
Such material left in culverts restricts the water-way opening and its capacity to carry run off
from streams and side drains. The resulting increase in velocity o n th e d o wn s ide of
the obs tr uc tio n can cause erosion of the outfall. In extreme cases choked culverts can
result in flooding and washout of the road down into the side drains and silting through
pipes and boxes.

Small diameter pipe culverts can be cleaned with rods, augers and dragline cones on pull-
through ropes.

7.2.3 Bridge Waterway Clearing

During raining seasons, rivers frequently carry downstream trees, branches and debris,
which can become embedded in freestanding pile bents of bridge piers. The build-up of
debris, once started, is very quick and acts as a localized or surface dam upon the river.
The resultant increase in velocity or deflection of the water will rapidly cause erosion of
abutments, wing wall sand even the river bed in which piles are seated. During rainy
seasons section overseers will carry out daily inspections of bridges of free-standing pile
design in suspect rivers. Any snagged debris observed must be immediately cleared.
Heavy accumulations of debris can best be de-snagged with grappling irons and Tirfor

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pullers, or hand winches towards the upstream side of the bridge. Debris
removed from the river should be carried up to the top of the bank for subsequent removal
and disposal.

Note: Treat this operation as priority: “ IMMEDIATE”

7.2.4 Erosion Control

Erosion can be caused by water, traffic, or wind. In this section we are concerned only with
the most dangerous form of erosion caused by water. Erosion is likely to occur in the
following places:

 In side drains

 On embankment slopes

 On side slopes of cuttings

 At outfall drain and culvert outlets

 At bridge abutments and wing walls

a. Side Drain Erosion

Side drain erosion is caused by high velocity run-off due to too steep gradients and is
usually to be found in cuttings. The only satisfactory method of dealing with this problem
is to line the drains with concrete precast channel sections or cast-in-situ concrete invert
drains. This permanent solution will normally be beyond the capacity of the section
overseer and he should therefore request assistance.

Temporary relief of erosion can be obtained by inserting shallow timber weirs into the
drain bed every 5-8 metres. On steep gradients temporary relief can be obtained by
lining the drain with cascade sheets cut from empty bitumen drums. Such works are only
temporary and will survive only one rainy season until permanent assistance works can
be made available.

Note: Treat this operation as Priority: “URGENT”

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b. Embankment Slope Erosion

Heavy rainfall on formation on embankments, particularly where they are super-

elevated in curves, will tend to find the lowest and weakest parts of the shoulder for
discharge down the embankment slope. If the embankment is of short length and not in a
valley vertical curve, it is possible to raise a small bund (earth dyke) on the edge of the
shoulder to channel water back to the cutting outfall drains. Where a discharge over the
slope is inevitable it must be provided for with a precast concrete channel cascade drain.
Assistance should be requested for this work.

Temporary relief can be obtained using sheets cut from old bitumen drums as described
in (a) above. Care should be taken to securely spike the sheets into position with 15 cm
wire nails.

Note: Treat this operation as Priority; ―URGENT”

c. Slide Slope of Cuttings

Erosion of the side slopes of cutting is caused by the spillage of surface water over
the hill-top (crest) of the cutting. The first and most essential action to be taken is the
installation of a cut-off drain at least 1 metre back from the top of the cutting.

It will probably be necessary to line the drain by priming and sealing to avoid
drain erosion as it is carried down to lower levels. Where cuttings have been constructed
by terracing, the terraces should be sloped back into the hillside and cut-off drains
constructed along their inner edge. This drain will have to be bituminous or concrete lined
drain to prevent water logging of the terrace and subsequent slip collapse.

Erosion can be resisted on side slopes by liberal planting of coarse grasses, bamboo
and deep rooted small shrubs.

Note: Treat this operation as Priority; “URGENT”

d. Outfall Drains and Culverts

All too frequently outfall drains and culverts are built with inadequate aprons or length of
spillway to accommodate the volumes or velocities that are discharged. Resulting
erosion in soil channels will undercut the concrete terminal causing collapse of the
structure.

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Figure 18: Erosion of Waterway at Structures

The eroded area should be backfilled with stone blocks or rubble and the apron or drain
reconstructed as rip-rap in cement mortar. Additional large boulders randomly scattered at
the limit of erosion will assist in reduction of velocity as depicted below.

Note: Treat this operation as priority: “URGENT”

Figure 19: Erosion Repairs

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e. Bridge, Abutments and Wing Walls

Erosion can occur at bridge abutments and wing walls due to deflection of streams and
rivers caused by snagging, or by man-made or natural interference upstream. Erosion
can also occur as a result of flash flooding outside of the parameters of design for the
bridge in question. Removal of snagging debris, removal of upstream interference, such
as a fallen tree, or a recently constructed jetty or badly designed river wall will prevent
further aggravation of erosion. Man-made interference will require a court or council order
for removal and must therefore be reported immediately to the technical officer.

Reinstatement, repair and prevention of further erosion are normally achieved by sheet
pilling, drains, rip-rap, gabions or boulder-fill. This work is highly specialized and beyond
the capacity of a section crew. Assistance must be requested.

Should erosion extend deeply into bridge wings or close to the abutment faces,
temporary warning signs should be placed on the bridge approaches showing “Bridge
under Repair” and “Slow”.

Note: Treat this operation as Priority; ―IMMEDIATE”

7.3 Shoulders

7.3.1 Grass Cutting

Soft shoulders are planted with grass as a cover crop to protect them from erosion. Grass
will require continual repeated cutting. This is not merely a decorative process to keep the
appearance of the highway pleasant and relaxing to highway users. Uncut grass in tropical
climates can change in structure to coarse bladed elephant type grasses, which rapidly
denude the topsoil of its nutrient and grow to heights where they can obstruct sign lines.

The thick mat of uncut grass on a shoulder presents a dense filter to the path of run-off
water leaving the pavement surface.

This causes the water to deposit dust, sediment and wind blow silts onto the shoulder. The
slow gradual build-up of sediment on the shoulder can under extreme circumstances result
in an increase in the shoulder height by a few centimetres per year.

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7.3.2 Shoulder Repairs

Shoulder repairs may be necessitated as a result of three major types of damage:

 Spot or localised damage

 Rutting

 Erosion damage

a. Spot or Localised Damage

Holes and depressions in the shoulder surface, frequently caused by vehicle accident or
excessive parking, can result in ponding of water and subsequent softening of the
shoulder and even penetration of water into the pavement structure. All holes and
depressions should be cut out square and reinstated to level and slope with good
quality fill, topsoil and turf. The materials should be watered (in the dry season) and
rolled with a hand operated roller.

b. Rutting

The formation of ruts, in both hard and soft shoulders along the pavement edges, is
caused by wheels of moving vehicles. It is usually indicative of inadequate width of the
pavement and should therefore be reported for consideration of widening of the
carriageway in association with the next planned periodic maintenance operation.

Ruts must not be left unattended during rainy seasons, since the ponding of water will
result in weakening of the base and subsequent failure of pavement edges.

Ruts will be cut to square trenches and reinstated with good quality fill, topsoil and close
turfing. The materials will be watered (in the dry season) and compacted with a hand
operated roller

c. Erosion Damage

Erosion of both soft and hard shoulders, apart from rutting as described above, can
occur as a result of excessive quantity and velocity of surface water run-off, flooding and
loss of cover crop in soft shoulders as a result of damage. The erosion may appear as
corrugation of the shoulder (particularly unpaved gravel shoulders) and may be
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accompanied by erosion of the side slope in the form of a washout or a series of minor
rivulets. For soft shoulders, patching should be carried out as described above for rutting,
except that turf establishes on side slopes shall be pegged into position with 15 cm long
split bamboo spikes. Hard shoulder should be graded, watered and rolled. Major
washouts shall be rebuilt from the bottom upwards in layers not exceeding 15 cm
thick in square cut terraces.

7.3.3 Shoulder Clearing

All rubbish, waste, surplus materials and even broken down vehicles must be cleared from
the shoulders continually. Apart from being unsightly, any form of debris inhibits grass
growth, blocks natural drainage lines and constitutes a hazard to traffic.

7.4 Right Of Way / Road Reserve

7.4.1 Bush Clearing

Small bushes and ornamental shrubs, provided that they do not encroach upon drainage
lines, are attractive and desirable within the right of way. Large bushes may obstruct
visibility and if they do, they should be grubbed out.

7.4.2 Tree Felling

Trees are not normally desirable within the right of way since they are likely to obstruct sight
lines and their roots, sooner or later, are likely to interfere with drainage lines. Tree felling,
where necessary, should be within the work capacity of a section crew, although assistance
may be required for grubbing out larger roots that interfere with drainage.

7.4.3 Branch Lopping or Trimming

There will be frequent instances where a tree cannot be felled owing to their value, beauty,
or conditions of tenure of the land within the right of way. This may well occur in areas of
rubber estates, fruit orchards and in the suburbs of cities and larger townships. In these
latter instances trees may have been deliberately planted along roadsides for shade and
beauty. Where this condition exists the tree branches must certainly be cut back or lopped
to the edge of the pavement and if possible to the outside edge of the drain. The continual

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dripping of rain drops onto the same part of the pavement, like from an overhanging branch,
will create a pothole in any surface material.

Before embarking on a programme of tree felling or extensive lopping the section Overseer
should in the interests of Public Relations seek the advice from the technical officer,

7.5 Bituminous Pavements

7.5.1 Pothole Patching

Potholes are localised structural failures which are generally a secondary form of distress
that develops from cracking or extreme loss of aggregate.

Figure 20: Pothole Developing

a. Causes of Potholing

(i) Overstressed Wearing Courses (Traffic Induced)

The most common cause of extensive potholing is overstress and distortion of thin
wearing courses of surface dressing on flexible bases under heavy traffic. Under
these conditions, the repair of potholes alone will not suffice. The wearing course
must be thickened and if possible a stronger base of adequate thickness must be
introduced.

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(ii) Drainage Defects

Potholes in areas of pavement showing signs of depression or upheaval are

probably caused as a result of poor drainage. Side drains, culverts outlets and run-
off drains should be inspected for silting, blockages and adequacy of depth.

(iii) Progressive Disintegration

Potholes in areas of pavement showing signs of cracking are due to progressive

disintegration of the cracked surface and accelerated by entry of water to the
base. The primary source of the crack failure must be discovered and corrected if
repairs are to be effective.

(iv) Spillage

Spillage of diesel fuel, oil and chemicals from traffic and particularly parked vehicles
can result in cutting back the bitumen in open textured pavement material with the
eventual growth of a pothole. The more common example of this comes from
spillage from construction plants during pavement construction stages.

(v) Defects in Design

Defects in design, or manufacture, resulting in areas of too little bitumen, too much
or too little fines in asphaltic concrete, can result in potholing. Usually ravelling of the
surface will be visible prior to failure.

b. Pothole Repair

Potholes must be patched the moment they become visible and certainly whilst they are
small in size. If due to weather or unavailability of materials, specialist teams or
equipment, permanent patching must be delayed and then temporary patches with the
best available materials should be first affected. However, when a pothole is patched, the
repair will not be effective or permanent unless the root of failure is identified and cured.

Where the cause is due to general weakness of pavement, or design detects, there is
little that the s ection o verseer can do, except report the defect and progressively
repair the holes as they appear.

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Spillage problems are cured as the defective area is cut out and replaced. Potholing
created as a result of drainage defect or as a progression from cracks must be
cured. The cause must be traced back to its origin. Drains, culverts, outfalls must be
reinstated first. Defective material below the pothole must be removed and replaced with
sound material and finally a permanent patch placed in position.

c. Pothole Patching

Potholes that are merely cleaned and backfilled without increasing their volume and
squaring off the sides will not survive under traffic. Wheel loads invariably create bowl
shaped holes and further wheel loads will merely displace the ―bowl shaped‖ plug.

The pothole must be excavated as a square sided hole with a clean horizontal base and
vertical sides. The surface area of the hole must be bounded by straight lines whether it
is cut in a square, rectangle, or diamond. The base of the hole must be at such a depth
as to be founded on good solid undamaged material.

(vi) Depth of Pothole Excavation

Figure 21 below shows the shape of correct pothole excavation in cross-section.

Should excavation to the base of the hole show wet and contaminated material in
the base, then the excavation must be continued in depth as shown in broken line
into the sub-base and sub grade if necessary.

Figure 21: Repair to Pothole – Excavation

(vii) Shape of Pothole Excavation

The sides of the excavated area must be made up of straight lines to provide the
maximum support to the asphalt. Figure 22 below shows a typical excavation. The
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shape shown is a diamond, which, although not obligatory, is probably the best
pattern to use since it presents a diamond joint to wheel loads and reduces the
tendency to disturbance.

Figure 22: Excavated Pothole Ready for Filling

(viii) Preparation of Excavation

If the bottom of the hole is excavated down to a granular base material, it should first
be primed before adding asphalt. For shallow potholes onto old bituminous
surfacing material the old surface should be thoroughly cleaned and given a tack
coat.

No matter what the depth of the excavation, the sides of the hole must be given a
tack coat to ensure good adhesion of the patching material to the rest of the
pavement structure.

(ix) Reinstatement

For best result a hot mix of bitumen macadam or asphalt concrete should be used. In
practice, the most common material used will be a cold mix that can be stockpiled for
use as and when required. For deep patches, the higher stone content and high
mechanical strength of bitumen macadam‗s will give the best results. Aesthetically
the patch should match the material of the existing surface and with deep patches
this can be achieved in two stage construction. The material of the patch should be

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placed by hand using shovels raked to the profile of the road using a string line or
straight edge and thoroughly compacted.

Note: All potholes should be treated as Priority; “URGENT “and where extensive,
assistance should be requested.

7.5.2 Crack Sealing

With the increasing use of hot-mix pavement material the incidence of potholing should
decrease and cracked defects will become more frequent in appearance. Cracking may
become visible in any of the six descriptive forms listed below:

 Alligator / crocodile cracks

 Edge cracks

 Joint cracks

 Reflection cracks

 Shrinkage cracks

 Slippage cracks

d. Alligator / Crocodile Cracks

Alligator cracks are visible as a pattern of interconnecting lines similar to the pattern of an
alligator‗s skin and breaking the surface up into a series of small blocks.

Alligator cracks normally occur as a result of fatigue failure of surfacing and base layers
and are related to the inability of the pavement to carry the traffic load.

Treatment of this defect must be the total removal of the cracked area and the entire
affected base and sub-base material. If the alligator cracking is due to inadequate
drainage, this must be identified and corrected before valuable replacement
material is wasted. A temporary skin patch can be applied if the materials for permanent
replacement are not immediately available. Skin patches are thin tack coats of medium
curing cut back applied over the cleaned cracked area and blinded with sand or dust-free

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crusher fines. These should be lightly rolled with a hand operated roller or the rear wheels
of a tipper.

Figure 23: Alligator / Crocodile Cracking

e. Edge Cracks

Edge cracks will appear as longitudinal cracks close to the edge of the pavement. They
may be accompanied by some small lateral cracking and by a depression or shrinkage
of the pavement between the crack and the edge of the road.

The cause of such cracking is either inadequate shoulder support of the formation
or failure of the base due to entry of water from the shoulder. This is a frequent
occurrence where shoulders have been permitted to stand too high thereby ponding
water on the pavement edge.

Repair should be carried out urgently by filling the crack with a cutback bitumen and
sand mix. Any depressed area should be brought back to the original profile by
regulating overlay. Should the defect have been caused by ponding of water a temporary
gully should be cut through the shoulder and action instituted for the early reduction of
the shoulder to the correct level and slope.

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f. Joint or Longitudinal Cracks

Joint cracks are longitudinal line cracks between lanes of construction in asphaltic
concrete wearing courses.

The cause of j oint cracking is a poor bond between successive paving sequences
due to either careless work or cold material compaction. Treatment is filling of the crack
with a mix of cutback bitumen and sand or dust free quarry fines.

g. Reflection Cracks

Reflection cracks occurring in asphaltic concrete and to a less frequent extent in bitumen
macadam overlays are repetition of underlying cracks in the old surface. Reflection
cracks become visible as irregular lines less straight than joint or edge cracks.

The repair of reflection cracks which are normally very thin should be undertaken with
cutback bitumen squeezed into the crack and blinded with sand.

h. Shrinkage or Stabilisation Cracks

Shrinkage cracks frequently have the appearance of alligator cracking photographically

enlarged. The block sizes are larger and the crack pattern more irregular. One of the
common causes of such cracking is a volume change in high bitumen content and dense
asphaltic concrete.

Another cause is shrinkage of treated (stabilised) pavement layers. These cracks are not
confined to the wheel paths. Treatment is filling of the crack with a mix of cutback
bitumen and sand or dust free quarry fines.

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Figure 24: Shrinkage or Stabilisation Cracks

i. Surface Cracking

Asphaltic concrete wearing and binder courses, designed for heavy traffic but receiving
little or no usage, frequently develop shrinkage cracks.

Unused stadium car parks and access roads to undeveloped industrial estates are
common sufferer of this defect. Since the cracks are very thin the only satisfactory
method of repair is a slurry seal over the entire affected area. If surface dressing is
effected care should be taken to use sand or dust free quarry fines and the minimum
possible bitumen application since the asphaltic concrete surface is likely to be fairly rich.

Figure 25: Severe Surface Cracking

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j. Slippage Cracks

Slippage cracks become visible as crescent shaped cracks, frequently supported by a

depression and winkles in the asphaltic concrete course. In appearance they look like
broken skin blisters.

The cause of this cracking is a loss of bond between the wearing course and the surface
on which it was laid or the slipping of the under lying pavement layers close to the edge
of an embankment.

Repair should be dealt with in exactly the same method as applied to potholes above.

Note: All cracking of bituminous pavement should be treated as Priority: “URGENT”

and specialized assistance requested.

Figure 26: Slippage Cracks

7.6 Gravel Pavement

Gravel pavements are low cost wearing courses generally constructed of naturally occurring
soil aggregates. They can provide excellent riding surfaces but are prone to wear from both
weathering and traffic. Defects in gravel pavements, once started, grow rapidly and it is
therefore essential that routine maintenance operation be systematically and continuously
applied to these pavements.

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7.6.1 Gravel Pavement Defects

a. Pothole

Potholes are bowl shaped depressions in the pavement surface.

Generally in the early stages they are not as uncomfortable to motorists as the sharp
edge potholes associated with bituminous pavements. However if they are not attended
to, they can become very dangerous.

Both, traffic and weather, cause rapid deepening and enlargement of potholes to the
level at which they become a hazard to traffic. Potholes must therefore be identified as
early as possible and be repaired as a matter of extreme urgency.

Figure 27: Potholing of Gravel Roads

(i) Causes of Potholing

o Depression

Low spots left in the pavement surface after grading or resurfacing will pond water
during the wet season, weakening the surface and permitting traffic to cause further
weakening and enlargement of the hole.

o Segregation

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Segregated oversized aggregates left undetected or uncorrected after grading or

resurfacing will rapidly develop into potholes as the unstable material is first
loosened and finally thrown out by traffic movements.

o Sub grade Weakness

Localized failure of the sub grade due to poor compaction or drainage failure can
result in settlement of the gravel pavement and subsequent growth of potholes. In
these instances groups of potholes will tend to grow due to uneven settlement
usually associated with this type of failure.

o Overhanging Trees

The repetitive dripping of rain from overhanging trees is an all too frequent and
unnecessary cause of damage to gravel pavements. Gravel surfaced roads will
accept a certain proportion of rain into the material varying with the soil aggregate
graduation and the camber of the pavement. In this condition the pavement is
weakened and needs to release the surplus moisture as quickly as possible.
Overhanging trees will shade the pavement and delay the vital drying out of the
surface thereby exposing the material to unnecessary repetition of load in a
weakened condition. Pothole development under these conditions is highly probable.

(ii) Repair of Potholes

All potholes in gravel surfaced pavements develop a bowl shape as wheel loads
break down the edges. If repair is carried out by merely filling this shape, the bowl
shaped plug has little or no resistance to displacement by subsequent wheel loads.
The repair sequence that must be followed is therefore:

 Excavation

 Preparation

 Reinstatement

 Compaction

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o Excavation

The potholes must be excavated with vertically cut sides into the shape of a square,
rectangle or diamond, with a horizontal and clean base, as explained and shown in
Section 7.5 for bituminous pavements. Since standing water plays a part in the
formation of most potholes, it is likely that the bottom of the excavation will be wet
and may well be a slurry of fines. If this is the case then the excavation must be
carried down until firm well graded dry material is encountered. This may well entail
excavation into the sub grade. All damaged material must be removed and thrown to
waste.

o Preparation

When the excavation has been completed down to good quality material the base
should be compacted thoroughly with a rammer and if still in the gravel surfacing
material lightly watered prior to compaction.

o Reinstatement

The volume of the excavation is now ready to receive a patch, made of the identical
material to that used in the gravel surfacing. Where surfacing material is an
artificially blended material, it is advisable to retain a stockpile of the individual
components for repair works.

The soil aggregate material should first be moistened to raise its moisture content to
the optimum for compaction and then placed into the excavation and levelled
with rakes should the depth of the excavation be greater than 15 cm the patch must
be constructed of two or more layers, each being compacted prior to placing the
succeeding layer.

o Compaction

Compaction of the patch is best carried out with a hand operated vibrating roller
worked laterally across the reinstated area. The surface should be checked to
conform accurately to the profile of the pavement, with a string-line. Care must be
taken to avoid a depressed patch since this will immediately cause the formation
of yet another pothole. If a vibrating roller is not available compaction can be
achieved with the careful hand rammers or the rear wheel of a tipper.

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b. Rutting

Rutting is the formation of longitudinal wheel troughs as shown in Figure 28. This
condition is most frequently encountered on narrow single lane gravel surfaced
highways.

Figure 28: Rutting of Gravel Roads

(i) Causes of Rutting

o Abrasion by Traffic

The most common cause of rutting is by abrasion and is usually accompanied by

clearly visible windows of coarse material along the sides and between the ruts.

Repeated passages of wheel loads first remove the fine grained binder fraction
of the gravel surfacing thereby exposing and loosening the coarser material.
Continued wheel loads follow in the same path; brush the loose coarse material to
either side a nd th us enabling the wheels to attack once more the newly exposed
fine grained material. Progressively the wheel paths get lower as higher windows of
coarse material are built up.

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o Deformation by Traffic

Rutting may occur by the lateral displacement of gravel surfacing material while it is
in an excessively wet condition and without decomposition of the soil aggregate.
Again this will occur most frequently on single lane highways or highways with
neglected shoulders and edges forcing vehicles to follow a single central path.

Deformation of this type is most common where there is fine fraction. Usually clays
are very high and where the camber of the highway is too low to permit rapid run-off
of surface water. Localized rutting will also occur in areas where drainage defects
exist.

(ii) Repair of Rutting

Ruts are parallel depressions of the surface in the wheel tracks. They generally form
as a result of loss of gravel from the wearing course by traffic abrasion and less
commonly by deformation (compaction) of the sub grade and compaction of the
wearing course

The methods available for repair work depend upon the extent of rutting and its
character. Wherever possible the defect should be identified early to enable the
easiest and cheapest corrective operation to be employed.

o Shallow Rutting

Where rutting is in its earliest stages of development and where little or no

segregation of material is evident the profile of the pavement may be returned to its
correct shape by simple blading. This process is described below in subsection
“7.6.2 – BLADING”.

o Deep Rutting

Where rutting is deep, blading will be insufficient to restore the pavement to its
correct profile. Some segregation will undoubtedly be present due to probable
water ponding in the ruts. Provided that this segregation is not excessive the
corrective procedure to adopt is re-grading. This process is described below under
“RE-GRADING”.

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o Segregated Rutting

Where rutting is accompanied by visible segregation as is caused by abrasion due to

traffic, re-grading will return the pavement to profile but leave it in an unbalanced and
decomposed condition in which it will be susceptible to further rutting or corrugation.
Under these conditions, the gravel surfacing material will require addition of the
missing fractions before re-grading. This process is described below under
“GRAVEL – REDRESSING”.

c. Corrugation

Corrugation is a series of lateral waves or ridges on the surface of the pavement.

The height of the ridges and their wave length are usually peculiar to the soil
aggregate grading. Corrugated surfaces are most uncomfortable for light vehicles
causing vibration in the suspension and a loss of steering control.

Figure 29: Corrugation of Gravel Surface

(i) Causes of Corrugation

Corrugation is a direct result of traffic action upon a soil aggregate material of

incorrect gradation. Corrugation may occur on gravel surfaced roads with
excessive high clay content in very wet conditions. However, the most frequent
occurrences of corrugation are with soil aggregates that are deficient in fines. The

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loose particles of gravel and sand size are moved by wheel action in the same way
as the wind builds sand dunes in the desert.

(ii) Removal of Corrugation

The methods used for correction of corrugated surfaces of gravel surfaced

pavements depend upon the severity of the defect. Every effort should be made
to detect and eliminate the defect as early as possible. Since the defect will be more
readily felt by faster moving vehicles, the drivers of tippers and pick-ups should be
encouraged to report any corrugation vibration felt in driving over gravel surfaced
highways.

d. Dust Control

Road dust is the dry solid matter consisting of clay and silt-sized particles that is
entrained by wind, the wind shear forces created by vehicles and the interaction of
vehicle tyres with the road. It disperses and remains in suspension for a period of time
before eventually falling back to the earth‘s surface. The aerodynamic shape, tyre size
and number of wheels on trucks imply that dust generation by heavy vehicles is more
severe than light vehicles.

Dust is undesirable from a number of points of view including safety (loss of visibility),
economic (accelerated gravel loss as a result of the loss of fines), comfort of vehicle
occupants, health (respiratory diseases), vehicle damage (filters and exposed moving
parts), damage to road side vegetation (crops) and environmental impact (air pollution).
Dust is generally considered unacceptable by the travelling public when the vehicle
generating the dust cannot be seen by a following vehicle.

It is not possible to prevent gravel surfaced highways from dusting. It is however possible
to reduce the volume of dust brushed off by traffic.

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Figure 30: Dust Problems

(i) Severe Dust

Should the gravel surfacing show heavy dusting it will be indicative either of excess
clay fraction present or advanced decomposition of the soil aggregate. In either case
samples should be taken from the surfacing material for laboratory analysis, so
that a correction can be made to the soil aggregate gradation.

(ii) Light Dusting

If the gravel surfacing shows only dusting during the dry season, it may be assumed
that the soil aggregate grading is close to the ideal. It may be preserved in this
condition and dusting reduced to the minimum with occasional watering and rolling.
A light application of water followed by a single pass of a pneumatic tyred roller or
steel wheeled tandem roller in the early morning should be sufficient to reduce
dusting for 2-5 days, depending on traffic density.

e. Analysis of Defects

Gravel roads are not capable of carrying high density traffic. Below is a guide to traffic
densities at which gravel roads should be considered for upgrading either from earth
roads to selected gravel roads or from selected gravel roads to surface dressed roads.

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(i) 0 - 30 ADT (Average Daily Traffic)

These traffic densities can be carried on earth roads economically and without
causing excessive defects

(ii) 30 - 100 ADT

At these traffic densities earth roads are no longer economical to maintain and
should be upgraded to selected gravel roads

(iii) 100 - 200 ADT

Selected gravel roads are economical to maintain but should be surface dressed
through villages to avoid excessive dusting.

(iv) 200 - 300 ADT

Selected gravel roads are economical to maintain but should be surface dressed
on steep sections with gradients over 4%.

(v) 300 - 500 ADT

Selected gravel roads are not economical to maintain if natural gravel pits are
distant from site and should be upgraded to surface dressed roads.

(vi) More-than 500 ADT

All gravel roads carrying more than 500 ADT should be upgraded to surface dressed
roads as it is not economical to maintain them.

Note: The borders lines given above are not firm since the frequency with
which defects occur are dependent upon the gradation quality of the gravel
available.

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7.6.2 Blading

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Blading consists of a light shallow grading of gravel surfaced pavements to correct

minor defects in the profile. It performs only a geometric correction and does not mix
or blend material which has become segregated.

(ii) Functions

Blading when applied to a gravel surfaced pavement corrects minor defects and:

 Restores the camber

 Restores riding quality

b. Application

Blading may be applied to any natural gravel or soil aggregate where the following
conditions apply:

 Shallow rutting

 No visible segregation

The process is repeated in the second lane, making adjustment to depth and
angle of crown to avoid resulting windrows or depressed areas

To achieve the final resultant shape shown in Figure 33, it may, on occasions when
rutting is deeper, be necessary to make a third pass down the centre-line with a
square blade to distribute the resulting windrows.

c. Strength

Blading does not affect the strength of the pavement since it utilizes only the existing road
materials.

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d. Equipment

(i) Drag- Blade

Blading may be performed by a grader or, more ideally, by a drag-blade. This

consists of an axle and tow-bar supporting a light grader blade, circle and controls
and an operator‘s seat. The assembly is towed behind an industrial tractor.

While two operators are required for tit‘s use, it has the major advantage of the
grading operator being close to the pavement level for accurate eye-judgement of the
very shallow cuts and fills required.

(ii) Rollers

Either one (1) steel wheeled tandem roller or one (1) pneumatic tyred roller is
required for compaction of the thin layer of soil aggregate bladed and shaped by the
drag-blade.

(iii) Water Bowser

Should water be required to assist compaction a tractor and water bowser unit will be
used.

e. Construction Methods

Figure 31 illustrates an exaggerated representation of shallow rutting requiring blading.

Figure 31: Rutting Requiring Blading

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(i) Blading

The first pass of the drag-blade will be made in one lane with the grader blade set to
the appropriate angle of camber and approximately 10º inwards of square to crowd
surplus material from the outer edge towards the centre-line. The depth of cut will be
adjusted by the operator to result in the minimum residual overspill windrow at the
centre-line.

Figure 32: First Pass of Blading

The process is repeated in the second lane, making adjustment to depth and angle of
crowd to avoid resulting windrows or depressed areas. To achieve the final resultant
shape as shown in Figure 33 below, it may be on occasions, when rutting is deeper,
be necessary to make a third pass down the centre-line with a square blade to
distribute the resulting windrows.

Figure 33: Completed Blading

(ii) Compaction

After the addition of light watering if necessary, compactions can be achieved with a
single pass of a 6-8 ton steel wheeled tandem roller. Rolling should commence
at the outer, lower edge and proceed towards the centre-line.

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f. Defects

The only major defect resulting from this blading operation on soil aggregates free from
segregation is likely to be due to overcutting. A natural reaction of most operators in
ensuring that they have sufficient material on the blade is to cut too deep on the
outer edge, thereby setting-up too high a camber and therefore create unequal thickness
across the pavement.

Continuous checking with camber boards can insure against this risk.

7.6.3 Gravel Re-Grading

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Gravel re-grading is the process of mixing, shaping and compacting soil aggregates
in wearing courses, which have become deformed and/or segregated.

(ii) Functions

Gravel re-grading when applied to a soil aggregate wearing course fulfils the
following functions:

 It corrects geometric effects in profile

 It re-blends those portions of the aggregates that have become segregated

 It improves the riding quality

 It retards decomposition of the soil aggregates

b. Application

Gravel re-grading may be applied to any soil aggregate wearing course showing signs
of deformation of profile and segregation where:

 Deformation is too great to be corrected by blading

 Segregation is not so far advanced as to lead to decomposition of the soil

aggregate and thereby necessitates redressing

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c. Strength

Gravel re-grading does not make any addition to the strength of the pavement since
it utilizes only the existing materials on the road.

d. Equipment

Equipment requirements consist of one (1) grader, one (1) water bowser and tractor
and one (1) 6 to 8-ton steel wheel tandem roller, all of which are standard units available
within districts.

e. Construction Methods

(i) Inspection

It is desirable that the section to be worked be carefully inspected to ensure that all
ancillary works involving repair or reinstatement of drains, shoulders, culverts
and accesses be noted for prior execution. An example of an assessment form that
can be utilised is given in Figure 37.

It is also desirable that samples of the soil aggregate in the wearing course be sent
to the laboratory for analysis if any signs of segregation are visible. The laboratory
test will confirm whether the soil graduation lies within the range of acceptability to
ensure that it can be compacted and remain stable.

Since water will be required for compaction a suitable source within range of the
equipment available must be located.

(ii) Planning

Gravel re-grading operations can only be satisfactorily undertaken on full width

pavements if segregation of aggregate is present. The problem of traffic disruption,
diversionary routes and traffic control must be considered in association with the
normal planning sequences. These will cover the following steps:

 Optimum moisture content for compaction

 Water quantity requirements

 Distance of site from water source

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 Sequence of operations

 Length of sections to be worked

 Breaks in sequence of operation for traffic movement

 Traffic control

(iii) Safety

Safety considerations must cover:

 Safety of road users

 Safety of labour force

 Protection of work from damage during construction

This is not a high risk operation since no hot or corrosive materials are in use.

(iv) Operation

o Mixing

With the surface in a condition such as that illustrated in Diagram 1 of Figure 34

there is almost certain to be some segregation with loose coarse aggregate particles
lying in the three windrows created by rutting.

Should the material be in a hard compacted condition it may be necessary to first

scarify the surface to the depth of the gravel surfacing course.

The first pass of the grader in the mixing process is illustrated in Diagram 2 of Figure
34. The objective is to blade the maximum quantity of material available in the
first lane into a windrow on the centre-line.

The second grader pass is performed returning in the second lane repeating the
process of blading the maximum quantity of material available onto the windrow on
the centre- line as shown in Diagram 3 of Figure 34.

The third and final grader pass in the mixing operation is performed with the blade
set square and level evenly distributing the material in the windrow across the full
width of the pavement. The material available should now be evenly blended.

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o Watering

With the gravel surfacing in a loose condition and shaped as shown in Diagram 4
of Figure 34 water should be added with a water bowser to bring the moisture
content up to the optimum for compaction.

o Shaping

Two further passes of a grader, one in each lane with the blade set to the
appropriate angle of camber between 3.5 and 4.0 percent and set square or
retarded 5-10 degrees, are required to shape the surface to profile.

The blade should not overspill and grader operators will vary in their ability to
maintain this condition with individual preferences of angle of retarding towards the
centre line. These two passes are illustrated in Diagram 5 of Figure 34.

Figure 34: Grading of Gravel Roads

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o Compaction

Compaction will be achieved with 3-4 passes of a 6-8 ton steel wheeled tandem
roller. Rolling will commence at the lower edges and overlap progressively towards
the centre line.

o Length of Section and Traffic Accommodation

Where traffic movements must be maintained during gravel regarding operation it is

advisable to work the grader on relatively short lengths of pavement. Traffic
movements may be permitted over the completed shaped profile after the first pass
of the roller.

7.6.4 Gravel Redressing

Gravel redressing is part of the normal range of routine maintenance operations.

However, it contains a number of highly specialized and precise factors which
make it a difficult operation for performance by routine maintenance equipment and
labour available to section overseers. These specialist factors are primarily:

 Laboratory testing and design of blended aggregates

 Exact precision in the quantities of aggregates to be placed on the pavement

 Specialist equipment requirements

 High level of measurement and supervision of the operation

It will therefore be necessary for section overseers to call upon their technical
officers for specialist assistance in design, construction and supervision of their
operation. This work has therefore been included under the periodic maintenance
part and is fully described in the following chapter.

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7.7 Bases

Routine maintenance operations will not normally include work on base courses of the
pavement structure, except where they are exposed in repair to potholes. Where this occurs
the base should be reinstated either in the material of which it was originally constructed or
in penetration macadam or bitumen macadam. Where bases are reconstructed in bitumen
macadam or patches are laid to full depth in hot or cold mix materials, the cleaned part base
or sub-base material should first be primed.

Where part only of a dry stone base has been removed, reinstatement should not be
attempted in crusher-run aggregates since these cannot be satisfactorily compacted in
depths of less than 11cm.

Note: Repair to potholes involving damage to bases should be treated as Priority:

“URGENT” and specialist assistance requested.

7.8 Drainage Structures

7.8.1 Minor Works

Works within the capacity of section crews not requiring the use of specialized tradesmen
may be summarized as traffic damage to:

 Steel or timber handrails

 Minor concrete parapet damage

 Culvert headwalls

 Displaced running boards on timber bridges

Where damage is more than minor, assistance should be requested. Damage must always
be reported and treated as Priority: “URGENT”

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7.8.2 Touch Painting

Semi-skilled painting is within the capacity of labour employed in section crews. Works
falling within the scope of touch painting are:

 Over-painting scratches and defacement caused by traffic damage

 Re-painting of lettering on informative signs

 Painting barriers and road crew safety signs

 White-washing parapets, culvert head walls, kilometre posts, guide stones

 Temporary markers on hazards such as trees within the formation

Paint and whitewash are applied to structures both as preservatives and aids to the
recognition by road users. The quality and cleanliness should therefore be maintained at a
high standard at all times even though these operations are classified as routine.

7.8.3 Rip-Rap Repairs

Rip-rap is a mattress of stone boulders of approximately 30cm size set in cement mortar to
protect bridge abutments, culvert outlets and watercourse banks from erosion.
Damage caused by impact, undercutting or slips should therefore be made good at the
earliest possible opportunity. If the damage consists of displacement of a small area or loss
of bond in mortar, the repair work can be dealt with by the semi-skilled labour available in
section crews. Major damage and failure due to embankment slips are beyond the capability
of section crews and assistance should be requested.

Note: These operations should be treated as Priority: “URGENT”

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7.9 Highway Furniture

7.9.1 Pavement Marking

Although replacement and repairing of pavement markings are a routine maintenance task,
the work requires a degree of skill and accuracy beyond the capacity of section crews. A
pavement marking machine is required for the task. Inspection of highways should include
loss of legibility of existing markings and need for new markings. A request for assistance
should be made as an aid to planning at more senior levels.

7.9.2 Kilometre Posts

The regular repainting and repair of kilometre posts is a routine task required for section
crews. Broken and missing kilometre posts will be installed by section crews with new
standard posts supplied by district headquarters.

7.9.3 Road Sign Repair

Repainting and repair of temporary signs may be carried out by section crews. Sings
broken beyond repair by traffic accidents and vandalism must be reported with a request
for assistance. A temporary timber sign should be erected immediately until a new sign can
be supplied and erected.

Note: Replacement sign operations will be treated as Priority: “URGENT”

7.9.4 Temporary Hazard Signs

Where temporary hazards occur that cannot be rectified immediately, temporary hazards
signs must be erected and district headquarters should be notified on a request for
assistance form. Temporary hazards include lands lides, slips and floods. In the case of
floods, a flood warning sign will be erected 200 metres before either end of the flood
point indicating maximum depth. The edges of the pavement will be demarcated through the
entire length of the flood area with black poles at 20-40 metre spacing.

Note: Temporary hazard operations will be treated as Priority: “IMMEDIATE”

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Figure 35: Format of Weekly Report

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Figure 36: Format of Request for Assistance

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Figure 37: Gravel Roads Assessment Form

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8 Periodic Maintenance Operations

The principle operations of periodic maintenance are listed in the right hand column of
―Highway Maintenance Functions‖ in Section 2.3 of chapter 2 of this volume.

Periodic maintenance consists of known and planned replacement or renewal of the working
parts of the highway structure. Wearing courses have a foreseeable life depending on their
type, quality of construction and volume of traffic usage. Similarly, paint has a known life
under weathering and even road signs are limited in the number of times they can be
repaired and repainted.

The periodic maintenance operations described below are not an exhaustive list of civil
engineering trades and techniques. They represent the major works suitable to highway
maintenance in Nigeria and for which equipment is provided.

8.1 Duties of Overseers

As previously stated periodic maintenance operations are carried out by specialist crews
with specialist equipment. Each crew is headed by an overseer who is responsible for the
performance of work. This involves planning of the practical execution, while planning of
work programmes rests with the technical officer (Periodic Maintenance) at the district. The
specialist crews are not staffed with many labourers, as they may use section crew labour
to supplement their own staff.

8.1.1 Inspections

Before start of a periodic maintenance operation the overseer of the specialist crew in
question shall inspect the site, together with the section o verseer in whose s ection the
work is to take place, in order to ensure that all necessary preparatory work has been
carried out by the section crew.

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8.1.2 Allocation of Daily Tasks

The specialist overseer will programme his resources for each day‗s operation one week in
advance. Every evening, depending on the work process during the day, he will review and
where necessary re-plan his programmes for the next four-to-five days..

8.1.3 Reports

a. Weekly Reports

The specialist overseer will submit a report to the technical overseer every week
summarizing the work progress done during the week, in order that the district can
review the work programmes and re-plan where necessary.

b. Monthly Reports

The specialist overseer will also submit a routine statistical report to the technical
overseer every month in the form of a “Monthly Labour Allocation Sheet”, as shown
and fully explained in Chapter 5 of Volume 3 ―Cost Accounting‖.

8.1.4 Requests

Requests for materials, etc. are done in the same way as explained in Section 7.1.4 of the
previous Chapter.

8.2 Drainage

The most important single factor in highway maintenance is the establishment of an

efficient drainage system and its continual upkeep in an efficient working condition.

A highway drainage system can be defined as the means for speedy and safe collection
and removal of surface water, together with the control and prevention from encroachment
of ground water.

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8.2.1 Drainage Systems

Highway drainage systems are made up of three basic forms of drainage works, namely:

 Surface water drainage

 Ground water drainage

 Transverse drainage

a. Surface Water Drainage

Surface water drainage consists of collection and control of rain precipitated onto the
surface area of the highway formation and its supporting earthwork structures. These
consist of the cuttings and embankments on which the formation is founded. Surface
water drainage also consists of the interception, collection and diversion of surface water
attempting to enter or overspill upon the formation and it‘s supporting earthwork
structures.

b. Ground Water Drainage

Ground water primarily is in a static condition and does not create the erosion damage
associated with surface water. It can however lie too close to the surface of the highway
formation causing saturation and therefore weakening of the pavement layers. It can
also become dynamic where natural surface conditions have been altered as in
cuttings, resulting in the collapse of cuttings through seepage.

Ground water drainage systems / drains are designed to control water table
levels and thereby protect the highway from encroachment of water from below.

c. Transverse Drainage

Rivers, streams and artificial drainage channels cross the alignment of highways. The
safe conduct of these water courses through and below the highway structure is that
part of the drainage system called transverse drainage. Operation involving the
maintenance of such drainage structure is detailed below under Culvert and Bridges.

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8.2.2 Surface Water Drainage

Surface water is dynamic. It moves from the pavement surface, the shoulders and adjacent
faces of cutting into drains which in turn conduct it into streams and rivers. In the
processes of these movements water will pick up clays, silts and even sands as its velocity
increases. Similarly it will release and deposit these materials as its velocity subsequently
decreases. Thus, at higher levels, uncontrolled water movements will erode drains,
shoulders, cuttings and even highway formations while at lower levels water will deposit silts
resulting in choked drains and culverts with the risk of floods and washouts.

Surface water drainage is therefore not merely a question of designing the correct size of
drain but of controlling velocity of flow and minimizing erosion and silting to manageable
proportions.

The basic elements that make up a surface water drainage system are:

 Side drains

 Cut-off drains

 Outfall drains

There may also be the need to incorporate culverts as additional elements of transverse
drainage within the outfall element

a. Side Drains

(i) Responsibility

Side drains are the primary collectors of surface water and have a limit of task for
collection of surface water run-off of rain falling on the highway formation and the side
slopes of cuttings within the right of way as defined by the width ―w‖ in Figure 38
below.

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Figure 38: Surface Water Run-Off

Side drains have additional tasks for maintaining the water table in a depressed condition
through the formation in order that the pavement layers shall not become saturated. This
is illustrated in Figure 39 below.

Figure 39: Desirable Level of Water Table

(ii) Dimensions of Side Drains

In order to be able to fulfil their responsibilities side drains must have a basic
minimum cross-sectional area and a basic minimum depth.

The capacity of the side drain is dependent upon:

 Surface water run-off

 Size of drain

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 Gradient of drain

 Distance between outfalls

Surface water run-off is normally calculated on the basis of rainfall intensity, duration
and frequency data. This may be taken for this purpose as an approximate
standard for Nigeria. The gradient of the drain will normally be fairly closely
related to that of the highway and will vary from section to section. The distance
between outfalls will be dependent upon the availability of water courses to receive
outfalls.

Thus, the normal practice is to dimension a standard drain, define the limits between
outfalls and specify a proportional increase in dimensions where the limit
between outfalls is exceeded.

Figure 40 below illustrates the dimensions of a standard side drain cut with side
slopes of 1:1 with a minimum base width of 60cmand a minimum depth of 60cm
below the edge of the shoulder.

Figure 40: Side Drain Dimensions

Such a side drain will be capable of carrying peak rainfall run-off under the following
gradient conditions and outfall spacing‘s

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Table 21: Side Drain Spacing

Gradient Distance between outfalls

0.5% 100 – 200 metres

1.0% 100 – 200 metres

Where the distance between outfalls is greater than that specified in Table 21
above, the size or gradient of the drain should be increased. Although increases in
gradient rapidly increase the carrying capacity, care should be taken not to exceed
2% if possible since the increase in velocity of flow will probably necessitate lining.
(See Drain Lining).

(iii) Location of Side Drains

It is normal practice to establish the side drain as close to the toe of the embankment
or side slope of the formation as possible, in order to obtain maximum value possible
from depression of the water table as shown in (ii) above. However, a berm or ledge
of not more than 60cm (shown as ―W1‖ in Figure 41 below) may be left to facilitate
mechanized drain cleaning. In cutting an outer berm or ledge of not less than 60cm
(shown as ―W2‖ in Figure 41 below) should be left between the drain edge and the
foot of the cutting. Where cutting faces are unstable or contain considerable ground
water this berm should be the maximum available within the width of the cutting.

Figure 41: Side Drain Construction

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(iv) Shape of Side Drains

All the illustrations shown in the Figures above are trapezoidal with 1:1 side slopes.

Side drains may, however, be cut as a continuation of the side slope of the
embankment and even as ―V‖ notches as shown below. These shapes have the
advantages of easier cleaning by graders and reduce damage to vehicles leaving the
embankment in the event of accidents. The main disadvantage of the shallow ―V‖
shaped drains lies in the grader cleaning method which tends to strip grass growth
from the drain sides. Generally, it is desirable to encourage grass growth on drain
sides as a deterrent to erosion.

Figure 42: Shape of Side Drains

b. Cut-Off Drains

(i) Responsibility

Cut-off drains are responsible for intercepting surface water, which would otherwise
enter the side drains and overload them. The intercepted run-off is conducted by
cut-off drains to lower levels where it is discharged direct into outfall drains and water
courses. An example of such a function is shown in the right hand side of Figure 43.

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Figure 43: Cut-Off Drains

The cut-off drains illustrated on the left hand side of Figure 43, while fulfilling the same
objective, also protect steep cutting slopes from overspill and terrace ponding, which could
lead to erosion and subsidence.

(ii) Dimensions of Cut-off Drains

The dimensions of cut-off drains will depend upon the area of catchment that they
serve. Generally 30cm half round precast concrete channels will prove to be
adequate, except for long runs, which will need to be tabulated for enlargement at
their outlets ends.

(iii) Location of Cut-off Drains

Cut-off drains should be located as close to the head of cutting slopes as is practical
depending on the stability of the soil. In general, a distance of one metre back
from the head should prove to be adequate. The area between the drain and the
cutting head should be grassed or close turfed to aid stability.

Cut-off drains on cutting terraces should be placed as close to the back wall as
possible with a 15cm wide strip of close turfing on either side of the drain.

(iv) Materials for Cut-off Drains

In order to fulfil their responsibilities, cut-off drains must be water-tight and free from
erosion. They should therefore, by preference, be constructed of precast concrete

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channels or invert sections. To construct the open earth drains with prime and
surface dressing is a cheaper form of construction and is frequently used where
good quality gravel soils exist. The latter type of construction, however, requires
more frequent inspection and maintenance of grass surround. The relative in-
accessibility of cut-off drains makes it well worth while using the more permanent
type of construction.

c. Outfall Drains

The responsibility of the Highway Maintenance Engineer, in respect to drainage, does

not end with the construction of a ―turn-out‖ or short spur outlet to a soak away hole.

Any outlet of side drains that does not work efficiently, or may be tampered with by
adjacent land owners, destroys the drainage system. Outfall drains must be designed,
built to design and maintained in working order. Nature looks after 90% of the problem
but the remaining ten percent (10%) requires engineering ingenuity.

The majority of highways are traversed by natural water courses enabling side drains to
be discharged directly into the streams and rivers. The length of side drain between such
water courses may however be too great to enable standard sections to cope with the
total accumulated run-off. Under these conditions the maintenance engineer must seek
low ground on either side of the highway into which he can construct an outfall drain
within the distance limits shown in the Table 22 above. Where such low ground is rare
then the side drain must be enlarged to deal with the accumulated run-off over greater
distance.

(i) Responsibility and Function

Outfalls drains are responsible for the collection of surface water from side drains
and cut-off drains and direct water safely to natural water courses. In doing so
the outfall drains may extend beyond the Right of Way and cross private lands. If
this situation becomes a necessity then agreement must be reached with private
lands owners and users to permit personnel the right of entry to the lands for the
purpose of cleaning and repair.

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(ii) Dimensions

The cross sectional area of outfall drains will be that of the side drain or cut-off drain
at entry and progressively enlarged to accommodate surface water run-off of the
catchment through which it passes. On the relatively rare occasions when outfalls
are required to exclude additional intake, e.g. when passing through rice fields, the
dimensions may be maintained continuously in equal size and the banks raised as
bunds to exclude additional water entry.

(iii) Type of Outfall Drain

Generally outfall drains are constructed as earth drains of trapezoidal shape and
grass or other vegetation, encouraging to grow on their sides and banks.

Where outfall drains received surface water from cut-off drains they may be
subjected to high velocity flow and sections of the drain may have to be lined with
concrete or rip-rap. (See Drain Lining).

(iv) Outfalls

The discharge end of the outfall will usually have either an increase in gradient or a
sudden fall to enable water to reach the lower levels in rivers and streams.
Invariably, either condition will result in scouring, which will undermine the drain. The
defect in its earliest stages is illustrated in Figure 44 below.

Figure 44: Scouring at Outfall

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The river bed, its bank and the drain must be protected from erosion by construction
of an apron by placing boulders into the scour area or by construction of rip-rap on
the spillway as illustrated in the Figure 45 below.

Figure 45: Protection of Outfall

d. Cascade Drains

In the sections above, dealing with the three basic elements of surface water drainage, it
has been stressed that velocities should be kept low. In many instances side drains,
obliged to follow highway gradients cannot avoid high velocity sections. While these
sections can be lined to prevent localized erosion, the terminal velocity when the drain
finally arrives at lower levels will necessitate unnecessary lengthening of the lined
section and considerable enlarging of the cross-sectional area to accommodate the
increased depth resulting from change of velocity. The same conditions will occur more
frequently in both cut-off drains and outfall drains.

It is therefore economically desirable to reduce flow velocities as early as possible.

This will reduce the expensive outfall erosion control elements to manageable
proportions. The primary tool for this purpose is the cascade drain.

Figure 46 illustrates the principles of cascade drainage with precast half round channels.
The drain can similarly be constructed with half elliptical invert sections or precast slabs.
The individual drain sections are laid close to the horizontal (0.5 to 1.0% slope) with

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concrete pointed back wall joints. The height of the back walls are being determined by
the drain gradient.

Figure 46: Cascade Drainage

It is recommended that all drains with gradients in excess of 5.0% be closely monitored
during rain seasons for cascade sections in zones of high-velocity and above stilling zones
of extreme depth.

8.2.3 Ground Water Drainage

In Surface Water Drainage (8.2.2) a secondary task of side drains was described as
depressing the water table within the formation and this was illustrated in Figure 39.

Sometimes within cuttings, particularly those constructed in broken or decomposed rock,

ground water tables may be so high or seepage from cutting faces so severe, that it fills
the side drains.

There may not be sufficient width available within the cutting to enable deeper drains to
be installed and under these conditions; the only satisfactory solution is the construction of
sub soil drains.

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Figure 47: Lowering of Water Table with Construction of Sub-Soil Drains

a. Sub Soil Drains

(i) Functions of Sub Soil Drains

Subsoil drains perform two main functions, namely:

 Depressing high water tables

 Intercepting seepage water

 Depressing high water tables

The method of performing this function in cuttings is clearly shown in Figure 47,
where the drain may be installed in the berm between side drain and the foot of the
cutting or directly underneath the drain which may then be lined.

Sub soil drains are also recommended by some authorities for use in low-lying areas
with high water tables. This, however, is not a very practical solution since
successful sub soil drains depend upon clear free flowing outlets, which are rarely
obtainable under these conditions.

o Intercepting Seepage Water

Figure 48 below, illustrates an example of a highway constructed on a side-cut

where high water table conditions overlying an impervious strata may cause failures.

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The construction of an intercepting sub soil drain will effectively seal off the
formation.

Figure 48: Sub-Soil Drain Overlying Impervious Strata

(ii) Dimensions of Sub Soil Drains

The basic principles of sub-soil drains are illustrated in Figure 49. The depth to which
they are constructed will depend upon its purpose and site conditions. Where it is
acting as an interceptor of ground water seepage it will have to be carried
down to the impervious base layer. Elsewhere acting as a depressor of high
water tables a depth of 0.65 to 1.0metres will normally suffice for two lane highway
formations in cuttings.

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Figure 49: Basic Principles of a Sub-Soil Drain

o Trench Width

The sub soil drain is established in a vertical sided trench. The width will not be less
than twice the diameter of the sub soil pipe. For economy of construction and
stability of the drain, the width should be kept to the minimum practical for
installation.

o Base

Where the trench is carried down to impervious strata, the base of the trench may
be cleaned and compacted with hand tampers to a uniform slope and the pipe may
be laid directly upon it. Elsewhere in permeable soils a 5cm thick of lean mix
concrete should be laid and grooved to enable the pipe to be firmly seated to at least
its wall thickness.

o Sub Soil Pipe

The ideal pipe for installation in sub soil drains is an unglazed earthenware pipe
with either 10cm or 15cm internal diameter. Perforated concrete or
asbestos/cement pipes may be used as an alternative.

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o Pipe Cover

The top 210° of the pipe should be covered with a continuous strip of impervious
material. Tar paper is normally used for this purpose. It is possible to obtain a good
permanent cover with strips cut from bitumen drums and lapped with a 10cm overlay.

o Backfill

The trench is backfilled with a suitable filter media. Well graded crusher-run
aggregate with less than 5% passing a No.200 (075 micron) sieve or 13mm single
size aggregate is ideal for this purpose. Clean washed coarse concrete sand would
also be suitable. The main essential of this material is that it shall drain efficiently and
at the same time excludes fine silts from the neighbouring soil from entering the pipe.

o Top Plug

The top 15cm of the trench will be backfilled with an impervious plug, such as clay to
exclude all surface water from the subsoil drain. Where available space is restricted,
as in narrow cuttings, plugs may consist of a lean mix concrete carrying the lined
surface water side drain.

(iii) Construction Methods

o Excavation

The trench may be excavated by hand or with a backhoe. The sides should be
precisely vertical. The width should be restricted to the limits set out in (ii)
above subject to practical working space. The floor of the trench must be cleaned
to an even slope and compacted with hand rammers.

o Installation

Where necessary a lean mix concrete base should be installed to receive the pipe.
Where the slope of the trench exceeds a gradient of 1.0% it is desirable to insert
such a base even in impermeable soils.

The sub soil pipe must be well bedded into the base with open joints. A gap of up
to 1 or 2mm may be left between pipe sections. The top of the pipe must be covered

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by a continuous strip of impervious material, which should be cut to a width of 1.85

times the outside diameter of the pipe. Where short strips only are available a
10cm overlap from the high side should be allowed on each strip.

o Backfilling

The backfill material should be placed to the level of the pipe top and lightly
tampered on either side of the pipe. Successive layers of 15cm thickness should
then be placed and firmly tampered with a hand rammer up to 15cm from the top of
the excavation.

The final 15cm should be finally installed over the surface of the reinstated
excavation and extend 30cm to either side.

(iv) Life of Sub Soil Drains

A well constructed sub soil drain should have an almost infinite life. It is not subjected
to wear due to exposure to either traffic or weather. In practice, it will fail only by
virtue of silting or chocking by entry of clays and silts. If this happens it is the fault of
the filter media, which should be so graded as to exclude movement of fines through
the media and into the pipes.

Newly constructed sub soil pipes will usually discharge water containing a little silt
and occasionally a little sand during the first few days of their life. This should not
cause alarm as it is merely the filter media and adjacent soil adjusting the balance to
meet the requirements of stable flow.

If the discharge continuous to be unclean, in all likelihood the drain will start to silt-up
and the flow will dwindle. The survival life under these conditions will probably be
limited to one or two wet seasons.

It is therefore necessary that the outfalls of all sub soil drains be regularly inspected
particularly in wet seasons when water tables are high to ensure that flow is
reasonably strong and that the discharge is clean water. If these conditions do not
exist the drain will have to be excavated, cleaned and reinstated with well compacted
and well graded filter media.

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b. Sand Blankets

(i) Functions of Sand Blankets

Sand blankets fulfil two main functions, namely:

 Rapid drainage from previous pavements and shoulders

 Prevention of capillary rise of ground water into the base

(ii) Use of Sand Blankets

Sand Blankets are most commonly and usefully employed on low embankments in
swampy areas, in areas with high water tables and in flat country sides with difficult
drainage outlet problems.

Figure 50: Typical New Construction Sand Blanket

Figure 50 illustrates a typical sand blanket installation. It is normal in new

construction for the sand blanket to extend to the full width of the formation, providing
a clear drainage path to side slope of the embankment. Where it is necessary to
install a sand blanket on existing highways to provide drainage to localized defective
areas, such as valley curves with ponded drainage outlets, it may not be practical to
extend the blanket through the existing shoulders. Under these conditions the sand
blanket should be constructed to the width of the pavement base and provided with
light sub-soil drain outlet every 20 metres on either side as shown in Figure 51.

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Figure 51: Sand Blanket in Existing Pavement

(iii) Installation of Sand Blankets

o Excavation

Strip and load out to stockpile the old surfacing and base material to half the width of
pavement and to such a length as may be satisfactorily managed with
maintenance of traffic flow.

The longer practical length should be worked to enable the operation to be

mechanically assisted by a front-end loader and grader. The material of the old base
will probably be saturated and unsuitable for use.. It may however be suitable for fill
and shoulders will be required to be raised at least to the height equivalent to the
sand blanket thickness. Hand trim or grade the base of the excavation (sub grade) to
a camber of not less than 2.5%and compact with a 6-8 ton tandem steel wheel roller
or hand operated roller in restricted size works.

o Outlet Drains

Cut by hand 25cm wide channels through thin shoulders every 20 metres on both
sides to the depth of the excavation and to a fall of 2.5%. Compact the base with
a hand rammer. Some authorities recommend installation of sub soil pipes in these
outlet drains. If this is done as described above the entry to the first section must be
closed with fine mesh wire gauge to prevent loss of sand from the blanket. Pipes are
not strictly necessary since the volume of flow is very small except during
construction of dry stone bases by the wet process.

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o Installation of Blanket

Clean river sand should be uniformly spread to a minimum depth of 15cm in any
one course simultaneously into the excavated area and the outlet drains. The sand
should be thoroughly watered, graded or trimmed to the final highway design camber
and compacted with a hand operated vibrating roller or vibrating plate compactor.
Outlet drains will be compacted by hand rammers and the remainder of the
excavated trench backfilled with shoulder material.

o Reinstatement

Shoulders should first be reinstated, raised and if necessary widened to their final
height and slope.

The base is then reconstructed to the half width pavement and provided with a
temporary wearing course or surfacing.

Traffic may now be diverted to the newly completed half pavement and the operation
repeated on the second half width.

o Completion

When reinstatement of both sides of the pavement is complete, the final

permanent wearing course may be installed, including feathering out any temporary
ramps at beginning and end of the section being worked.

Finally, shoulders may be spot turfed, dibbled or seeded with close turf strips
being laid not less than 70cm wide over each drain outlet to avoid early damaged by
chocking or traffic.

(iv) Strength of Sand Blankets

A sand blanket is essentially a sub base, which in its compacted and contained
condition, will develop a CBR value of between 15% and 30%. The installation of
a sand blanket will therefore assist in the solution of drainage problems and also
provide added strength and life to a previously weak section of the highway.
Location, depth and CBR value of the blanket should therefore be recorded on
Highway Register Sheets.

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(v) Maintenance Inspection

An efficient sand blanket will show little if any visible flow at its outlets. There is
therefore no necessity for the regular and careful inspection of discharge from
sand blanket outlet drains as described for sub soil drains. Where unglazed earthen
ware pipes have been installed in outlet drains, it is however, necessary to maintain
a careful watch on pavement edges, since loss of sand due to defective
entrance sealing will result in pavement edge cracking or even subsidence.

8.2.4 Transverse Drainage

Transverse drainage is the control of water passing across the highway front areas of
precipitation to area of reception, lakes and seas. Generally, these crossings are in water
courses accommodated by bridges and culverts. Maintenance operations associated with
these are dealt with under “Culverts” and “Bridges” below.

However, there may be need to install, replace, or repair transverse drainage in locations
other than established water courses for the purpose of:

 Side drain outlets

 Balancing water tables

a. Side Drain Outlets

(i) Side Drain Outlet Culverts

In Section 8.2.2 above, side drain outlets were defined as being required not less
frequently than every 300 metres unless the standard dimensions were increased.

Thus, in cross fall terrain, discharge from an uphill side drain must be provided with
an outlet culvert to carry away surface water to the downhill side of the highway.
Where no natural water courses exist, additional transverse drainage culverts must
be provided.

Enlarging the size and capacity of the uphill side drain will reduce the frequency with
which these transverse drainage outlets are needed. However, this will also result in
a loss of available head and an increase in the size of the culverts. There is
therefore no advantage and no economic benefit to be derived from reducing the

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number of culverts to be installed under these conditions. Figure 52 illustrates a

transverse drainage culvert in cross fall terrain.

Figure 52: Transverse Drainage Culvert

(ii) Soak Away Pits

A frequently encountered outlet design utilizes a blind outlet and occasionally a

soak-away pit to accommodate the discharge from side drains or the uphill side of a
highway. The size of such soak-away pits would have to be extremely large to
accommodate the discharge from a ten minute peak storm. In practice, with
relatively high water tables during rain seasons these soak-away pits never work.
Highways with this type of drainage design will almost certainly show drain silting on
the upstream side of the side drain and probable erosion of side drains on the
downstream side.

The presence of blind outlets and soak-away pits should immediately be noted as
maintenance points. Corrective action will almost certainly be required in the near
future and may entail:

o Enlarging sections of drain

o Drain lining

o Installing

b. Balancing Water Tables

Highway formations or embankments present attractive, readymade dams and dykes to

local authority irrigation projects.

An example of such of a highway embankment is shown in Figure 53 with the installation

of a control gate to regulate levels during irrigation and drainage seasons. This will

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create a hydraulic gradient through the embankment with differential settlement during
successive wet and dry seasons. Any proposals for such use of highway embankments
should be discouraged and adequate culverts without controls should be installed to
balance water levels on either side through the year.

Figure 53: Side Drain in Irrigation Zone; Incorrect Application

Where existing canals have caused the subsidence of the pavement edge and
shoulder, the situation can be rectified by movement of control gates onto a parallel
minor embankment for the affected length of highway. This results in minimum loss of
cultivated land and enables the highway culverts to remain permanently open as
balancing culverts. The construction is illustrated in Figure 53.

Figure 54: Side Drain in Irrigation Zone: Correct Application

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8.2.5 Mountain Road Maintenance

Mountain roads are essentially side cuttings on steep gradients in areas of usually high
intensity rainfall. As such, they are subject to damage by washouts caused by overspill of
surface water over the outer (embankment) slope and by erosion due to high velocity
surface water run-off. The build-up of defects to a condition of total failure is very fast under
these conditions and there is little warning to maintenance personnel. It is therefore
essential that mountain road drainage system be well designed and continuously inspected
for the immediate repair of each and every minor defect.

a. Collection of Surface Water

The fundamental principle for the collection of rain precipitated on the pavement area is
to direct it as quickly as possible into the inner (cutting) side drain of the roadway. This
principle had led to the practice of super elevating the entire mountain section towards
the inner face of the side cutting. Although this is very safe from a drainage point of view,
it leads to great discomfort to the user who is faced with adverse camber on re-
entrant (gully) curves and probable loss of control of the vehicle during rain storms.
Mountain sections should wherever possible be designed to the same principles
as any other highways. Figure 55 illustrates a section of mountain road containing the
three basic drainage situations:

 Spur curve

 Re-entrant curve

 Transition or short tangent

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Figure 55: Diagram of a Mountain Pass Showing Basic Drainage

The arrows indicate the downwards slopes of super elevation and gradients. Since the
gradient is likely to be in the order of 10% super elevation, it is designed to the
maximum comfort of vehicles, which is usually about 5%.

(i) Spur Curves

Spur curves, as illustrated in Figure 56, present the least problem for drainage.
Super elevation carries surface water to the inside drains and provides a feeling of
security to the motorist. The side drain should be fully lined and placed hard up
against the cutting face to avoid the risk of seepage water getting behind the drain
and undermining the formation.

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Figure 56: Spur Curves in Mountain Pass

(ii) Re-entrant Curves

On re-entrant curves, as illustrated in Figure 57, the super elevation carries surface
water towards the outer (embankment) side of the formation. To prevent overspill it
is necessary to install a lined gutter and bund or back wall. The size of this gutter
will depend upon the length of the curve but usually a square gutter of 45cm width
and depth will be adequate on the relatively short sharp curves encountered
on mountain road sections.

Figure 57: Re-Entrant Curves in Mountain Pass

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(iii) Transition and Tangent Sections

At transitions from spur curves to re-entrant curves super elevation is zero as shown
in cross section ―B-B‖ in Figure 55and illustrated in Figure 58.

Even on longer tangent sections where a 2.5% camber could be installed the 10%
longitudinal gradient takes over and surface water will stream down the line of the
roadway. It is necessary to intercept this flow and simultaneously collect gutter
discharge from the lower half of re-entrant curves and return the lot to the inner side
drain.

Figure 58: Transition Section in Mountain Pass

(iv) Lateral Interception Drains

Lateral interception drains consist basically of shallow listed open channels

topped by cattle grid type of covers as illustrated in Figure 59. Depth and gradient
need only be sufficient to receive discharge from the outside gutters and discharge it
and intercept the run-off into the inner side drains. Lateral interception drains must
be placed at every transition of super elevation and additionally on tangents where
required.

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Figure 59: Lateral Interception Drain

b. Control of Velocity

Having achieved the primary objective of preventing surface water overspill, it is now
necessary to control erosion by controlling the velocity of discharge flow in side drains,
culvert entries, culvert outlets and outfall drains.

(i) Side Drain Velocity

The average gradient of side drains will be that of the mountain road, probably up to
10% in sections. Such gradients must obviously demand fully lined drains and
velocity checks.

This can be achieved with cascade drains, check weirs and rough rubble lining.
Very steep gradient sections can be supplied with vertical drops into concrete lined
catch-pits.

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(ii) Culvert Entry

Generally, culverts will be situated in gullies on re-entrant curves and will have to
accommodate discharge from drains as well as the streams flowing in the gullies.

Both discharges are likely to be of fairly high velocity. Stream flow should first be
slowed down by a vertical drop into semicircular stilling basin leading into catch pit
which will receive side drain discharge. Dimensions will depend upon the volume
flow but should not be less than 1 metre square for the catch pit and 1 metre radius
for the stilling basin. The flow should be approximately 45cm below the culvert entry
level.

Figure 60 illustrates this.

Figure 60: Velocity Control

(iii) Culverts Outlets

Culverts will normally discharge into stream beds but from a higher level than
natural. In order to ensure that no erosion occurs at the culvert outlet, an outlet apron
and cascade discharge drain or a rip-rap trough should be provided. It may also be
useful to cast small rocks or boulders into the surface of the apron to break up the
discharge stream.

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(iv) Outfall Drains

Where no rocky river exist to carry away the discharge from culverts, genuine outfall
drains in rip-rap or cascade invert sections will have to be constructed down to
natural ground level with gentle slopes.

Final discharge onto open land may be permitted if flow velocities are kept to a
minimum and water is spread over as large an area as possible. The outfall drain
should terminate in a standard catch pit overflowing onto a semi-circular apron with
10cm concrete cubes set into its perimeter. Loose rubble should be rolled into the
ground for a further 60-70cm surrounding the apron, as shown in Figure 61.

Figure 61: Outfall Drain

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8.2.6 Side Drain Lining

a. Need for Drain Lining

(i) Visible Drainage

In general, the identification of the need to line drains in maintenance operations will
result from routine field inspections.

Erosion or scour of drain sections deepening of drains and collapse of side walls will
be evidence of excessive velocity. These sections clearly require lining. The exact
definition of the extent and size of the lining is not always clearly defined. The very
act of lining a drain will result in less resistance to flow, an increase in velocity and
an extension of the length requiring protection from erosion.

(ii) Inferred Damage

A length of drain requiring repeated de-silting suggests that erosion is occurring

upstream. This may be due to washout of surface soil from cutting shoulders or even
gravel surfaced pavements. However, it is equally likely, that it is due to the slow
and steady erosion of drain walls and bases by flow close to the permissible velocity.
Recovered silting should always be examined to determine the source of material
and defect in the drainage system that permits the erosion to occur.

b. Design Principles

From the foregoing it is obviously desirable that the maintenance engineer should have
an understanding of the basic principles of drainage channels design in order to solve
the relatively simple problems occurring in the day to day maintenance, repair and
improvement of side drains. The following presentation has been simplified for the use of
the maintenance engineers for side drain design and is therefore not applicable to major
drainage problems or the study of large catchment areas.

(iii) Surface Water Run-off

The side drain accommodates the surface water run-off from a very small
catchment area. It is therefore reasonable to use the rational formula of:

Q = C.I.A.

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Where:

Q = Run-off

C = A coefficient depending on terrain

I = Intensity of rainfall

A = Area of catchment

The limit of the area for which the side drain is responsible was shown in Figure 38.

Since the majority of highways under maintenance are two lane highways of
reasonably constant formation width, it is possible to establish a representative area
per unit length of highway. Although values of the coefficient (C) and intensity (I)
will vary from one part of Nigeria to another, the areas being dealt with are
sufficiently small and materials of surface and cover reasonably uniform to enable a
fair average to be assumed. Under these conditions, which must assume all
necessary cut-off drains have been established and are being maintained, the rate
of collection of accumulated flow of peak runoff in each side drain will be:

o Tangent Section (cambered both sides)

3
Accumulated flow (in each side drain) = 0.08m /sec/100 metres

o Curve Sections (super elevated to one side)

3
Accumulated flow (low side) = 0.11m /sec/100metres

3
Accumulated flow (high side) = 0.05 m /sec/100 metres

(iv) Flow in Side Drain

It is in the interest of the maintenance engineer to confine flow in side drains to low
velocity and it will under these conditions be a uniform or calm flow. The principles
of the manning equation will therefore apply:

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2/3 1/2
Q = M.A.R .S

Where:

³
Q : Quantity in m /sec.

M : Manning coefficient

²
A : Area of cross section of flow in m

R : Hydraulic radius = A/WP

WP : Wetted perimeter of flow in ―m‖

S : Slope or gradient of the drain

And

V : Velocity = Q/A

D : Depth of flow

Provided that a standard cross-section may be established as recommended above

and provided that standard maintenance practice preserves those drains in
permanently good conditions then the manning equation can be greatly simplified.

The manning coefficient (M) has been established by experiment and shows a wide
range of values of different qualities and conditions of channels. Taking an average
existing sided drain with grassed banks and the same drain with rough concrete
or mortared the rip-rap lining average values of the manning coefficient are:

 Unlined drain M = 25

 Lined drain M = 55

Under these limiting conditions, it is now possible to present the manning equation by
a simple graph with variable of ―Q‖, ―V‖, ―S‖ and ―d‖ as shown in Figure 109.

The chart relates to a flow in the standard trapezoidal drain of base width 0.6 metres
with side slopes between 1:1 and 2:1 having a depth of not less than 0.60 metres

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below shoulder level and designed to carry water to a depth of up to 30cm under
normal conditions.

c. Permissible Velocities

The table below lists the maximum permissible velocities of flow in unlined side drains
where the velocity exceeds that specified erosion will occur by picking up the material
from the drain base and sides and then carried in suspension to be deposited as silting
at a lower level when the velocity drops.

Table 22: Maximum Permissible Velocities

Maximum
Material Permissible Velocity
(m/sec.)

Fine sand (non-colloidal) 0.44

Sandy loam (non-colloidal) 0.5

Silt loam (non-colloidal) 0.6

Ordinary firm loam 0.7

Volcanic ashes 0.7

Fine gravel 0.7

Stiff clay (very colloidal) 1.1

Graded loam to cobbles (non-colloidal) 1.1

Graded silts to cobbles (colloidal) 1.2

Generally,
Alluvia existing side drains under maintenance
silts (non-colloidal) 0.6 will have grassed banks and
exposed soil bases. Under these conditions velocities should be restricted to that of the
Alluvial silts (colloidal)
appropriate 1.1 dry and in good maintained condition.
base soil where drains are generally
Their bases may also be well grassed. If this condition exists the flow velocity may be
Coarse gravel (non-colloidal) 1.2
permitted to rise to the higher levels shown for fully grassed drains.

Cobbles to shingles 1.5

Shale‗s and hard pans 1.8

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Shallow rooted coarse grasses 0.7

 Highway Manual Part 2: Maintenance Volume II: Maintenance Works

d. Use of the Design Chart

(i) Measurement of Drain

Measure the length of drain between outfalls and subdivide these lengths into lengths
of the constant gradient. Record the pavement type as being either cambered or
super elevated.

(ii) Calculation of Run-off

Calculate the total run-off for each individual length of drain of constant gradient
from the data provided in section “b(i)” above.

Sum up the totals to obtain the total accumulated run-off for the entire drain length

(iii) Determination of Velocity and Depth

³
Insert the total accumulated run-off in m /sec onto the horizontal axis of the upper
chart in Figure 109. Construct a vertical line to intersect with the appropriate slope
curve corresponding to the drain gradient at the point being studied. Read off the
velocity on the vertical axis. Determine the depth by interpolation between the
straight depth lines.

(iv) Excessive Velocity

Where the velocity determined above exceeds that permissible for the drain material
listed in the velocity table, lining will be required. Construct a horizontal line on the
upper chart of Figure 109 at the permissible velocity to intersect with the appropriate
slope curve. Read off the quantity flow on the horizontal axis. Determine the
chainage at which this accumulated flow occurs. This is the chainage at which lining
must be introduced.Height of Lining

Using the lower chart, insert the final total accumulated flow quantity and drain
gradient and read off the depth of flow in the lines drawn by interpolation
between the depth curves. Choose a standard height section to accommodate
this by allowing for not less than 5cm freeboard.

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(v) Example Calculation

Consider the need for lining. A 350 metre drain section, which is causing silting in
the outfall drains.

o Measurement

Field measurement shows the highway to be a tangent equally cambered to both

sides. The two side drains consist of 150 metres at a gradient of 2% followed by 200
metres at a gradient of 3%. All drain sections are cut into stiff clay with clean soil
bases and well grassed banks.

o Calculation

 Run-off

Since the highway is cambered, run-off to each side drain will be as from sub-section
³
“ b)(i)”, above. 0.8m /sec for each 100 metres of the highway. The quantities are
calculated separately for each section and entered into tabular form as shown in
Table 23 below.

 Velocity Depth Calculation

Table 23: Velocity Calculations

Quantity Section
Chainage Length Gradient Cross Fall Velocity Depth
Total

0.8x150/100 0.86 16
0 -150 150 2% Camber
= 0.12

0.8x200/100 1.22 22
0.12
150 - 350 200 3% Camber
= 0.16

0.28

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³
Inserting quantity 0.12m /sec into the upper chart of Figure 109 (point A) and
drawing a vertical line to cross with slope curve 2% gives a velocity on the vertical
axis of 0.86 metres/sec, (point A1) at chainage 0+150. The depth at this point is by
interpolation between the 15cm depth line and 23cm depth line and 16cm depth.

The accumulated quantity at chainage 0+350 is 0.28 (point B) which similarly

inserted into the upper chart to the 3% slope curve gives a velocity of 1.22
metres/sec (point B1) and a depth of 22cm.

 Permissible Velocity

In the velocity table the maximum permissible velocity for staff clay is 1.1 metre/sec,
whilst that for good quality grass it is 1.8 metre/sec

Thus, the velocity at chainage 0+150 is satisfactory whilst that at chainage of 0+350
will cause scour of the drain base with no damage to the grasses side slopes.

The depth of flow at both locations is well within the drain capacity.

 Location of Lining

Insert the maximum permissible velocity of 1.1 metres/sec (point C) onto the vertical
axis of the upper chart to intersect with the 3% slope curve as shown in Figure 109.
Intersection occurs at a quantity of 0.195m3/sec (point C1). This quantity of flow is
accumulated in the drain at:

(0.195 - 0.12) x 100 = 93.75 metres

0.08

From the start of the 3% gradient section or at chainage 150+93.75 = 243.75 metres.

Lining must therefore commence at chainage 0+243.75 and continue through to

chainage 0+350 at the outfall on both sides.

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 Height of Lining

Using the lower chart for lined drains inserting the total flow of 0.28m³/sec at a
slope of 3% results by interpolation in a depth of 17.3cm (point D).

Thus, a standard 25cm deep lined section will be adequate to carry the estimated
maximum peak flow.

It should be noted, that the terminal velocity of flow at the outfall will not be much
greater than 1.2m/sec (as indicated by the reduced depth of flow). It will therefore be
necessary to protect both outfall drains by lining cascade sections aprons with
random rubble, etc., depending on the type and condition of the outfall.

e. Type of Lining

Commonly employed drain linings are:

 Cast-in-situ concrete

 Rip-rap

 Precast invert sections

 Precast concrete slabs.

For simplicity and economy only, rip-rap and precast concrete slabs are recommended
for use in maintenance operations were relatively short will be required.

(i) Rip-Rap

Where quarried stone boulders and cobbles are readily available, rip-rap offers an
easily constructed material that can be laid as a drain lining by semi-skilled labour
available to maintenance crews. Stone size should be flat or flaky with minimum size
of 10cm. The base and side slopes to be lined should be trimmed and well
compacted with hand rammers. Stone should be laid first on the base, binding each
stone to the proceeding ones with a full depth of 1.2 cement sand mortar. Work
should progress uniformly up the 1:1 side slope joints and should be trowelled
roughly level to the surface.

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(ii) Precast Concrete Slabs

Ideally, such drain linings are constructed with cast-in-situ concrete bases on a lightly
sanded and compacted soil bed and rebated to receive precast slabs for the side
slopes. Precast slabs of 35cm x 25cm laid at 1.1 side slopes will provide a lined
drain w i t h depth of 25cm requiring 8 slabs per metre run. Joints may be left open to
receive seepage water, provided that the slabs are bedded firmly on well dressed
and lightly sanded slopes. The joint with the base must be mortared. Slabs of these
dimensions will weigh approximately 21kg and will be sufficiently easy to handle to
reduce risk of breakage or need for reinforcement.

Should it be necessary to lay precast bases to the drains due to high water tables or
urgency in wet seasons, , the length of base slab should be reduced to 15-20cm
to keep the weight of the units within practical limits of handling. Figure 62
illustrates a drain lined with concrete slabs.

Figure 62: Concrete Lined Side Drain

8.3 Shoulders

The shoulder is the part of the highway structure lying between the pavement edge and
the side drain or side slope of the formation or embankment.

Shoulders fulfil the following primary functions:

 Provision of lateral support against the horizontal components of load and weight
from the pavement structure.

 Provision of space for vehicle escape in dangerous traffic situations

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 Provision of emergency parking space for broken down vehicles

 Provision of space for highway furniture such as road signs

Supplementary uses of shoulders, for which they are not normally designed, are the
provision of parking space and space for the installation of utility services. Wherever
possible, utility services should be placed outside of the line of the side drain. Shoulders
may be constructed either as hard shoulders or soft shoulders.

Both types are subject to erosion both by weather and traffic and will therefore require
replacement or renewal of the eroded fraction by periodic maintenance.

8.3.1 Paved Hard Shoulders

Hard shoulders are usually provided either in areas where climate conditions or soil makes
it difficult to cultivates cover-crop, heavily trafficked highways or where break-down and
parking incidence is most likely higher. Under these circumstances, the hard shoulder will
usually be paved with surface dressing bitumen macadam or asphaltic concrete. These
surfaces will be subject to wear and will require periodic renewal. The operations are
described generally below.

8.3.2 Unpaved Hard Shoulders

Where parking loads are less likely and in the dry northern areas where soils and climate
make grass a difficult cover-crop to grow, hard shoulders are frequently constructed of
soil aggregate such as lateritic gravel. Such soil aggregates are very susceptible to wear,
both from weathering and traffic and particularly where pavement widths are inadequate to
traffic demand. The periodic maintenance operation is described generally below.

8.3.3 Soft Shoulders

a. General

Soft shoulders are normally dressed with topsoil and planted or turfed with grass as a
cover-crop to protect them from weather erosion. They are however very susceptible to
traffic damage which takes the form of rutting and potholing and particularly traffic wear,

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resulting in an eroded channel between shoulder and pavement edge. Although much of
this damage should be continuously made good by routine maintenance, it will be
necessary to undertake periodic major repair once or twice a year, preferably at
the beginning and end of the rain season when shoulder material will be sufficiently
malleable (available).

b. Operation

The shoulder should be given one pass with a light roller of 4½ ton capacity under
moist conditions. This will even out minor depressions and irregularities. The remaining
holes and ruts should now be clearly visible and will be raked out to square edged
shape with loosened soil in the base.

The holes and ruts are then filled with turf and given a further two passes with the roller.

c. Turf Stockpiles

Turf will normally be cut from suitable level turfed areas of the right of way outside of the
line of the side drains. Turf should be cut in 20-30 cm squares and 5 cm thick, taking
spot turfs from not more than 20% of the area available. Turf will be loaded into a
pick-up or flat bed truck, lightly watered and transported to the working site. At the end
of each working day the holes left in the stockpile area will be backfilled with top soil and
lightly tamped level with the surrounding ground. The newly backfilled areas should be
lightly seeded to encourage re-growth of grass, unless the existing cover consists of a
rapid spreading grass such as dub.

8.3.4 Cycle Tracks and Footpaths

In urban areas, the shoulder may be used to accommodate cycle tracks or footpaths. These
are usually constructed of surface dressing or bitumen macadam wearing course on light
soil aggregate bases. Periodic resurfacing of cycle tracks is best undertaken with fine
textured mixes of bitumen macadam, since cyclist invariable reject coarser textured
surface dressings and use the smoother main carriageway. The operations required for such
periodic maintenance are described generally below.

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8.4 Right Of Way (ROW)

8.4.1 Periodic Clean-Up

At least once a year in the north and twice a year in the south (or three times in two years)
there should be a general clean-up of the full width of the right-of-way. This includes cutting
vegetation that was missed in routine operations (probably because it is near the fence lines
or is bearing a crop), removing rubbish and scarp such as vehicles that had been in
accidents, repairs of fences where they exist and generally improving the aesthetic
appearance of the ROW. In areas where crops are growing within the ROW the owner of the
crops should be requested to do his own clean up after the crop is harvested and, that he
should be asked not to replant within this area.

8.4.2 Illegal Structures and Buildings

During the periodic clean-up of the ROW, it is essential that all structures and buildings
erected by the population within the ROW should be listed and appropriate action be
determined by the maintenance engineer.

In some cases, such as illegal buildings, legal action may have to be initiated by a senior
engineer in corporation with local authorities and perhaps even the police. In other cases,
such as new accesses, the engineer will have to decide on the spot whether the access can
be allowed to remain and whether the actual location of the access does not present a
traffic hazard. Owners of kiosks and market stalls should be discouraged from infringing
on the shoulders and side drains and preferably should be encouraged to locate their
business completely outside of the ROW.

Advertisement boardings should be dismantled as they are not permitted within the ROW,
but it is obviously more effective to control the erection of hoardings at the time they are
being erected. Signs, indicating directions to adjacent properties, establishments or
signs which are defunct, should be removed.

Any other objects which the engineer considers could present possible danger to traffic
including the emergency use of any part of the ROW, shall be removed. Included in this
category are concrete flower beds adjacent to the shoulder and in general any solid object
which, if hit by a moving vehicle would be likely to cause injury to the vehicle‗s occupants.

Finally, local authorities should be discouraged from erecting archways over the highway,
A common practice in Nigeria is to stretch cloth or paper signs over the highway between
two poles. If the use of either of these is considered essential they should be removed as
soon as their practical use has become outdated.
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Other appurtenances within the ROW are dealt with in Sections 8.10 and 8.11

8.5 Bituminous Pavements

8.5.1 Prime Coat

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Priming consists of a thin membrane of cut-back bitumen, which penetrates into the
material voids and pores of a surface in order to prepare the surface to receive a
bituminous pavement course. Its performance and purpose are that of a primer paint
applied to raw timber.

(ii) Functions

The main functions fulfilled by priming are:

 Provision of a bond between a non-bituminous lower course and a bituminous

upper course of the pavement structure.

 Provision of a weak waterproofing membrane to a limited extent

 Stabilizing the surface of a lower course to a dust free condition that will not
damage the next course of construction.

It should be noted that a prime is not in itself a wearing course of surfacing. It has
little strength and will strip from the surface if exposed to traffic for any appreciable
length of time.

b. Application

A prime can be applied satisfactorily to any of the following pavement courses:

 A soil aggregate surface to receive a surface dressing

 An unpaved hard shoulder to receive surface dressing or bitumen macadam cycle

track or footpath.

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 A dry stone surface to receive a surface dressing, bitumen macadam or asphaltic

concrete

 A soil cement base to receive a surface dressing, bitumen macadam or asphaltic

concrete.

 A soil or soil aggregate drain to receive a light surface dressing as a protection

against erosion.

c. Strength

A prime does not possess any structural strength to contribute towards the load carrying
capacity of the pavement.

d. Design Principles

There are no mathematical or empirical formulae to aid the engineer in the grade
selection of bituminous materials, or conditions and rates of application for priming.
Although, in general, a nominal rate if application for prime is taken at 0.7litres per metre
squared (l/m²), successful priming is dependent largely upon experience and the
knowledge of the pavement layer materials. Wherever a major application of priming is to
be carried out a test strip or trial should first be tried and examined in detail to determine
the appropriate rate of application. The factors governing the successful application of
priming are:

 Porosity of the existing surface to be primed

 Rate of application of cat-back bitumen

(i) Porosity

The strongest and most efficient prime will be that which penetrates most deeply into
the surface pores of the material to be treated. The surface should therefore be
carefully examined to determine the size and depth of pores to ascertain application
rate of the prime.

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o Soil Aggregate Surfaces

Soil aggregates will have a fine textured surface with small pores /voids and will
probably have a very dusty surface. Excessive dust should be removed by light
brooming or blowing. The pores can be enlarged and deepened by light watering up
to an hour prior to the application of the prime.

o Dry Stone Base

Crushed, graded stone aggregates will be relatively coarse textured and probably, if
recently constructed, have a surplus of fines lying on the surface. The surface should
be firmly brushed / broomed to remove all loose fines and blown free of dust.

o Soil Cement Bases

Newly constructed soil cement bases will be very close textured with very small pores
and very little voids. They may be dusty and should be very lightly brushed before
priming. Sometimes the specifications for construction require the soil cement to be
bituminous sealed to aid curing. If so, no priming should be undertaken and a normal
tack-coat will suffice. For the next stage of construction a bitumen macadam or
asphaltic concrete is to be applied.

o Rate of Application

The cut-back bitumen primer will fulfil two tasks:

 To lightly coat the surface and expose particle faces in the surface voids

 Penetrate down into the material voids

The coating effect is relatively large with coarse textured materials such as dry stone
bases and very small with the finer textured materials such as soil cement and
higher clay content soil aggregates. The penetration effect will depend upon the
density of the material and will vary from 5-8mm with soil aggregates to 5-12mm
with-dry stones bases. Approximate application ranges are given in Table 24 below:

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Table 24: Approximate Application Rates

Surface Material 2
Application kg/m

Soil Aggregate 0.8 – 1.2

Dry Stone Base 1.0 – 1.4

Soil Cement 0.7 – 1.0

Soil Drains 0.6 – 1.0

o Test Section

For small scale operations, mark out a section of the carriageway adjacent to the
edge or on the shoulder if construction is of the same material ( half a metre wide by
two metres long). Erect barriers, warning signs and lights. Clean and prepare the
surface and lightly water it to achieve a drying moist condition.

Select a rate of application near the middle of the appropriate range in Table 24
above. Apply the primer and allow 48 hours for full penetration and curing.

For major operations, the same procedure can be applied using a bitumen distributor
over a length of plus / minus 50m and a width equal to the spray-bar of the bitumen
distributor.

Examine the surface condition carefully:

 A bare light brown appearance will suggest insufficient primer which can be
verified by cutting.

 A uniform dark surface with the original texture still recognizable will
suggest close to correct rate of application.

 Pools of bitumen visible on the surface overlaying and obscuring the texture
will suggest either too much primer or no penetration.

Cut a number of small holes or trenches in the primed surface carefully with a
penknife. Measure the depth of penetration. A minimum of not less than 5mm should
be achieved. It should average within the ranges quoted above. Where less than
5mm penetration is achieved on soil aggregate in association with pools of
freestanding bitumen on the surface, it will suggest excessive fines in the surface
and a poor grading that would warrant scarifying, mixing and re-establishment of the
surface prior to priming.

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e. Equipment

(i) Bitumen Distributor

As described under Surface Dressing

(ii) Mechanical Broom

As described under Surface Dressing

(iii) Chipping Spreader

Where traffic is permitted to use the primed section of the highway between priming
and subsequent application of the next course of construction it will be necessary to
utilize a chipping spreader to loosely bind the prime with sand during the
intervening time interval. This machine required is described under Surface
Dressing.

f. Construction Methods

(i) Inspection

The first essential work to be undertaken is a detailed inspection to determine the

factors governing design repair works and possible changes to geometry.

o Factors Governing Design

Pavement widths must be measured throughout the section to be treated and the
surface condition must be checked for:

 Porosity

 Type

 Dust

It is necessary for existing (i.e. in use) soil aggregate surfaced roads to check for
looseness or less of fines from the surface and depth of gravel surface remaining.
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Due to rapid wear of this material under traffic and weather there may not be
sufficient or sufficiently well graded material remaining to support the next course of
construction with stability.

o Repair Works

The highway must be inspected for:

 Drainage defects

 Shoulder defect and irregularity

 Culvert damage or inadequacy

 Bridge approach subsidence‘s and damage

 Pavement defects such as potholing, cracks, depressions, corrugation and

ravelling

All these defects must be made good well in advance of commencements of priming.

In the case of existing (in use) soil aggregate surfaces being primed for upgrading,
extensive damage to the pavement would justify total scarifying, regarding and
compaction.

o Changes in Geometry

Where existing soil aggregate pavements are to be overlaid with bituminous material
courses, consideration must be given to the need to change the camber prior to
priming. Soil aggregate pavements are usually laid to a camber of 4.5%. This
should be reduced to 2.0 to 2.5% depending on the material of the final course to be
constructed. Excessive camber in bituminous wearing courses will result in a too
rapid run-off velocity of surface water and subsequent erosion of shoulders,
particularly if they are uncovered hard shoulders.

(ii) Planning

As soon as design and remedial work is complete, all materials may be

ordered and reservations made on equipment. A date may be assigned to the

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operation. Priming is most satisfactorily carried out in dry seasons when water used
for opening pores can evaporate quickly.

Consideration should be given to carrying out priming works to full width whenever
possible since it is basically a simple and fast operation. Where by-pass roads are
available due notice should be given to the public of the hours of closure. Where this
is not possible, planning should allow for the maximum practical single lane
operation or short section of full width in either case immediately blinded with loose
sand for minor interruptions to traffic flow.

(iii) Safety

Warning signs, barriers, stop-go boards or lights and flagmen will be required. If
short duration total road closures are planned, the presence of a policeman at each
end of the work is desirable. Where traffic is to be allowed on the prime it must be
regulated to slow traffic speeds. Adequate warning boards for possible windscreen
damage must be displayed.

(iv) Operation

The operation of priming is basically identical to that described under Surface

Dressing with the following exceptions only:

o No Cover Aggregate

No chippings will be placed on the prime. Only if traffic is permitted to use the primed
surface will coarse dry river sand be applied over the prime and left in a loose un-
compacted condition.

o No Rolling

The prime does not require rolling. The loose cover of sand, if applied, must not be
rolled since it has no permanent place in this operation or as part of the structural
bond between courses.

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o No Hurry

Since there is no aggregate to be placed onto the cut-back bitumen and no

compaction requirement the cooling of the primer is of no consequence.

o Long Application Lengths

Due to no concern and time restrictions on the construction of the next layer, long
lengths of highway can therefore be treated, restricted only by inconvenience to
traffic and construction programmes.

(v) Longitudinal Joints

If it is necessary to undertake the operation in lane widths, extreme care should be

taken for the overlapping joint on the centre-line of the carriageway. Single lap
spraying is preferable since a light application of primer will tend to seal the surface
and prevent penetration of the balance requirement applied at a later time. This
results in a weak and fatty centre-line to the carriageway.

(vi) Preparation for Next Course

Prior to application of the next course of construction the primed surface must
be prepared. The works required are:

o Cleaning

All remaining loose cover sand, where this was used and all dirt and dust should be
lightly brushed from the surface.

o Traffic Damage

The primed surface should be checked for ruts, potholes and corrugation caused by
traffic provided the loose cover sand was not excessive in quantity and the time
interval under traffic minimal. These damages will not be extensive.

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o Reinstatement of Defects

Any defects in the priming which will not become apparent until the 48 hour curing
time has elapsed and loose sand cover removed should be made good as described
under Defects In Priming below.

g. Defects in Priming

(i) Under-priming

Under-priming will become apparent by the appearance of dry light coloured patches
or lines on the surface. If these are small isolated patches they are probably due to
areas of low fines content that absorbed the available prime too quickly. Extensive
areas or lines may be due to faulty nozzles on the bitumen distributor or
miscalculation of the rate of application.

Correction of under-priming is relatively easy provided the areas concerned are

first lightly brushed to break the surface seal and then re-primed with a hand lance.
The work is most efficiently carried out if the defect can be identified early before the
initial prime is complete.

(ii) Shallow Penetration

Shallow penetration will become visible through the appearance of pools of cut-
back on the surface and is usually caused by excessive fines in localized patches or
by careless preparatory cleaning of the surface. Depth of penetration should be
checked with a penknife and the defect corrected by removal of the area concerned.
Reinstatement is carried out with correctly and well graded material as for pothole
patching and re-primed with a hand lance.

(iii) Over-priming

Over-priming will become visible by the presence of a free film or pool bitumen on
the surface completely obscuring the pattern of the original surface texture. It may
be due to incorrect application rates, a surge in the bitumen pump of the distributor
or, if localized, due to a depression in the surface receiving excess primer from
surrounding higher and dry looking areas.

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This is the most serious of all defects and one which, if not corrected will result in
reflected bleeding through the subsequent course of either surface dressing or
asphaltic concrete.

Correction of over-priming can be partially achieved by spreading a layer of course

dry sand over the area at the hottest part of the day, rolling and subsequent
removal with square ended spades. The treatment must be repeated as often as
is necessary to achieve the best possible texture. Localized over-priming is most
satisfactorily corrected by removal and reinstatement as a pothole.

8.5.2 Single Surface Dressing

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Single Surface Dressing is a wearing course consisting of a thin layer of bitumen

followed by a layer of aggregate placed shoulder to shoulder and pressed into
bitumen. Also known as a ―Single Seal‖

(ii) Functions

The main functions fulfilled by single surface dressing are:

 Provision of a dust-free wearing surface

 Provision of a water-proof seal to prevent ingress of surface water to the

pavement courses.

 Reduction of disintegration of old bituminous surface showing signs of wear

 Restoration of non-skid qualities to surfaces that have become smooth

To a lesser extent single surface dressing may also fulfil the following additional
functions:

 Closure of voids and hardening of existing surfaces

 Provision of a temporary wearing course to surfaces where further

strengthening is subsequently required (deferred improvement)

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b. Application

Single Surface Dressing may be satisfactorily applied to any of the following

pavement types:

 A good quality gravel road surface that has been primed satisfactorily.

 An existing surface dressed road surface, which has become porous or smooth

 An existing penetration macadam road surface, which is not excessively open

textured

 A new dry stone base that has been primed satisfactorily

 A new cement stabilized base that has been primed satisfactorily

 An existing asphaltic concrete road surface where individual stone shapes are
readily visible over 80% or more of the surface area.

 An existing bitumen macadam road surface.

 An existing or new concrete road surface, which has been suitably roughened to
receive the treatment

c. Strength

Single Surface Dressing is essentially a wearing course and possesses no

structural strength to contribute towards the load carrying capacity of the pavement
courses. It should be noted however, that properly designed and applied multiple
surface dressing and therefore successive Single Surface Dressings can provide
additional strength to the pavement if there is a stone-to-stone interlock between
successive courses of aggregate.

d. Design Principles

The three primary factors to be considered in design of Single Surface Dressing are:

 Rate of application

 Aggregate size

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 Rate of application of aggregate

Since both, the rate of application of aggregate and binder are largely dependent upon
the size of aggregate selected, this item must be considered first.

Secondary factors in design, such as aggregate types, are discussed below. The
first analysis of design principles is however restricted to consideration of crushed stone
chipping, which constitutes the most common and effective aggregate in use.

(i) Selection of Chipping Sizes

Factors governing the behaviour of chipping in Single Surface Dressing are primarily:

o Surface Texture

Open textured pavements such as old penetration macadam or primed water bound
macadam will require larger sized chippings to fit surface voids. Old asphaltic
concrete and bitumen macadam will require smaller sized chippings.

o Surface Strength

Very hard surface such as good penetration macadam and old concrete will resist
the bedding of aggregate a n d thereby necessitating the use of small sized
chippings. Conversely the relatively soft primed lateritic gravels permit chippings to
bed well down into the surface where small chippings would be too deeply
immersed in the binder layer and result in a fatty surface condition. This will
necessitate either a reduction in binder or a larger stone aggregate.

o Traffic

Heavily trafficked highways should be surfaced with small sized chippings since
these lie closer to the road surface and are more strongly bedded into the binder
layers. Therefore, there will be less risk of whip off of chippings under fast moving
vehicles. Careful attention should also be given to binder application rates and a
balance be made between chippings size and binder application rate. Table 25 gives

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an approximate estimation of stone size. However, it should be used in isolation

binder application rates and must be taken into account when determining the size of
chippings.

Table 25: Relationship between Traffic and Size of Chippings

Surface Strength
Surface Texture Traffic
Hard Medium Soft

Heavy 6 6 6

Dense Medium 9 9 9

Light 9 9 9

Heavy 9 9 12

Average Medium 9 9 12

Light 9 12 12

Heavy 9 12 12

Open Medium 12 12 12

Light 12 12 16

(Sizes are in mm square mesh screen)

Traffic densities are defined as:

 Light Traffic Less than 100 vehicles per day

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 Medium Traffic 100 – 100 vehicles per day

 Heavy Traffic More than 100 vehicles per day

Where excessive contractions to selection of chipping sizes occur alternative

solutions will have to be used. For example, an excessively open textured
penetration macadam requires the use of large chippings of 16mm or larger size.
However, if such a highway were also subjected to very heavy traffic, the surface
would be too coarse a texture and would almost certainly experience excessive
whip off resulting in broken windscreens and failure of the surfacing treatment. The
alternative solution will be found below under Multiple Surface Dressing.

(i) Rate of Application of Chippings

The rate of application of chippings is dependent upon the size and shape of the
chippings selected and is summarized for these in Table 26 below:

Table 26: Rate of Application of Chippings

Size of Chippings Cover (kg/m²)

6mm 6–8

9mm 9 – 12

12mm 11 – 16

16mm 13 – 20

Higher rates are used for round or cubical chippings, lower rates for flaky chippings.

The above rates of application are slightly in excess of those theoretically

required to allow for early losses of some chippings brushed off by traffic before
chipping are fully bedded.

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(ii) Rate of Application of Binder

A number of formulae and charts have been developed to assist engineers in

estimating the correct rate of application of binder. The most popular of these is
shown in Figure 63.

The zero diagonal line represents the rate of application of binder under average and
ideal conditions. The positive and negative factor diagonal lines on either side
represent the cumulative effect on the rate of application of binder caused by
variations in traffic density, type of old surface, aggregate quality and climatic
conditions. The factors recommended are shown in Table 27 to Table 30 below:

Table 27: Traffic Factors

Commercial
Traffic Factor
Vehicles/day

Very light 0 – 15 +2

Light 15 – 45 +1

Medium 45 – 150 0

Medium-Heavy 150 – 450 -2

Heavy 450 – 1,500 -4

Very Heavy *** 1,500 – 4,500 -6

***This factor is dangerously low and Single Surface Dressing would not normally
be used for such a high traffic density, except as a short term stage construction
expedient.

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Table 28: Surface Factors

Type of Old Surface Factors

Untreated/Primed Base*** +6

Very Lean Bituminous +4

Lean Bituminous +2

Average Bituminous 0

Rich Bituminous -1

Very rich Bituminous -3

*** This factor is dangerously high and would require careful inspection of the
quality of prime surface dressing and should not be applied on un-primed bases.

Table 29: Aggregate Quality Factors

Quality of Aggregate Factors

Pre-coated -2

Flaky -2

Cubical 0

Round or Dusty +2

These factors do not differentiate between types of stone, which vary in their
absorption and affinity properties.

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Table 30: Climatic Factors

Climatic Conditions Factors

Wet and Cold +2

Wet and Hot +1

Temperate 0

Dry -1

Dry and Hot -2

Single surface dressing will be planned for dry season work and the wet and
temperate conditions will apply therefore only to emergency works.

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Figure 63: Surface Dressing Chart

All of the above four factors, Traffic, Surface Condition, Aggregate and Climate are now
added geometrically to obtain an overall factor to be used in selection of binder application
rate. See Figure 63.

In practice, the maintenance engineer will be using chipping from only one source and in
constant pre-selected climatic conditions. He will therefore build up experience, which
will guide him into making his own adjustments to the factors shown above to suit his
own requirements.

The most dangerous of all the errors that can arise from above empirical approach is
miscalculation of the chipping sizes. Badly designed screens can admit a surprisingly large

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proportion of undersize material into a nominal size bin. Badly worn screens (particularly
round hole punched plate) can admit consistently oversize material. If the results of work
show that the finished surface is becoming fatty or lean then a check analysis of aggregate
is the first investigation to be carried out.

A sample of aggregate is sieved and measured for average least dimension (laboratory
test). The results are plotted as given in Table 31 below:

Table 31: Example of Average Particle Size Calculation

Sieve Percent Average Least

Percent Calculation
Size Passing Dimension Size
(mm)

12mm 100 10.6 10 10.6 x 0.10 =1.06

9mm 90 7.4 70 7.4 x 0.70 = 5.16

6mm 20 4.7 17 4.7 x 0.17 = 0.80

No. 8 3 - -

Average Particle Size = 7.02

Nominal Particle Size = 12mm

Average Particle Size = 7.02mm

The result above, probably due to elongated chippings is a typical defect in limestone
²
and would result in 0.12 kg/m excess bitumen – probably just sufficient under medium to
heavy traffic to concrete a fatty appearance.

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(iii) Acceptable Materials

o Aggregates

 Crushed Stone

Ideally only crushed stone chippings should be used for single surface dressing.
These should, as closely as possible from the quarry plant available, be single size
chippings. Their shape should be as nearly cubical as possible. All faces should be
crushed or cut faces to enable the individual particles to interlock.

Granite particularly and practically all igneous rocks are suitable as surface dressing
aggregates

Of the sedimentary rocks only some lime stones are suitable. Whilst most limestone‗s
have sufficient strength and good affinity to asphalt many of them polish under traffic
wear and provided a low sideways force coefficient.

Quartzite‘s generally are very strong and may be excellent surface dressing
aggregates provided the silica content is not so high as to make them hydrophilic

 River Gravel

River gravels are not normally acceptable as aggregates due to their polished and
rounded faces. Crushed and screened gravels can be accepted as material for
medium to low trafficked roads, provided at least two faces have been broken.

 Sands

Washed and screened coarse river sands are acceptable only on very lightly
trafficked roads and when placed on hard dense old surfaces. Coarse sands have
been used with success on concrete pavements and as temporary seals to
good bitumen macadam surfaces.

 Pit Gravel

Quartz and quartzite gravel washed and screened from soil aggregate deposits are
usually of an excellent shape and hardness. Normally they are highly hydrophilic
although successful use has been made of them by pre-coating.

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Pea gravel washed and screened from lateritic gravel deposits and crushed lateritic
conglomerate may be used as aggregate on very lightly trafficked roads which are
being upgraded from gravel pavements. Pea gravel can be quite hard and provided
it is clean has good affinity for asphalt and its irregular shape beds well into lateritic
gravel bases.

o Binders

The most common binders in use for single surface dressing are:

 Straight run bitumen 85 – 100 penetration; 120 – 150 penetration and 200 –
300 penetration

 Heavy-cut-backs such as S.125

 Medium to heavy cut-backs such as MC 250, MC 800 and MC 3000.

Generally straight run bitumen and heavy cut-backs are preferred with the larger
sizes of chipping sand the lighter cut-backs are preferred with smaller sizes of
chipping owing to their lower working temperature and greater fluidity. The prejudice
against the use of straight run bitumen‗s can largely be overcome by mechanization
of chipping application and good planning to eliminate needless time delay and
cooling after the binder has been laid.

(iv) Application Temperatures

The choice of binder to suit the works, materials and availability will govern the
temperature at which application is made. The recommended viscosity for spraying
is 20 to 120 centistokes kinematic viscosity and the temperatures required to
produce this range are shown in Table 32 below:

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Table 32: Bitumen Spraying Temperatures

Bitumen Grade Spraying Temperature ºC

Penetration Grade

85 – 100 145 – 200

120 – 150 140 – 200

200 - 300 135 - 195

Cutback Grade

S.125 130 – 160

MC.250 75 – 130

MC. 800 95 – 150

MC.3000 115 - 170

e. Equipment

(i) Bitumen Distributor

o Basic Distributor Machine

The bitumen distributor consists of a truck mounted, insulated tank containing an oil
burning heating system. An armored thermometer records the bitumen temperature.

The distributor is equipped with a power driven pump capable of handling a wide
range of products from light emulsions to heavy straight run bitumen heated to
spraying viscosity. At the rear of the machine is a spray bar and nozzle through
which bitumen is forced under pressure onto the road.

o Circulation System

The pump and value controls provide a circulation system which:

 Fills the distributor tank

 Circulates bitumen in the spray bar and tank

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 Sprays bitumen through the spray bar or hand lance

 Draws bitumen back to the tank from the spray bar

 Pumps bitumen from the tank to outside storage

o Spray Bar

The spray bar is the most important part of the machine and that part is most
susceptible to damage or misuse. It is vital that spray pressure shall be uniform
across the full width of the bar and that each and every nozzle shall be clear and fully
operational. This can only be achieved if the bar and nozzle are cleaned out with a
solvent (Kerosene) at the end of each day‗s work and that the bar be checked in the
depot prior to each day‗s work. Nozzles may be individually or collectively closed to
vary the width of spray. The bar may be adjusted in height to provide single or
multiple lap.

o Bitu-metre

The rate of application of bitumen to the surface is varied by the speed of travel of the
distributor to enable the driver to control this accurately. The machine is fitted with a
measuring wheel on a retractable frame connected by cable to an odometer in the
driver‗s cab showing the speed in metres or feet per minute. Care must be taken to
ensure that the wheel is clean as a build up of bitumen on its tyre will result in
measuring errors.

o Calibration

The distributor should be calibrated from time to time by driving it over 30cm square
absorbent pads or shallow metal trays and weighing the resultant cover of bitumen.
These are plotted on a graph to ensure correct speed; pump pressure and lap are
selected and controlled for each job.

(ii) Chipping Spreader

The chipping spreader consists of a hopper mounted on wheels, which is clipped

to the rear of a tipping truck and driven by drums and chain drive attached to the
truck‗s rear wheels. Paddles within the hopper ensure an even lateral distribution of

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chippings. Adjustment to the hopper feed gates and operating speed of the reversing
truck control the rate of application. Calibration checks are carried out in a similar
manner to that described for bitumen distributors using shallow metal trays.

(iii) Mechanical Broom

All pavement surfaces must be cleaned prior to application of the binder. New road
surfaces must be cleaned of loose binding material and dust. Old surface must be
cleaned of dirt and dust.

This cleansing will be done immediately prior to laying of the binder. It is therefore
essential to use a mechanical broom, which is usually towed or driven by an
industrial tractor.

(iv) Rollers

Just as it is of primary importance to place the aggregate onto binder whilst it is

still hot, so it is necessary to bed it firmly down as quickly as possible. The best
rollers for this purpose are pneumatic tyred rollers and steel wheeled tandem rollers.
One steel wheeled roller should be used for initial compaction as closely as possible
behind the chipping spreader. It should be assisted by one or two pneumatic tyred
rollers to complete compaction.

f. Construction Methods

(i) Inspection

The first essential work requirement is a thorough inspection of the highway section
to determine both the factors governing design and the repair works necessary prior
to surface dressing.

o Factors Governing Design

Pavement width must be measured at every change of width. Surface condition must
be checked for:

 Hardness

 Texture

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Surface condition must be examined for richness or leanness of existing bitumen

content.

o Repair Works

 Drainage

Defects in side drains must be noted for immediate reinstatement

 Shoulders

Low or high shoulders must be measured for reinstatement before surface dressing
is commenced.

 Culverts

These should be examined to ensure no cracked or collapsed sections exist. Any

replacement must be completed well before surface dressing is undertaken to allow
for settlement of backfill.

 Bridges

Approaches should be checked for settlement behind abutments, which must be

repaired and made good well before surface dressing operation commences.

 Pavement

This must be examined in detail to locate potholes, cracks, depressions, localized

bleeding, abnormally open dry areas, etc. All pavement defects must be made good
and the repairs brought to the average level, texture and richness of the surface in
general.

It is particularly necessary to note that the above repairs must be undertaken in

sufficient time to allow them to settle down under traffic and if necessary carry out
further remedial action.

It is also vital to remember that single surface dressing constitutes a thin skin of
wearing course, which will faithfully reflect each and every blemish in the old
pavement over which it is laid.
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(ii) Planning

As soon as the design has been completed and all material quantities calculated,
orders for materials must be placed and reservations on equipment made. A date
may now be consigned to the operation, making due allowance for weather
conditions where the site is distant from the quarry and/or depot. Stockpile sites will
have to be located for aggregates and if necessary for bitumen heaters and bitumen
storage.

(iii) Safety

The safety of workmen operating on site, the safety of highway users and the
safekeeping of the surface dressing work during execution repairs, the provision
of warning signs, barriers, cones, stop-go boards or lights and/or flagmen must
be ensured. It may also be necessary to provide for watchmen and lamps for the
early hours of darkness should the operational work only be completed late in the
day. The availability of bye-pass roads, density of traffic and number of lanes
available to traffic will be of the factors in determining the length of lane to be surface
dressed at any time and therefore determine the type and quantity of safety
equipment required.

(iv) Operation

 Single Lane Work

The most important factor to keep in mind throughout the entire operation is that
bitumen applied to a road surface will cool to the temperature of that surface in
about one minute no matter what its temperature was initially. For high quality
work only one minute of time exist between laying the bitumen and covering it with
drippings and achieving the first rolling pass. Speed, efficiency and practice to
eliminate errors are the keys to success. The length of lane to be surface dressed in
any one pass must be limited to the number of trucks available with chippings on
site, rolling capacity of lead roller-steel wheeled, efficiency of drivers and labour
force in hitching trucks to chipping spreader, density of traffic using second lane
and relative speeds of the distributor and chipping spreader at the predetermined
application rates.

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 Preparation

 First, the lane length to be surface dressed is given its final cleaning with
a mechanical broom.

 Barriers, warning signs and controls are erected and manned.

 A string line is placed parallel to the pavement edge one to two feet outside as
a guide for the bitumen distributor driver.

 Paper strips one metre wide are placed laterally across the lane at start and
stop positions to make a clean cut joint.

 All equipment is checked.

 Bitumen distributor is lined up with its spray bar over the starting paper strip.

 Chipping spreader with first tipper hitched is lined up immediately behind

the distributor.

 Rollers are lined up immediately behind the chipping spreader.

 Second, third, etc. tippers with chippings are parked facing against the
direction of work in the free lane.

 All traffic in the free lane is halted or diverted.

 Execution

With all machines in correct position, engines running and in full operational order,
the distributor switches on the spray bar and moves forward off the paper strip at its
predetermined speed and continues smoothly to the end of the lane and switches
off the spray bar over the stop paper strip.

The chipping spreader and tippers follow at their predetermined speed and the
rollers complete compaction. Although there is no room for time delay in these
sequences of operation, there must be no panic and no rushing. This in particular
applies to the operation of rollers, where excessive speed will result in corrugation, a
defect that can only be cured by total removal of the surface dressing.

As soon as the chipping cover has been laid, paper strips are removed, the string
line is coiled up in readiness for the next section, surplus chipping scattered in the
free lane are swept and traffic will be permitted to flow.

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 Multi-lane Work

The above description is very simple and the entire operation is very quickly
completed. It can be kept this way and can produce consistently high quality results
if it is well planned, well organized and well supervised. Practice and a pride in the
quality of work are the key factors. The description has been confined to single lane
operation ideally suited to a distributor without use of extension spray bar and a
single chipping spreader.

This necessitates a longitudinal joint on the centre line which is a point of weakness
in many construction techniques. Should traffic conditions permit, the entire road
must be closed fully, that surface dressing can be undertaken with the addition
of one or two extra chippings spreaders and comparable increase in rolling
equipment.

(v) Longitudinal Joints

Errors in longitudinal joints arise from overlap of bitumen, build up of aggregate and
lean patches in lines. This can be overcome by use of the double lap height of
bitumen. Bitumen applied to the outside strip of width equal to nozzle spacing will
only be half the normal application rate. The second lane when laid will have an
overlap equal to this nozzle spacing, providing the remaining half bitumen application
and full chipping cover as before. Surplus chippings, not required by the bitumen,
will brush off easily after compaction is completed.

Edges of pavements in urban areas with kerbs or gutters are established by

protecting them with paper strips.

(vi) Transverse Joints

No difficulty will be experienced in constructing clean accurate transverse joints of

any shape by use of paper strips as described above. For successive lengths of lane
the starting paper strip is laid within 1.5cm of the cut-off line created by the stop
paper strip of the previously laid treatment.

(vii) Traffic Control

As described above, no traffic is permitted to operate in the adjacent lanes whilst

bitumen or chippings are being applied.
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As soon as the chipping spreader has completed its lane length of operation traffic
may operate in adjacent lanes but must not be permitted onto the new surface
dressing until the chippings have become firmly attached to the binder. The time
taken for this to occur will vary from 15 minutes to 2 hours depending on the type
of binder used and the prevailing air humidity. Naturally, the longer that traffic can
be held off the new surface the better. Practically, this decision must be made at the
planning stage dependent upon the traffic density and the lane length to be treated
in each stage of the operation.

When traffic is finally permitted to drive over the new surface dressing its absolute
maximum speed should be restricted to 25km per hour until the surfacing is at least 4
hours old. This can only be achieved in practice by informing motorists of the limit
with temporary speed restriction signs, the reason for it with warning signs “hazard-
loose chippings” and enforcing it with flagmen. Fast traffic will not only damage the
surface by loosening or displacing chippings but will also break headlamps and
windscreens of following vehicles. Where highly undisciplined drivers exist it may be
necessary to guide each convoy of vehicles through the newly opened section with a
pilot vehicle controlling the speed from the front.

g. Defects in Surface Dressing

In spite of the utmost care being taken in planning and supervising work, defects
may from time to time occur in surface dressing because of its very precise design
parameters and its relative fragility as a surfacing course. Examples of the primary
defects and their curses are given below:

(i) Loss of Cover Aggregate (Stripping)

Stripping is a condition that occurs when the aggregate cover is whipped off the
surface under traffic, exposing the bare binder.

The main causes of such loss of aggregate cover are:

 Aggregates spread after binder has cooled too much

 Aggregate not rolled immediately after spreading

 Excess aggregate

 Aggregate dusty

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 Aggregate wet

 Traffic allowed on new surface too early

 Steel wheeled roller bridging over depression in surface

 Insufficient or wrong grade of binder

The only effective cure and if not entirely satisfactory, is the addition of hot coarse
sand to the patches at the hottest time of the day. This sand cover must immediately
be rolled with a pneumatic tyred roller.

If stripping continuous after all the “physical‖ causes have been examined and
overcome, the adhesion between the aggregate and the binder may be suspect. In
this case, reference should be made to the Central Laboratory of the Civil
Engineering Services Division at FMW Headquarters, who can advise whether an
adhesion additive is necessary and what quantities should be used.

(ii) Longitudinal Streaking

Longitudinal streaking appears as alternately lean and rich lines of binder running
parallel. The main causes of longitudinal streaking are:

 Spray bar not set at correct height

 Spray bar nozzles not at correct angle

 Individual nozzles not properly cleaned and functioning

 Bitumen pump operating at wrong pressure or speed

 Bitumen applied at wrong temperature or viscosity

There is no method of cure possible for streaking and it will remain evident for the
rest of the life of the surface dressing. The only repair possible is the total removal of
the affected portions of the surfacing and replacement by a new surface dressing.
Streaking left in the surface will have to be planed off prior to eventual resurfacing
since it will reflect through a new surface dressing treatment.

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(iii) Transverse Streaking

Transverse streaking appears as alternately lean and rich lines of binder at right
angles to the road centre line. The main causes of this defect are:

 Corrugations in the old pavement surface

 Pulsation in the bitumen pump caused by worn parts

 Incorrect bitumen pump speed

There is no cure possible and repair for longitudinal streaking is defined above.

(iv) Bleeding

Bleeding is a defect that can either become immediately visible as patches or

areas of shiny bitumen fully coating or overlaying the aggregate or more slowly
developed under action of traffic. The main causes of bleeding in surface dressing
works are:

 Too much bitumen in the application. Incorrect calculation of application rate

 Wrong grade or type of bitumen for the aggregated

 Dusty drippings

 Fatty old surface of the road

Isolated patches of bleeding can be reduced by application of coarse sand and

rolling during the hottest time of the clay. The sand should be gently removed
with a square bladed shovel the following day and the treatment repeated as often
as it is necessary. Extensive bleeding is virtually incurable without extensive heating
and planning of the affected areas.

(v) Corrugation

Corrugation becomes visible as a series of lateral waves or ridges on the surface of

the road. The main courses of corrugation are:

 Reflection of corrugation from the old surface

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 Dusty chippings

 Fast rolling

Where corrugation has been caused by dust it can sometimes be partially repaired
by hand removal of the ridges with a square bladed shovel. The exposed binder
is then covered with coarse sand rolled during the hottest time of the day.
Corrugation, where caused by other factors and where extensive can be eliminated
by scarifying and relaying the entire affected area.

8.5.3 Double Surface Dressing

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Double s urface d ressing is a wearing course consisting of two complete

successive applications of surface dressing placed one on top of the other. The
aggregate being applied in the second layer is approximately half the size of the
aggregates used in the first layer.

(ii) Functions

The functions of double surface dressing are exactly the same as the main functions
of single surface dressing described under Single Surface Dressing. In addition,
double surface dressing fulfils the following important supplementary functions:

 Provision of a stronger and longer life wearing course

 Provision of a material, which can bridge across the conflicting requirements

of an open textured surface (demanding small stone sizes).

b. Application

Double surface dressing may be satisfactorily applied to the following pavement types:

 An existing penetration macadam surface, which has become open textured due
to the loss of keystone

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 A new primed dry stone base of open texture

 A high quality primed gravel surface carrying a low volume of heavy vehicles

c. Strength

Double s urface dressing, consisting of two courses of mechanically interlocking layers

of stones of not less than 20mm thickness, may be considered to add very little
structural strength to the pavement courses. Its effective thickness may therefore be
added to that of the lower courses in thickness design considerations.

d. Design Principles

The primary design factors are the same as those of single surface dressing, namely:

 Rates of application of binder (two operation)

 Aggregate sizes (two sizes)

 Rates of application of aggregates (two operations)

 Selection of chipping sizes

The following are recommended aggregate size combinations of double surface

dressings:

 25mm / 12mm

 19mm / 9mm

 16mm / 9 or 6mm

 12mm / 6mm

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(iii) First Course of Chippings

Selection of chipping size is normally dependent upon the three primary factors of
surface texture, surface strength and traffic. In the case of double surface dressing
however, only the factor of surface texture is relevant to the first layer of chipping.
The size selected will be that necessary to fill the surface voids in the existing
penetration macadam or dry stone base.

Where surface voids are smaller than 12mm size single surface dressing only
should be applied. Where surface voids are larger than 25mm size, a three coat
application should be used. T he specification for which would be equivalent to
penetration macadam for high quality gravel surfaces, No chipping size for the first
course chipping should be applied due to the risk of larger sized chipping particles
puncturing the prime and thereby destroying the bond between the base and the
wearing course.

(iv) Second Course of Chippings

Having made a selection of chipping size for the first course, the second course is
now similarly determined on the residual surface voids sizes of the first course
construction. These will normally be approximately half the first course particle
size, namely 12mm, 9mm and 6mm respectively.

(v) Rate of Application of Chipping

The rates of application of chippings are dependent upon the size, shape and type
of aggregate of chippings selected. Table 33 below gives an indication of chippings
spread rates. It is essential, that the application rate chosen for a specific project be
determined by tests carried out on the existing surface and aggregates
characteristics of chippings to be used.

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Table 33: Rate of Application of Double Dressing Chippings

FIRST COURSE

Application Rates
Size (mm)
kg/m² *** m²/m³

25 18-30 60

19 15-25 75

16 13-20 90

12 11-16 110

SECOND COURSE

12 11 -16 110

9 9 – 12 165

6 6-8 200

*** Higher rates are used for round or cubical chippings, lower rates for flaky chippings.

(vi) Rate of Application of Binder

The rates of application of binders is dependent upon the six primary factors
discussed under Single Surface Dressing. These are:

 Chipping size

 Chipping quality

 Surface richness

 Traffic

 Climate

 Binder type.

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o Chipping Size

For the first application of binder for chippings sizes must be considered. They
are presented below in a separate table for each size.

o Chipping Quality

Chipping quality is expressed in terms of its shape as being flaky, cubical or round.
Should the chippings supplied be pre-coated then the rates of binder application
2
shown below can be reduced by 0.05 kg/m

o Surface Richness

Surface richness is expressed in terms of the visible condition of the old surface as
being either rich, average or dry in bitumen content.

o Traffic

Traffic is expressed as being heavy, medium or light. These terms are represented
by:

 Heavy traffic : More than 1000 vehicles/day

 Medium traffic : 100 – 1000 vehicles/day

 Light traffic : Less than 100 vehicles/day

o Climate

No bituminous work should be done during foggy or rainy weather and, when a cold
wind is blowing. It is recommended that double surface dressing operations be
planned for dry weather seasons only and the tables have been presented on that
basis. No surface dressing must be done in wet or rainy weather.

Where in the rare event of emergency it is necessary to undertake such work in wet
conditions, then the rates of application of bitumen should be increased by 0.05
kg/m². However, this emergency work is to be kept to the absolute minimum.

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o Binder Type

As with single surface dressing only straight-run bitumen‗s and medium to heavy cut-
backs are recommended for use in double surface dressing. The tables presented
below express the rates of application of binder in terms of straight-run bitumen‘s.
Should it be found necessary to use cut-back bitumen, then the rates quoted should
be increased by 0.1 kg/m².

(vii) Binder Application Rate for First Course of Chippings

The design of the rate application of binder for the first course can now be made by
inserting the inspected and known factors of chipping quality, surface richness and
traffic into the relevant chipping size as per Table 34 below:

Table 34: Binder Application Rates – First Course

25mm CHIPPINGS Binder Application Rate (km/m²)

TRAFFIC Existing Surface Flaky Cubical Round

Rich 1.20 1.30 1.40

Heavy Average 1.25 1.35 1.45

Dry 1.35 1.45 1.60

Rich 1.30 1.40 1.50

Medium Average 1.35 1.45 1.60

Dry 1.45 1.60 1.70

Rich 1.45 1.60 1.70

Light Average 1.50 1.65 1.75

Dry 1.65 1.75 1.85

19mm CHIPPINGS Binder Application Rate (km/m²)

TRAFFIC Existing Surface Flaky Cubical Round

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Rich 1.05 1.15 1.20

Heavy Average 1.10 1.20 1.25

Dry 1.20 1.25 1.35

Rich 1.15 1.20 1.30

Medium Average 1.20 1.25 1.35

Dry 1.25 1.35 1.45

Rich 1.25 1.35 1.45

Light Average 1.30 1.40 1.50

Dry 1.40 1.50 1.60

16mm CHIPPINGS Binder Application Rate (km/m²)

TRAFFIC Existing Surface Flaky Cubical Round

Rich 0.95 1.05 1.10

Heavy Average 1.00 1.10 1.15

Dry 1.10 1.15 1.25

Rich 1.05 1.10 1.20

Medium Average 1.10 1.15 1.25

Dry 1.15 1.25 1.30

Rich 1.15 1.25 1.30

Light Average 1.20 1.30 1.35

Dry 1.25 1.35 1.45

12mm CHIPPINGS Binder Application Rate (km/m²)

TRAFFIC Existing Surface Flaky Cubical Round

Heavy Rich 0.85 0.90 1.00

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Average 0.90 0.95 1.05

Dry 0.95 1.00 1.10

Rich 0.90 1.00 1.05

Medium Average 0.95 1.05 1.10

Dry 1.05 1.10 1.15

Rich 1.00 1.05 1.15

Light Average 1.05 1.10 1.20

Dry 1.10 1.15 1.25

(viii) Rate of Second Application

The compiled first course construction should be inspected carefully to ensure that
no miscalculation has been made in binder application rates. If the resultant surface
condition shows a rich or dry appearance, allowance can be made in design of the
second application.

At this stage of the operation, errors if any should lie on the dry side of optimum
rates since the second course of chippings will be down much more firmly onto
new hot binder than it will on the cold surplus material of the first course.

The design of the binder application rate is done in the same way as previously
using the Table 34 above and Table 35 below, for the appropriate chipping size.

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Table 35: Binder Application Rates – Second Course

9mm CHIPPINGS Binder Application Rate (km/m²)

TRAFFIC Existing Surface Flaky Cubical Round

Rich 0.75 0.80 0.85

Heavy Average 0.80 0.85 0.90

Dry 0.85 0.90 0.95

Rich 0.80 0.85 0.95

Medium Average 0.85 0.90 1.00

Dry 0.90 0.95 1.05

Rich 0.90 0.95 1.00

Light Average 0.95 1.00 1.05

Dry 1.00 1.05 1.10

6mm CHIPPINGS Binder Application Rate (km/m²)

TRAFFIC Existing Surface Flaky Cubical Round

Rich 0.70 0.70 0.75

Heavy Average 0.70 0.75 0.80

Dry 0.75 0.80 0.80

Rich 0.75 0.75 0.80

Medium Average 0.75 0.80 0.80

Dry 0.80 0.85 0.85

Rich 0.80 0.80 0.85

Light Average 0.80 0.85 0.90

Dry 0.85 0.90 0.90

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(ix) Acceptable Materials

The materials listed and recommendations made under Single Surface Dressing
are applicable to double surface dressing. Double surface dressing is however
intended to be a stronger wearing course, providing a longer life expectancy. To
achieve these targets, chippings of a high quality crushed stone should be used.

e. Equipment

Equipment requirements are fully described under Single Surface Dressing.

f. Construction Methods

The construction methods described under Single Surface Dressing are applicable to
each course of construction of double surface dressing.

g. Defects in Double Surface Dressing

Double surface dressing may show the same defects as those described under Single
Surface Dressing. It should be noted, that errors in construction of longitudinal joints will
be far more pronounced in double surface dressing. It is recommended therefore that
the longitudinal joints of the first and second course be overlapped by 15-20cm to
avoid intensification of bleeding or loss of aggregates.

8.5.4 Penetration Macadam

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Penetration macadam is a compacted pavement course used either as a base or as

a heavy duty wearing course. It is composed of three separate courses of single
sized stones successively bonded together by two application of hot binder.

The term ―penetration‖ derives from the process of applying the hot binder to the
open textured surface of the compacted course aggregate. The binder then
penetrates down into the voids fulfilling three objectives:

 Tacking the coarse aggregate to the old surface

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 Coating large stone particles and binding them together

 Partially filling the voids in the coarse aggregate.

The second application of hot binder is identical in design and construction to single
surface dressing. Where penetration macadam is used as a base course, to be
subsequently overlaid by a hot mix carpet, the final surface dressing element is
frequently omitted and replaced by a tack coat.

(ii) Functions

The four primary functions fulfilled by penetration macadam are:

 Increase of load carrying capacity of the pavement structure

 Provision of a dust free wearing course

 Provision of a non-skid surface texture

 Rehabilitation of badly potholed and broken surfaces

b. Application

Penetration macadam can be placed on virtually any old pavement surface. It‘s very
high strength and durability, which is achieved through the mechanical interlock of large
stone particles and relatively high bitumen content, makes it an attractive material for
rehabilitation of badly deteriorated bituminous pavements.

The high residual voids in the lower courses of the material render it proof against
reflection of bleeding. Thus, it is an ideal material for use on heavily patched and
overstressed surface dressed pavements.

Penetration macadam can be laid on old surfaces, provided that they are relatively
true to profile, without resorting to scarifying and re-compaction. Nor is it necessary to
provide a tack coat since sufficient binder is provided in the penetration (first) application
to fulfil this objective.

Where penetration macadam is placed on soils and soil aggregates containing a high
percentage of plastic files, it is customary to eliminate the risk of base infiltration by first
blanketing the soil with not less than 10cm of sand or crusher fines.

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Penetration macadam may be laid by either mechanically assisted teams or by labour

intensive methods. It is therefore an acceptance alternative to bitumen macadam in
pavement strengthening operations where production from a batch-mix plant is not
available

c. Strength

Penetration macadam is one of the strongest materials available for pavement

courses and for design purposes its effective thickness is always included in calculations
of pavement course thickness.

d. Design Principles

The primary design factors for penetration macadam are:

 Aggregate size (three courses)

 Rates of application of aggregates (three operations)

 Rates of application of binder (two operations)

(i) Selection of Aggregate Sizes

o Coarse Aggregate

The selection of size of coarse aggregate is dependent only upon the desired
thickness of the total course to be applied and the practical availability of crushed
stone from quarries. Normally only 50mm and 40mm nominal sized aggregates will
be considered. Specifications of these aggregates and their course thickness are
shown in the

Table 36, below.

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Table 36: Aggregate Size and Course Thickness

Square Sieve Size Percentage Passing Sieve

(mm) 50mm 40mm

60 100 100

50 95 – 100 95 – 100

40 35 – 70

25 0 – 15

19 0-5 0–5

9 0 0

Total Course Thickness 50 – 60mm 40- 50mm

The thickness of total course obtained will vary within the tolerance shown
depending upon the rock and crushing plant characteristics for any material.

Larger stone sizes than 50mm nominal would have to approach a crusher run
aggregate specification to obtain a good mechanical interlock. If a larger thickness
than 6cm is required, it is preferable to consider either two successive courses of
penetration macadam or a dry stone base.

Smaller stone sizes than 40mm nominal are not successful with this type of
work. Should a smaller thickness than 4cm be required, consideration should
be given to double surface dressing or hot mix carpets.

o Key Stone

Irrespective of the choice of course aggregate, key stone to be applied to the

penetrated coarse aggregate will be 19mm single sized crushed stone.

o Chippings
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As in double surface dressing the corrected chipping size to fill the surface voids
of the key stone will normally be 9mm chipping. However, at this stage of the
operation, the completed work should be thoroughly examined and final selection of
chipping will be made on the principles laid down under Single Surface Dressing.

(ii) Rates of Application of Aggregates

o Coarse Aggregate

Application rates of coarse aggregates are shown in Table 37 below.

Table 37: Coarse Aggregate Application Rate

Nominal Size (mm) Application Rate (kg/m²)

50mm 100 - 130

40mm 80 – 100

The tolerances shown in the application rates are due to the crushing characteristics
of the stone and are related to the variable thickness of the course.

o Key Stone

Application rate of key stone will vary slightly with choice of nominal size of coarse
aggregate and will be approximately 25 kg/m².

o Chippings

Application rate of the chippings will, dependent upon size selected, be as shown
under Single Surface Dressing.

(i) Rates of Application of Binder

o Penetration Grade Binder

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The rates of application of binder recommended by various authorities vary

considerably. Penetration macadam being a material with a high voids ratio after
compaction in the coarse aggregate can accommodate large quantities of excess
binder without suffering from the defects of bleeding or loss of stability as occurs in
most other paving materials. Since the hot binder penetrates from the surface
downwards there is an inherent danger of not having sufficient surface coating to bind
the keystone into the surface voids. This in fact does occur when low viscosity
straight-run bitumen and cut-backs are used in tropical climates.

Provided straight-run bitumen of relatively high viscosity, such as a 60-70 or 85-100

penetration grade bitumen is used, it is possible to design an application rate without
wasteful excesses.

Based on the use of straight-run bitumen with a 85-100 penetration grade, the
recommended application rates for adequacy and economy are shown in Table 38.

Table 38: Penetration Binder Application Rates

Nominal Size Binder Application Rate (kg/m²)

Coarse Aggregate (mm)

50mm 4.3 – 5.2

40mm 3.5 – 4.3

For precise calculation of the rate of application it is recommended to use the

relationship to weight of coarse aggregate applied, rather than to depth, which can
result in wastage. The application of penetration binder should be at a rate of
0.043kg/m² per kilogramme (kg) of coarse aggregate in each square metre. Thus
coarse aggregate laid and compacted to a weight of 92kg/m² should be penetrated
with bitumen applied at a rate of 92 x 0.043 = 3.95kg/m².

o Seal Binder

The second application of binder should be designed in accordance with the

principles detailed under Single Surface Dressing. It should be noted however that
the surface at this stage of the operation will be fairly lean and contain a proportion
of deeper voids than will normally be encountered in single surface dressing work.
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Application rates for this seal may have to be increased by up to 25% in order to
provide an adequate film in which to base the final chipping cover.

(ii) Acceptable Materials

o Aggregates

The primary assets of strength and durability of penetration macadam can only
be achieved by the mechanical interlock of the stone particles. Thus, only crushed
stone as defined under Single Surface Dressing should be used for this work.

o Binders

Only straight-run bitumen of 85-100 penetration or higher viscosity should be

used for hotter application of binder. Where a bitumen distributor is employed, the
placement of the binder to 85-100 penetration will be found to be most satisfactory.
Application temperature for spraying should be in the range of 145ºC - 200ºC.

e. Equipment

(i) Aggregate Spreader

Should an aggregate spreader be available it may be employed to lay the coarse

aggregate. However, since this layer is placed only one stone thick, equally
satisfactory results are obtained by spread tipping aggregate from a tipper and hand
raking it level.

(ii) Other Equipment

Other equipment required for use in this work is fully described under Single
Surface Dressing.

f. Construction Methods Inspection

(i) Inspection

o Factors Governing Design

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Only the geometric factors of pavement widths, junctions and tampering out depths
at bridge approaches require measurement. Details of the existing pavement texture
hardness and richness of asphalt content are irrelevant to penetration macadam as a
material.

o Repair Works

 Drainage

Defects to drainage, culverts and bridges must be made good well in advance of the
works.

 Regulation

Major depressions and subsidences at bridge approaches may either be

regulated ahead of the works or made up with well compacted graded
aggregate immediately ahead of laying the coarse aggregate.

 Shoulders

Since penetration macadam is adding a significant thickness to the pavement,

shoulders will require not only repair but also building up on completion of the work.
Only repairs to slips, high shoulders and clearance work should be undertaken prior
to the operation.

 Pavement

Pavement potholes and cracks should be repaired well ahead of the works, although
the standard of work and uniformity of finish are not as critical to the success of
penetration macadam as they are to other paving techniques.

 Corrugation

Minor corrugation are rarely reflected through penetration macadam, although it is

advisable to scarify and re-compact these together with major corrugations.

(ii) Planning
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All of the normal sequences of planning must be undertaken as outlined under

Single Surface Dressing.

(iii) Safety

Requirements for consideration of safety are described under Single Surface

Dressing. Penetration macadam work, however, is similar to double surface
dressing in having two complete operations in each of which hot binder is applied to
the pavement surface.

A time delay of 2-3 hours should be allowed between the two operations to enable
the keystone to b e set up prior to overlay by seal and chipping cover. Thus,
the time delay before traffic is permitted to use the new surface will be nearly
double that of single surface dressing. This should be borne in mind when lengths of
sections to be laid and layout sequences of sections on the highway are planned.

(iv) Operation

After the coarse aggregate has been laid and compacted, the sequences of
operation become identical to double surface dressing. It is therefore necessary to
remember that the keystone, which follows the first (penetration) application of
binder, must be placed and rolled within approximately one minute of application of
binder.

Consideration of the relative speeds of the bitumen distributor and chippings

spreader are therefore vital in both planning the length of section to be treated and in
the actual operation efficiency.

o Preparation

 First, the lane length to be treated is given its final cleaning with a mechanical
broom

 Barriers, warning signs and controls are erected and manned

 All equipment is checked

 First tipper with coarse aggregate is lined up at the beginning of the section
and facing in the direction of work

 Second, third, etc. tippers are similarly placed in position ahead of the work
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 Rollers are lined up behind the first tipper.

o Execution

 Spreading and Compacting Coarse Aggregate

Rough spreading of coarse aggregate is usually achieved by spread tipping. Should

the lane width to be covered be greater than one tipper width and less than two
tipper widths, the additional part strip can be simultaneously laid with a second tipper
fitted with a slopping cut-off plate of the appropriate length. Tailgates are restrained
by chains to maintain a relatively uniform flow.

Final spreading and levelling of aggregate is achieved by hand raking to a

uniform profile and hand removal of excessively large stone particles.

Compaction is carried out with 8-10 ton steel wheel rollers rolling longitudinally,
beginning at the edges and progressively overlapping towards the centre. Rolling
should continue until the layer is thoroughly compacted and stone particles
interlocked. Care should however be taken to watch the rolling carefully and
stopped as soon as any sign of cracking or rounding of aggregate due to over
rolling appears. The profile should be checked with a camber board to obtain the
2.5% camber required by this type of surfacing.

 Application of Penetration Binder and Keystone

The sequence of operation and equipment used for this part of the operation follows
precisely the same procedure as detailed under Single Surface Dressing.

 Application of Seal Binder and Chippings

After bedding in the keystone aggregate it is desirable to allow 2-3 hours for the
keystone to become firmly bonded to the coarse aggregate. If possible no traffic
should be permitted onto the surface during this time. Once the keystone is securely
bonded, the final seal ad chipping placement may follow precisely as previously
described for Single Surface Dressing.

g. Defects in Penetration Macadam

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Penetration macadam presents a wearing course of basically surface dressing to the

traffic and can therefore show any of the defects listed and described under Single
Surface Dressing. However, due to its high mechanical strength and greater depth, the
likelihood of defects occurring is very much less.

8.5.5 Bitumen Macadam

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Bitumen macadam is a hot-mix surface material composed of preferably crushed

course and the stone aggregates uniformly mixed and coated with bitumen. Like
asphaltic concrete, it is one of the families of pre-mixed surfacing material, which
can best be illustrated by Table 39 below showing the three principle members of
the family and their material contents:

Table 39: Comparison of Different Asphalts

Aggregates
Surfacing Type Filler Bitumen
Coarse Fine

Bitumen Macadam x x x

Asphaltic Concrete x x x x

Sheet Asphalt x x x

Mineral fillers are normally not used in the mix design of bitumen macadam and its
inherent design feature is therefore its relatively high voids content. Bitumen
macadam therefore develops almost all of its stability and strength from the
mechanical interlocking of the larger aggregate particles.

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(ii) Functions

Bitumen macadam by virtue of its stone content is a versatile material which can fulfil
the following functions:

 Increase the load carrying capacity of the pavement as a base course, binder
course or as a temporary wearing course

 Provide a dust free wearing course

 Provide a good open textured non-skid wearing course

 Provide a platform on which a high quality wearing course can be laid

either as a binder or regulating course

The major assets of bitumen macadam are:

 Relatively high voids ratio of compacted mix, permitting the material to be laid
on flushed old surfaces with less risk of reflected bleeding

 cheapness of manufacture due to its lower bitumen and filler content

Both of the assets contribute to its major weakness of lesser durability and
imperviousness compared to asphaltic concrete. The consequence is that it requires
earlier resealing or overlaying if used as a wearing course on highly trafficked roads.

b. Application

Bitumen macadam is used in a wide variety of forms as:

(i) Wearing Course

Bitumen macadam may be utilized as a wearing course on low to medium trafficked

roads:

 On any prepared (primed) base

 On any surface dressed or penetration macadam surface that has been given
a tack coat

 On old bitumen macadam surfaces

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(ii) Base Course

 On any prepared and primed sub-base material

 On lower base material, such as soil cement

 On temporary or low grade surface such as surface dressing.

(iii) Binder Course

On any prepared base prior to receiving asphaltic wearing course.

(iv) Regulating Course

On any old bituminous paved surface with depressions, subsidence‘s, ruts, etc.
prior to paving with bitumen macadam or asphaltic concrete.

(v) Patching Material

On any old bituminous paved surface for pothole patching, usually as a cold.

(vi) Temporary Surfacing

On any newly constructed base courses opened to heavy construction traffic prior to
final surfacing.

c. Strength

Bitumen macadam is a very high mechanical strength material and all courses. Other
than wearing courses composed of less than 19mm nominal sized aggregate should be
included in strength calculations.

d. Design Principles

The primary factors to be considered in the design of bitumen macadam are:

 Definition of use

 Determination of depth of course

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 Aggregate bleeding

 Bitumen content

(i) Definition of Use

Variable different aggregate grading curves are available for use in design of
bitumen macadam depending on its use as a base, wearing, regulating or binder
course or cycle track construction. The grading curve is not interchangeable. They
are presented under Aggregate Grading below.

(ii) Determination of Depth

Being a material whose strength and stability depends upon mechanical interlock of
aggregate particles there are very well defined limits to the thickness that can be
laid, compacted and be maintained stable under load. The larger aggregate
particles will drag at the screed plate of the paver and scouring the carpet surface if
excessively thin carpets are laid. Conversely, very thick carpets will fail to compact
the larger aggregate particles into the required stone-to stone contact from which
stability under traffic is achieved. Tolerances of permitted thickness of single course
construction are shown for each grading under Aggregate Grading below.

(iii) Aggregate Grading

Bitumen macadam is simple and relatively foolproof material with good built-in
tolerances that permit experienced workmen to achieve consistently acceptable
material without extensive testing.

These tolerances are achieved by the open grading and it is therefore dangerous
to alter the grading shown below to convert them to denser mixes. If such
dense mixes are required for increased impermeability, then asphaltic concrete
must be used and the full sequence of design and quality control testing must be
applied.

o Base Course

Base course gradings are very open textured with virtually no fines and low
bitumen content. They are solely for the purpose of providing strength and they are

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extremely porous and may not be used as even temporary wearing courses. The
grading for 50mm and 40mm nominal sizes are shown in Table 40 below:

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Table 40: Base Course Grading

Normal Size 50mm 40mm

Passing Sieve (mm) Percentage by Weight

60 100

50 90 – 100 100

40 35 – 65 90 – 100

25 20 – 40 50 – 80

12 5 – 20 10 – 30

3 0 - 10 0 - 10

Binder content (%) 2.5 – 3.3 3.0 – 3.8

Compacted
Thickness single 6.0 – 10.0 5.0 – 7.5
course (cm)

o Binder Course

The grading shown in the Table below is suitable for use as a binder course,
regulating course or temporary wearing course during construction work. If it is to be
left exposed to traffic through a rainy season it should be given a light surface
dressing.

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Table 41: Binder Course Grading

Nominal Size 40mm

Passing Sieve Percentage by Weight (%)

50 100

40 90 – 100

24 50 – 85

12 30 – 50

6 20 – 30

3 10 – 20

No. 52 2 – 10

Binder Content (%) 3.5 – 4.3

Compacted thickness of
5.0 – 7.5
single course (cm)

o Wearing Course

The grading for 19mm, 12mm and 9mm nominal size wearing courses are shown
in Table 42 below:

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Table 42: Wearing Course Grading

Nominal Size 19mm 12mm 9mm

Passing sieve (mm) Percentage by weight (%)

24 100

19 90 – 100 100

12 50 – 80 90 – 100 100

9 85 – 100

6 15 – 35 20 – 40 30 – 60

3 5 – 20 10 – 20 10 – 20

No. 200 2–6 2 -6 2–6

Binder Content (%) 3.8 – 4.8 4.0 – 5.0 4.5 – 5.5

Compacted thickness of
2. 5 – 3.1 1.8 – 2.5 1.2 – 1.8
single course (cm)

o Dense Wearing Course

The wearing courses showing in Table 42 above will give adequate service under
light traffic conditions and remain impermeable under light to medium traffic for 2 – 4
years. For medium to heavier traffic it is advisable to use a denser grading. These
gradings for 19mm, 12mm and 9mm nominal sizes are shown in Table 43 below:

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Table 43: Dense Wearing Course Grading

Nominal Size 19mm 12mm 9mm

Passing sieve (mm) Percentage by weight (%)

25 100

19 95 – 100 100

12 70 – 90 95 – 100 100

9 55 – 75 65 – 80 95 – 100

6 40 – 60 45 – 65 50 – 75

3 25 – 40 25 – 40 25 – 40

No. 14 15 – 30 15 – 30 15 – 30

No. 200 3-6 3-6 4–8

Binder Content (%) 4.4 – 5.4 4.4 – 5.4 4.6 – 5.6

Compacted thickness of
2. 5 – 3.1 1.8 – 2.5 1.2 – 1.8
single course (cm)

o Cycle Tracks and Footpaths

The wearing courses for cycle tracks and footpaths should be of a smoother texture
than the main carriageway if they are to achieve their desired result of segregation of
traffic by speed characteristics. The grading shown in Table 44 below may be laid on
a primed and lightly tack-coated soil aggregate base.

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Table 44: Cycle Track and Footpath Grading

Nominal Size 40mm

Passing Sieve (mm) Percentage by Weight (%)

9 100

6 90 – 100

3 40 – 60

No. 200 2–6

Binder Content (%) 4.8 – 5.8

Compacted thickness of single

1.2 – 1.8
course (cm)

e. Aggregate Blending

Since it may be difficult to obtain the product from any one crusher setting to comply with
the grading requirements listed above, particularly for dense wearing courses, it may
become necessary to blend aggregates from two or more stockpiles. The method of
designing such blends is fully described under Asphaltic Concrete.

f. Binder Contents

The binder content is shown in each of the tables above and is expressed as a
percentage of the total mix by weight. Where the selected blend, available from
production resources, lies at the fine extreme of the range permitted then the
appropriate binder content would be the maximum as shown. Conversely, the minimum
binder content is appropriate to the coarse extreme of the aggregate range. The
percentages of binder content are based on straight-run bitumen. These may be in the
penetration range 85 – 300.

The use of medium curing heavy cut-backs can be permitted for wearing courses but
is not recommended except for dense wearing courses under heavy traffic conditions.

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Under these circumstances it would be more appropriate to surface highways with

asphaltic concrete.

g. Acceptable Materials

(i) Coarse Aggregates

Coarse Aggregates for bitumen must be crushed stone. It is essential to have cut
angular face coarse aggregate particles to obtain a mechanical interlock. Almost
any strong rock is suitable for wearing courses except certain lime stones with high
polishing characteristics. Since bitumen macadam possesses very little fines and no
filter, the larger stone particles are exposed to traffic and polish far more readily than
denser paving materials.

(ii) Fine Aggregates

Fine aggregates should wherever possible be crushed stone. Where crushing plant
capacity cannot meet this demand clean and washed coarse sand may be used.

(iii) Binders

The recommended binders for use in bitumen macadam are:

 Straight-run bitumen 85 – 100 penetration, 120 - 150 penetration and 200

– 300 penetration

Mixing temperatures should fall within the following ranges:

 Binder 95º C – 165º C

 Preheated aggregate 65º C – 150º C

The higher levels of temperature for mixing should be employed where paving is
distant from the production site. Care should however be taken not to overheat
aggregate, which may cause cracking of stone particles.

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h. Equipment

(i) Batch-Mix Plant

Because of the large voids ratio existing bitumen macadam grading, the materials
does not require the same consistently accurate gauging of batches as is necessary
in the production of asphaltic concrete. It is possible therefore to use either a batch-
mix plant or a continuous feed plant in manufacture of the material. Generally, only
batch-mix types of plant are readily available and this equipment is fully described
under Asphaltic Concrete.

(ii) Other Equipment

The remaining equipment requirements for paving with bitumen macadam are those
listed and described under Asphaltic Concrete.

i. Construction Methods

Construction methods follow the same sequences and procedures as outlined under
Asphaltic Concrete.

j. Testing

The need for testing bitumen macadam is less critical than for asphaltic concrete since
the tolerances in design limits are wide and any reasonably trained operator in quarry
production plant and paving team should be able to contain the mix consistently with
these tolerances. Thus, whilst a full range of testing is required, they need to be carried
out al less frequent intervals.

(i) Raw Materials Tests

o Aggregates

Once a week samples should be taken from each cold bin for sieve analysis. Should
there be reasons to suspect the nonconformity of cleanliness of aggregates,
plasticity index or sand, equivalent tests should also be performed.

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o Bitumen

A sample of approximately one litre should be sent for laboratory tests from each
major consignment of bulk delivery.

(ii) Batch-Mix Plant Tests

o Aggregates

Once a week or on report of defects, a sample shall be taken from each hot bin for
sieve analysis.

Similarly once a week, a sample shall be taken of the combined hot aggregates for
sieve analysis.

(iii) Paving Tests (Compacted Pavement)

Once a day a sample, not less than 25cm square, will be cut from the compacted
carpet to the full depth of the course constructed. This sample should be tested for
density and compacted thickness.

k. Defects in Bitumen Macadam

Defects common in bitumen macadam are largely due to deviation from the
design grading by virtue of misunderstanding the purpose and limitations of the material
or errors in production, improper compaction sequences compaction outside of
temperature ranges and contamination of the material overheating during production.

Defects will materialize as described generally under Asphaltic Concrete, although

flushing and bleeding are both rare and unnecessary in bitumen macadam. One
additional defect is however relatively common with newly trained designers and
operators,

(i) Dragging

Dragging is a defect, which becomes visible by scour lines appearing in the surface
of the carpet immediately behind the paver screed plate. It is caused by the larger
stone particles being unable to pass under the screed plate due, either to:

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 Oversize (reject) particles in coarse aggregate, which may be due to worn

screen plates on the crushing plant.

 Design grading outside the coarse limits

 Carpet thickness below the minimum tolerance permitted or to a combination

of two or more of the above causes.

The cure for dragging falls into three stages:

o Immediate Reinstatement

A shovel full of material is taken from the paver hopper and thrown with a scatter
motion over the scored area. Excess coarse aggregate is lightly raked from the
surface and surface gently smoothened with the back of the rake.

o Temporary Corrugation

Should dragging be an isolated instance occurring only once or twice per truck load,
the above immediate reinstatement will suffice. The defect must however be reported
to the production foremen since it most likely is due to a screen defect in the
production plant.

Where two or more scored lines appear simultaneously or where the frequency is
greater than two per truck load, then the paver screed must be adjusted to thicken
the carpet being laid. The carpet should be stabbed to check thickness before and
after adjustment.

o Permanent Correction

After correction to the carpet thickness the paving foremen will similarly report the
defect to the production foremen and his Technical Officer, for a thorough
examination of material quality, design and thickness of paving.

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8.5.6 Asphaltic Concrete

For additional information on asphaltic concrete, reference should be made to the Asphalt
Institute Manual MS-2.

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Asphaltic concrete is a surface material composed of (preferably) crushed

aggregates uniformly mixed and coated with bitumen. It is therefore one of the family
of premixed surfacing materials which can be best illustrated by Table 45 below
showing the three principal members of the family.

Table 45: Comparison of Different Asphalts

Aggregates
Surfacing Type Filler Bitumen
Coarse Fine

Bitumen Macadam x x x

Asphaltic Concrete x x x x

Sheet Asphalt x x x

Asphaltic concrete therefore derives its strength both from the mechanical
interlocking of the coarse aggregate particles and from the dense, low residual voids
of the intimate mix characteristics.

(ii) Functions

A well designed, manufactured and laid asphalt concrete mix will fulfil the following
functions and posses these qualities.

o Stability

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Stability is the ability of the mix to resist deformation from the imposed traffic loads
and is dependent upon both internal friction and cohesion. It is therefore the resultant
of coarse aggregate interlock, density of mix and quantity of bitumen.

o Durability

Durability is the ability of the mix to resist disintegration by traffic and weathering
and is dependent largely upon cohesion and low residual voids in the mix. Durability
is increased by increased quantity of bitumen and increased filler to build a thicker
coating around the aggregate particles.

o Flexibility

Flexibility is the ability of the mix to accommodate localized and differential

settlements in base and sub-base without cracking. Maximum flexibility will be
achieved at increased bitumen content in a relatively open graded aggregate.

o Fatigue Resistance

Fatigue r esistance is the ability of the mix to withstand repeated flexing under
wheel loads. Resistance to fatigue is largely dependent upon the thickness of the
bitumen and filler coating on the aggregate particles. Increased resistance is
obtained largely by increased density of the mix.

o Skid Resistance

Skid resistance is the ability of the mix to provide good frictional forces between the
surface and traffic wheels. Best skid resistance will be obtained from aggregates with
a rough surface texture and low polishing characteristics. Very dense mixes with low
residual voids may tend to flush or even bleed. The presence of free bitumen
on the surface pavement will particularly in wet weather greatly reduce skid
resistance..

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o Impermeability

Impermeability is the ability of the mix to resist the passage of air and water into or
through the surface course. Whilst low voids are obviously a desirable asset, they
are not as important as the interconnection of the voids. Impermeability will therefore
increase with increased thickness of the bitumen and filler coating on the aggregate
particles.

o Workability

Workability is the ease with which the mix can be laid and compacted. From the
previous qualities listed above it would appear desirable to aim at very high densities
in design. The workability may however be so low as to make it impossible to
achieve compaction to the normal 95-97% of laboratory Marshall Test Design
Density.

b. Application

Asphaltic concrete is a surface material used primarily in wearing courses and binder
course. It can also be used in base course and regulating (or levelling) courses. It is
however a material with a relatively high bitumen and filler content and is therefore a
high quality and expensive material. It will normally be more economic to use dry
(crushed) stone as a base material. Should full depth bituminous base be required on a
highway section, it may be more economic and practical to use bitumen macadam as a
base in view of its simplicity in design and greater tolerances on grading and bitumen
content.

Asphaltic concrete may be laid on:

 Untreated bases and sub-bases that have been suitably brushed clean of all loose
material and dust and adequately primed

 Old bituminous prevents that have been repaired, cleaned and provided with a
tack coat

 Old rigid (concrete) pavements and bridge decks that have been repaired should
be cleaned and been provided with a tack coat. Joints should be raked out to a
depth of 1cm and refilled with asphaltic joint filler material.

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 Newly constructed asphaltic concrete or bitumen macadam bases without a tack

coat, provided that no traffic or dust has been allowed on the surface prior to
paving.

c. Strength

Asphaltic concrete courses are generally considered to add strength to the pavement
structure. In many cases however, these course are relatively thin wearing course
additions, which will be virtually eroded by traffic in 5-7 years dependent upon traffic
density. Courses of less than 2.5cm cover thickness or courses containing coarse
aggregate of less than 19mm nominal size are usually therefore discounted from
strength depth calculations.

d. Design Principles

Bearing in mind the functions of asphaltic concrete and the qualities that are required to
fulfil those functions, it must be ensured that the design provides:

 Sufficient bitumen for durability and impermeability

 Sufficient mix stability to meet traffic requirements

 Sufficient residual voids in the compacted mix for flexible and to meet
additional traffic compaction; but not-so much as impair fatigue resistance

 Sufficient workability

(i) Aggregate Grading

To obtain the maximum density of aggregate after compaction, its sieve analysis
should conform as closely as possible to the appropriate fuller curve for the
maximum particle size being used. See Figure 64 below.

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Figure 64: Fuller Curves for Various Aggregate Sizes

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In practice, no aggregate will be found in nature, or manufactured by machines,

conforming continuously to so precise analysis. The grading is therefore specified
with tolerances, which can be shown either graphically as above, or in Table 46
below:

Table 46: Aggregate Grading

(mm) 19.1 12.7 9.52 4.76 2.38 0.59 0.297 0.119 0.074

(in) 3/4 1/2 3/8 No.4 No.8 No.30 No.50 No.100 No.200

% Passing 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 33-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

Mean 100 90 80 60 42 23 18 12 7
Grading

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Figure 65: Typical Grading Envelope

(ii) Aggregate Blending

Although it is possible with a multi-stage crushing plant to produce such as

aggregate grading, even down to fines content for filler from limestone rock, it is
usually necessary to blend two, three or more aggregates to achieve the desired
grading. Figure 65 shows three such-aggregates plotted for coarse, fine and filler
content.

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The three aggregates are represented in tabular form in Table 47 below:

Table 47: Grading of Aggregates to be blended

(mm) 19.1 12.7 9.52 4.76 2.38 0.59 0.297 0.119 0.074

(in) 3/4 1/2 3/8 No.4 No.8 No.30 No.50 No.100 No.200

Specification 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 33-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

Aggregate A 100 85 58 29 3 0 0 0 0

Aggregate B 100 100 100 100 95 47 35 23 8

Aggregate C 100 10 100 100 100 100 98 95 74

Sieves No.8 and 200 represent the border lines between coarse aggregate, fine aggregate
and filler. The aggregates can be shown simplified as their percentages retained on No.8
(coarse), passing No.8 and retained on No.200 (fine) and passing no.200 (filler). This is
tabulated in Table 48 below:

Table 48: Example of Simplified Grading

Sieve Size + No.8 - No.8 + No.200 - No.200

Specification 58 35 7

A 97 3 0

B 5 87 8

C 0 26 74

These results may now be plotted on a tri-axial chart as shown in Figure 66. The line
joining AS is produced to cut the line joining BC at D. Each line is measured in length.

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Figure 66: Blending Aggregates

From the Chart:

a = DS/DA = 49/85 = 0.58

a + b + c = 1.0

b + c = 1.0 – a = 0.42

b = DC (a – c) = 56 x 0.42 = 0.37

BC 64

c = 0.42 – 0.37 = 0.05

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The proportions of each aggregate (A, B, C), required to give the specification (S), are
denoted by a, b & c.

Using these proportions the three aggregates may now be finally tabulated to check that
they lie within the tolerances of the specification. These are shown in Table 49 below:

Table 49: Blending of Aggregates A, B & C

(mm) 19.1 12.7 9.52 4.76 2.38 0.59 0.297 0.119 0.074

(in) 3/4 1/2 3/8 No.4 No.8 No.30 No.50 No.100 No.200

Specification 100 80-100 70-90 50-70 33-50 18-29 13-23 8-16 4-10

0.58 x A 58 49.3 33.6 16.8 1.7 0 0 0 0

0.37 x B 37 37 37 37 35.2 17.4 13 8.5 3

0.05 x C 5 5 5 5 5 5 4.9 4.8 3.7

TOTAL 100 91.3 75.6 58.8 41.9 22.4 17.9 13.3 6.7

This grading of aggregate fits nicely within the tolerances permitted and these proportions of
the three types of aggregate may now be used to make up specimens for testing in the
design of bitumen content. When the blending of the aggregate has been determined, the
bulk specific gravity of each aggregate must, if not already known, now be determined.. This
will be required in the voids analysis described below and is designated as GA, GB and GC.

(iii) Behaviour of Bitumen Coatings

Many aggregates available for asphaltic concrete have a degree of porosity, which
will absorb some of the bitumen.

Whilst it is relatively simple to determine the bulk and apparent specific gravities the
virtual specific gravity is difficult since bitumen will never fill all of the capillary pores in
aggregates. The simplest approach is to test the aggregates by rice‗s vacuum
saturation method (ASTM-D2041) to determine the bitumen absorbed as a
percentage of the aggregate weight. Once this relationship is known all other
calculations can be made by the relatively simple bulk specific gravity.

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(iv) Bitumen Content

The most common method of bitumen content design for asphaltic concrete is the
Marshall Test Method. It should be noted however, that this method of design and
field control is applicable only to mixes made with aggregate up to a maximum size
of 25mmand penetration grades of bitumen. The test is made up of three parts:

 Bulk specific gravity measurement

 Stability and flow testes

 Density and voids analysis

The results of these investigations are plotted on five graphs or unit weight, stability,
flow air voids and voids in mineral aggregate; each against varying bitumen content.
The optimum bitumen content to meet the qualities required of asphaltic concrete is
selected from graphs.

o Preparation of Tests Specimens

The tests specimens required to fit the Marshal Testing Machine are 4″ (10.16cm)
diameter and 2.5″ (6.35cm) thick of compacted asphaltic concrete.

 Number of Specimens

It is necessary to have test specimens of different bitumen content varying by

increments of 0.5 percent by weight across the estimated likely requirement. To
allow for minor irregularities three specimens of each bitumen contents are required,
making a total of fifteen specimens in all to be prepared.

 Weight-Batching of Aggregates

Aggregates are weighted separately in the following fractions to make up each of

the specimens:

o Filler (passing No.200

o Fine aggregate (passing No.8 retained on No.200)

o Coarse aggregate 1. (Passing No.4 retained on No.8)

o Coarse aggregate 2. (Passing No.3/8 retained on No.4)

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o Coarse aggregate 3. (Passing ¾‖ retained on 3/8‖)

o Coarse aggregate 4. (Passing 1‖ retained on ¾‖)

Bulk aggregate prior to sieving and weighing are oven dried to even weight.

 Preparation of Mix

The temperature – viscosity curve for the particular bitumen to be used must be
obtained from the bitumen manufacturers or supplier. From this chart, mixing and
compacting temperatures can be established as described below. Sufficient
aggregate for one specimen is oven heated to approximately 30°C above the
temperature required to provide a viscosity of 150-190-centistokes for the grade of
bitumen to be used and dry mixed in a bowl. The weighed percentage of hot
bitumen is added and thoroughly mixed to even consistency.

 Compaction of Mix

The specimen batch is placed into a mould, spaded firmly, smoothened and
compacted with the standard hammer on both faces at a temperature equivalent to
250-310 centistokes viscosity. The number of blows of the hammer will be 75, 50 or
35 for heavy, medium and light traffic respectively.

 Extraction of Specimen

The specimen is permitted to cool in air prior to extraction from the mould with a
jack. The extracted specimen is placed on a smoothed level surface to cool to
room temperature prior to testing.

o Bulk Specific Gravity

This is determined by weighing the specimen in air and in water. Should the
surface texture of the specimen be open textured it may be necessary to coat it with
paraffin wax for a second air weighing prior to weighing in water.

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o Stability and Flow Test

The specimen is heated to 60°C in a water bath for 30-40 minutes and then carefully
dried. It is then inserted into the lower testing head of the Marshall Testing Machine.
The upper testing head is fitted with the flow meter in position. The testing load
is applied at a constant rate of 2 inches per minute until failure occurs, the point at
which maximum load is obtained. At this point, the load dial reading is noted and the
flow meter lifted off the guide rod.

Load and flow readings are recorded for each specimen.

o Density and voids Analysis

With the data from the penetration, test specimens and tests of bulk specific gravity
it is now possible to determine the two essential factors of the mix-air voids (Va) and
voids in mineral aggregate (VMA). A typical example will illustrate the methods.

From the aggregate blending and testing-section above, the bulk specific gravity of
the aggregates in the wet (i.e. bituminous) mix must be determined (= Gsb).

PA, PB and PC represent the percentages of aggregates A, B and C in the dry

mix (=58%, 37% and 5% respectively in the example given above).

The percentage of each aggregate in the wet mix, with a bitumen content Pb of
7% by weight, will thus be:

PA = 100 - PB x PA = 100 – 7 x 58%

100 100

= 53.94%

PB = 34.41%

PC = 4.65%

With aggregates A, B and C having bulk specific gravities of GA = 2.776, GB =

2.511 and GC = 2.430, the bulk specific gravity of the total aggregate in the wet mix
will be

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Gsb = (100 – Pb) / (PA/GA + PB/ GB + PC/ GC)

= (100 – 7) / (53.94/2.776 + 34.41/2.511 + 4.65/2.430)

= 93.0/35.04

= 2.654

From the testing of the mixed and compacted samples:

o Weight of specimen (W) = 1207.2gm

o Volume of specimen (V) = 515.0cc

o Bulk specific gravity (Gmb) = 2.344

 Calculation of Weights

Weight of Bitumen (W b) = Pb W/100 where Pb = Bitumen content (7.0%)

= 7/100 x 1207.2

= 84.5gm

Weight of Aggregate (W S) = W - Wb

= 1207.2 - 84.5

= 122.7gm

Weight of absorbed Bitumen (W ba) = Pba.WS / 100

= 1.10/100 x 1122.7

= 12.35gm

Note: Pba = Bitumen absorbed

By Rice‘s Method = 1.10gm of bitumen per 100 gm of aggregate.

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 Calculation of Volume

Volume of Bitumen (Vb) % = (W b/Gb) x 100/V Gb =

= 84.5/1.010 x 100/515.0 Specific

Gravity of
= 16.25% bitumen

Volume of Absorbed Bitumen = 1,010

= (W ba/Gb) x 100/V
(Vba)

= (12.3/1.010) x 100/515.0)

= 2.37%

Volume of Aggregate (Vsb)% = (W s/Gsb) x 100/V

Bitumen (Vba) (112.2.7/2.654) x 100/515.0)
=

= 82.14% Gsb = Bulk Specific Gravity of

Aggregates

= 2.654

 Voids Analysis

Air Voids (Va) = 100 – Vb – Vsb + Vba

= 100 - 16.25 - 82.14 + 2.37

= 3.98%

Voids in Mineral Aggregate = 100 - Vsb

(VMA) = 100 – 82.14

= 17.86%

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o Preparation of Results

The data obtained from the above tests and analysis are shown in typical form in
and are plotted against bitumen content as shown in Figure 66 at the end of this
section.

The graphical plots are connected by smooth curves that obtain the best fits for all
values.

o Interpretation of Results

The best results will be obtained from a selection of bitumen content under the
following conditions:

 Unit Weight

The maximum possible unit weight should be obtained and this is defined on the
curves at bitumen content 6.0%.

 Asphaltic Concrete Requirements

Table 50 is a summary of the Asphaltic Concrete mix properties and requirements:

Table 50: Asphalt Concrete Mix Requirements

Property Mix Requirements

Marshall Stability (kN) 8 - 18

Marshall Flow (mm) 2-6

Voids in Mineral Aggregate (%) > 15

Voids Filled with Binder (%) 65 - 75

Air Voids (%) 4-6

Binder Thickness (microns) 5.5 – 8.0

Filler Bitumen Ratio 1.0 – 1.5

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 Design Bitumen Content

The design bitumen content will depend on the composition of the asphalt mix that
meets the requirements set out in Table 50 above. However, for normal continuously
graded asphaltic concrete the binder content should be between 5.5% and 6.5%.

As the asphaltic concrete will be produced in machines and with aggregates that will
nearly always show some variations from the selected design criteria, practical
upper and lower limits to the bitumen content are normally set at ± 0.2% on the
optimum content. It is not difficult now to achieve a mixture with most asphalt plants
within ± 0.2% of target.

e. Equipment

(i) Batch-Mix Plant

Mixing plants for the production of pre-mixed surface materials may be either
batch-mix or continues- mix machines. In view of the very high degree of accuracy
required in the design and therefore manufacture of asphaltic concrete only batch-
mix plants should be used for this material. The machine consists of eight basic
components namely:

 Cold bins

 Dryer

 Screens

 Hot bins

 Weighing unit

 Mineral Filler feed

 Bitumen pump

 Pug mill

o Cold Bins

These are cold aggregate storage, which may range from elevated hoppers with
feed control to a belt conveyor to ground stockpiles shovel loaded to a feeder.
Quarry production of aggregates is delivered to the cold bins, which should have a
holding of not less than 2-3 days plant capacity. If the method of cold bin storage and
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feed is provided, it is essential to compare the results of the various aggregate

components of fine and coarse material closely to that of the design quantities.

o Dryer

The purpose of the dryer is to remove moisture from the aggregate and increase its
temperature to that of the bitumen mixing temperature. The unit consists of an
inclined rotating drum with fixed paddles permitting aggregate to tumble slowly
from its upper end to the lower output end. Hot gases from a burner are fed upwards
through the dryer. Since the hot air blast will usually carry away dust and fines, a
cyclone or dust collector is usually fitted to the upper end of the drum to minimize
atmospheric pollution. Loss of material, which if washed, may have to be
replaced by an expensive alternative such as limestone filler or cement. This dust is
collected and recycled direct to the filler bin.

o Screens

Material from the dryer is elevated directly onto a bank of vibrating square mesh
screens, which separate the combined aggregates normally into four passing
fractions, which are:

 Retained 25mm - rejected

 Passing 25mm Retained 12mm - bin 1

 Passing 12mm Retained 6mm - bin 2

 Passing 6mm Retained 3mm - bin 3

 Passing 3mm - bin 4

o Hot Bins

These are temporary storage bins mounted directly under the screens. There are
usually four bins on modern equipment. They act as a single surge pile between
the cold bin supply and the cycles of batch mix demand and are fitted with overflow
chutes to prevent over spill into adjacent bin compartments. Feed from the cold bins
must therefore he gauged with reasonable accuracy to ensure that no hot bin or bins
become starved during mixing operations.

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o Weighing Unit

Aggregates are released from the hot bins into the weigh hopper beginning first with
the largest size and progressing down to the finest size. The weigh hopper is
suspended from a scale beam and weights are recorded cumulatively. Most
modern plants are semi- automated permitting the required proportions to be
preset on the controls and thereby eliminating human error and operation fatigue.

o Mineral Filler Feed

The last aggregate functions to be added are the mineral fillers. These a r e
usually fed by a worm screw via a separate hopper. Where extracted and re-cycled
dust is not suitable or adequate in quantity, the filler is made up of imported
limestone dust or cement, which is not passed through the dryer circuit.

o Bitumen Pump

Bitumen, the final addition to the mix, is either pumped to a weigh bucket or
controlled directly to the pug mill by volumetric measurement. Where the latter is
used, allowance will have to be made for the vibration in volume with temperature.

o Pug mill

This is the mixing chamber which is usually an open topped twin chamber box fitted
with counter-rotary paddles and a bottom opening door. Aggregates are released
into the pug mill from the weigh hopper, dry mixed bitumen added and then wet
mixed for only as long as it is necessary to obtain a uniform distribution of aggregate
sizes and bitumen coating on all particles.

As soon as this is achieved the bottom door is opened and the mix is being
discharged into a tipper.

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Figure 67: Batch-Mix Plant

(ii) Paver

The paver is the machine, which receives the manufactured asphaltic concrete from
tippers and lays it uniformly to desired thickness and width.

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The machine is basically either a crawler tractor or wheel tractor carrying a screed
unit. Asphaltic concrete is deposited into the hopper by a tipper, whose rear wheels
are pushed by the paver rollers. The material is carried back by slot feeds and
laterally distributed by spreading screws in front of the screed. The screed unit is a
delicately balanced mechanism, which is continually adjusting itself to maintain the
forces acting upon its stability. When the paver is moving (Figure 69) forward the pull
―P‖ at the pivot point always exceeds the horizontal resistance ―H‖ on the screed
plate. To increase the thickness of the mat to be laid the screed is tilted upwards to
permit more material to crowd under it.

As a result, the vertical uplift "R‖ will exceed the weight of the unit C "W‖. When
balance is achieved, the screed plate will cease to rise and will move forward
horizontally again. This condition of balance for the desired mat thickness is what the
paver operator is aiming for. balance will be disturbed if the forward speed varies (―R‖
varies because ―P‖ varies) or if the viscosity of the mix varies (―R‖ varies because ―H‖
varies).

Thus the forward speed height of material in front of the screed and temperature of
material must be kept constant and ―fiddling with controls‖ kept to a minimum. The
paver is adjustable to vary the width of mat laid by the addition of cut-off shoes or
extensions. Operating speeds are adjustable in the range of 3-20 metres per minutes.

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Figure 68: Asphalt Paver

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Figure 69: Asphalt Paver Floating Screed Unit

(iii) Rollers

The tamper on the paver provides some initial compaction ahead of the screed plate,
but full compaction to optimum density of the material must be achieved by rolling
as soon as possible after the mat has been laid. This rolling consists of three
consecutive phases:

 Breakdown Rolling

 Intermediate Rolling

 Finish Rolling

o Breakdown Rolling

Three wheels, steel wheeled rollers are normally preferred for breakdown rolling.
These should be in the weight range of 4 ½ - 6 tons and must be operated with the
rear driven axel nearest to the paver. In the absence of three wheel rollers, 6-8 ton
tandem rollers may be used.

o Intermediate Rolling

Pneumatic tyred rollers are the only really satisfactory machines for this phase of the
work. Wobble-wheel pneumatic tyred rollers must not be used on asphaltic concrete.
Vibrating tandem steel wheeled rollers are occasionally used on deeper courses of
construction such as on base courses.

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o Finish Rolling

The purpose of finish rolling is to remove blemishes and roller marks left by
the earlier phases. For this purpose the only really satisfactory machine is a 6-8 ton
tandem steel wheeled roller on surfacing courses.

Figure 70: Rolling Configuration of Asphalt Paving

(iv) Emulsion Trolley

On most paving works using asphaltic concrete it is necessary to lay a tack coat
ahead of the paver. Since this should remain active until the mat is laid onto it the
extent of the tack coat ahead of the paver should be kept to a minimum for
practical working. The most useful tool for this purpose is a small wheeled trolley
carrying a barrel of emulsion and a hand lance. Only on large paving works where
relatively high speed lying of a thin wearing course is to be employed would a
bitumen distributor be justified to lay the tack coat.

(v) Hand Tools

Miscellaneous hand tools will be required consisting mainly of rakes, shovels, hand
tampers, plate compactors, joint cutting and painting tools, straight edge and camber
board, carpenters level, tool heating torch, cleaning equipment, blocks and boards
for starting and stopping joints.

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f. Construction Methods

The first essential task in lying asphaltic concrete surfacing on a highway is a careful
and detailed inspection of the site. This inspection will be for the purpose of
measurement repair and competent work planning.

(i) Measurement

The inspection will entail detailed measurement of the following items to ensure
that data is available for planning purposes:

 Existing pavement widths

 Lengths and widths of lay-bys.

 Length and widths of turn-outs at road junctions and driveways.

It is normal to pave out junctions and entrances to driveways in the material of the
main highway up to the line of the road side drain in order to protect the pavement
edges and shoulders. In order to determine the extent, to which auxiliary works are
required, it is necessary to additionally measure the following items:

 Extent and depth of depressions and subsidence

 Extent and depth of ruts

 Existing camber

 Existing super-elevation

If depressions, subsidence and ruts are extensive, it may be necessary prior to the
main surfacing operation to place a regulating (levelling) course in by hand or
machine. Similarly if the existing camber or super-elevation does not conform to the
geometric design requirement or if erratic it may be necessary to pre-regulate it or lay
levelling strips in the track lanes of the paver.

Requirements for widening should also be studied and accommodated in this phase
of the work.

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(ii) Repairs prior to Paving

All necessary repair work must be undertaken and satisfactorily completed prior to
commencement of the surfacing works. The inspection will therefore allow for the
following items to be studied:

o Drains

All drains will be checked for grade, cleanliness and adequacy. Where necessary, all
repairs and new drainage work will be detailed and completed before paving
commences.

o Shoulders

All high shoulders will be cut, low shoulders rebuilt to finished level and all shoulders
will be cleaned where necessary of rubbish, broken down vehicles and unauthorized
constructions.

o Culverts

All culverts will be inspected for damage, collapse and adequacy. Repairs,
replacements and new culverts, where necessary, will be affected early and backfill
and temporary surfacing well completed as far in advance of the surfacing as
possible.

o Bridges

All bridge approaches must be checked for subsidence. Causes of subsidence must
be determined, corrected and the subsidence corrected with a regulating course
prior to commencement of the paving works.

o Pavement

The pavement surface must be checked for potholes, crack and broken edges.
These must be repaired prior to paving. Pothole patches and cracks should be
corrected to as close a quality of finish of the old pavement surface as possible.

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Rich pot-hole patches will reflect through asphaltic concrete overlays of up to 6cm
thickness as patches of flushing or even bleeding.

At this stage of the inspection the overall texture of pavement is also checked to
determine the type and quantity of tack-coat required.

Care must be taken to have only just sufficient tack coat as excess will produce a
slip- plane. Rates in the order of 0.18 to 0.55kg per square metre are deemed
normal.

(iii) Planning

The objective in planning a paving operation is to ensure that a smooth uninterrupted

sequence of events may occur culminating in an efficient high quality production.
Given a good design and the capability to produce it, quantities are worked out,
materials ordered and reservations for machines a r e made. A date is assigned to
the c om m e nc e work. Key staff is briefed on the operation and the following details
discussed:

 Continuity and sequence of operations

 Paver capacity and speed of operation

 Batch-mix plant production capacity

 Number of tippers required

 Number and type of rollers

 Temperatures for manufacture, laying and rolling

 Distance from plant and need for tarpaulin covers

 Chains of command and communications to plant

 Traffic control

(iv) Safety

The safety of workmen on site and the road users and is an essential part of the
operation. Adequate provision must be made for warning signs, cones, flags, stop-go
boards and personnel to supervise their use. The problem is not as great as with
surface dressing operations since compaction of asphaltic concrete is reasonably
fast and completed lanes can be opened early. Exposed centre–line joints must be

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protected and this can either be achieved with board laid up to the joint for traffic
lane changing positions or where the second lane is laid at considerable time delay
by overlaying 5 to 10cm for subsequent back cutting.

(v) Operation

o Receipting Load Tickets

Tipper transporting asphaltic concrete material to site will carry duplicate load tickets.
These will be checked by the paving foremen, receipted, one copy given to the tipper
driver for return to the plant and one copy retained for the paving records. The
² ²
foreman, knowing the weight to be spread (kg/m or ton/m ), will continually check
his progress against loads received. This serves both as a check on the thickness of
the mat laid and on the accuracy of orders placed on the batch mix plant.

o Quality of Material Received

The foreman should visually check each load received to ensure that it is a full
undisturbed load and that it appears good. He should also check its temperature with
armoured immersion thermometer. Appearance can be a valuable guide to quality
and help correct errors in plant mixing. Typical defects are:

 In the Tipper

 Very flat load means there‘s too much bitumen

 Stiff appearance means it‘s too cold

 Uncoated large aggregate means it‘s too cold

 Lean granular appearance means there‘s too little bitumen

 Blue smoke rising means it‘s over heated

 In paver hopper

 Steamy, bubbling means there is moisture present

 Rich appearance, foamy means there is moisture present

 On road

 Un-workable, coarse, texture rich means there is too much coarse aggregate

 Smooth texture, lean appearance means there is too much fine aggregate
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Only if the temperature is below specification should the foreman automatically reject
the load. He should however note the observation of the load and to assists
interpretation of test results log. its position on the road in his paving log.

o Paving

A string line should be set out parallel to the road centre line along the edge of the
lane to be paved. The string line should be mounted on short stakes at 30 metre
intervals on tangents and at 5-10 metres intervals on curves. The paver will be
positioned at the beginning of the lane to be paved and adjusted to the width of
lane required. The sacred is lowered onto wooden blocks having a depth equal to
the uncompacted carpet to be laid. Where the paver is starting from the end of a
previously laid carpet the screed should be lowered onto board having a depth equal
to the difference between uncompacted and compacted carpet thickness. The paver
on receiving its first load will draw the material back to the screed and start to move
forward. For this first load the operator should check repeatedly that his un-
compacted thickness is correct by stabbing his carpet.

The truck in front of the paver must have both sets of rear wheels permanently in
contact with the paver rollers to ensure that there is no tendency to slew the paver off
course.

It may be necessary to do occasional raking or shovel spreading over the carpet,

particularly in the first load whilst the machine is being trimmed to the carpet
thickness. Such work should however be kept to the absolute minimum. F rom
time to time there will be a need for some minor raking, addition to the edge or
longitudinal joining.

No tipper load should be completely paved out. The paver operator must stop before
the height of material in front of the screed is depleted and await the discharge from
the next truck before moving forward again.

o Longitudinal Joints

The longitudinal j oints on a two lane carriageway will be at or near the centre-
line. As the first lane is paved this will appear as a near vertical face, which should
be butted with a tamping tool to elevate it slightly. This will enable rolling to b e
undertaken to the extreme edge off the carpet. Where the second lane is not laid on

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the same day or where the edge has been distorted by traffic the edge should be
carefully cut or trimmed and lightly painted with bitumen.

The second lane being laid must be placed to overlap the first compacted lane by
2.5 -5cm (A- below).

Figure 71: Overlap of Adjoining Lane

The overlapping material is then bumped back onto the hot lane using the flat
edge of a rake.. Any coarse aggregate in this bumped mass is raked out to waste.
The appearance is then as shown in diagram B. Below the roller the bumped
material may now be crowded into the hot side of the joint.

Figure 72: Overlap Crowned Back Ready for Rolling

o Transverse Joints

Transverse joints left at the end of a day‗s work must be vertical and protected from
damage by overnight traffic. The most common method of construction is to insert a
bulkhead of timber, equal to the compacted carpet thickness, ahead of the spread
screws as the paver reaches the end of its last load. As soon as the screed has
passed over the bulkhead, the paver must be stopped and removed.

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The bulkhead as supporting material in front of it are removed prior to

commencement of the next day‗s work.

o Overlapping Joints

Where successive courses of construction are laid in asphaltic concrete material

joints should be planned for longitudinal and transverse joints in order not to appear
vertically above one another. An overlap of not less than 15cm should be
allowed to avoid the risk of cracks occurring. See Figure 73 below.

Figure 73: Joint Overlapping to Prevent Reflective Cracking

o Compaction

To achieve quality in asphaltic concrete construction, compaction must achieve

95% of the density obtained in laboratory design. Most of this compaction will be
easily obtained when the material is freshly laid. Once its temperature has
dropped to about 100°C to 105°C very little further compaction will occur.

Similarly, if rollers are introduced onto fresh material at too high a temperature there
is a risk of displacing the material. The best results will therefore be obtained
whilst the carpet is in the range of 105°C to 125°C. If insufficient compaction is
obtained under rolling, subsequent time compaction under traffic will cause
noticeable tracking in wheel lanes. The order of priority for rolling sequence is:

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 Transverse Joints

 Longitudinal Joints

 Outside Edge

 Breakdown Rolling

 Intermediate Rolling

 Finish Rolling

All steel wheeled rollers used for compacting asphaltic concrete shall be fitted with
water tanks and sprinklers to keep wheels moist and prevent pick-up of material.
Rolling speeds shall not be more than 5 kilometres per hour for steel wheeled
rollers and 8 kilometres per hour for pneumatic tyred rollers.

 Transverse Joints

When the transverse joints are in a second lane with a longitudinal joint, the first
pass is made with a steel roller for 1 or 2 metres along the longitudinal joint.

The transverse joint is then rolled with the roller moving transversely starting with
15cm of its driven wheel on the fresh material and increasing the cover by 15cm per
pass until the full width of the driven wheels have covered the fresh material as
graphically shown below:

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Figure 74: Rolling of Transverse Construction Joint

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 Longitudinal Joints

A three wheel steel wheel roller should be used and should make its first pass on the
compacted material with only 15cm of its rear (driven) wheel riding on the raised
bumped fresh material as shown in Figure 71 & Figure 72 above. Subsequent
passes gradually broaden the cover until a thoroughly compacted and neat joint is
obtained.

 Outside Edges

Outside edges of the newly paved strip are rolled with a three wheel steel wheeled
roller overlapping outside the laid area by 1 or 2cm on its driven wheel.

 Breakdown Rolling

Breakdown rolling follows directly from rolling of outside edges. The sequence is to
start from the outside edge (low side) and progress gradually to the higher edge
whereby each pair of passes overlaps the previous pair by some 20cm.

Whether using the preferred three wheel roller or a tandem roller, the rear or driven
rolls shall at all times lead towards the fresh material to avoid displacement of the
freshly laid material, as shown below..

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Figure 75: Forces Acting Tiller Wheel or Drive Wheel is Forward

 Intermediate Rolling

Intermediate rolling should follow immediately behind breakdown rolling and should
be carried out by a pneumatic tyred roller. At least three coverages should be given
to the entire carpet. The roller must not turn on the new carpet and should change
lanes slowly and gradually with no sudden jerks.

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 Finish Rolling

Finish rolling adds no further compacting to the surfacing material, but must be
carried out whilst the paving material is still sufficiently warm to enable the tandem
steel wheel roller to remove rolling marks.

o Super-elevation

Where super-elevation has to be built up on horizontal curves on existing highways,

it may not be economic to change the mix design to base course type of material or
to scarify and reconstruct the base. Care should be taken however to avoid
construction of a course of so great a thickness that compaction becomes difficult or
stability is impaired. As a guide, one should generally restrict thickness of course to
about three times the size of the largest aggregate size in order to obtain optimum
stability. Figure 76 below, illustrates a three stage method of building up super-
elevation in one lane.

Figure 76: Building up Super- Elevated Curves with Asphalt Mix

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g. Testing

Asphaltic concrete is a delicately designed mix of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate,

mineral filler and bitumen. From Section (d), above it will be seen that small variations in
any one of the components of the mix will cause major changes to the properties of the
material. It is necessary therefore to ensure that:

 Raw materials do not vary

 Batch mix plant works accurately

 Paving can and does work efficiently

To achieve this, ongoing routine testing must be applied. .

(i) Raw Materials Tests

o Aggregate

Once a week samples should be taken from the cold bins for sieve analysis
testing. Should there be reason to suspect compromised cleanliness of aggregate,
plastic index or sand equivalent tests should be carried out.

o Filler

Where crushed dust is used as mineral filler similar weekly tests should be carried
out on stockpiles.

o Bitumen

A sample of approximately one litre should be sent for laboratory test from each
major consignment of bulk delivery

(ii) Batch Mix Plant Tests

o Aggregate

For sieve analysis once a day a sample shall be taken from each hot bin and of the
combined hot aggregates.

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o Un-compacted Mix

Twice a day, one in the morning and one in the afternoon, a 7 kilogram sample will
be taken of the un-compacted mix as delivered from the pug mill. This sample should
be laboratory tested for density and stability as described above.

Twice a day, one in the morning and one in the afternoon, a 9 kilogram sample will
be taken of the un-compacted mix as delivered from the pug mill. These samples
should be laboratory tested for analysis of the mix by extraction of bitumen and
mechanical analysis.

(iii) Paving Tests

o Compacted Pavement

Twice a day, one in the morning and one in the afternoon, a sample of the
compacted pavement not less than 25cm square or 100mm core will be cut from the
surface to the full depth of the course constructed. These samples should be tested
for density and compaction of the asphalt layer.

h. Defects

With the provision of regular continuous testing and inspection to support well designed
and carefully manufactured material, defects should be rare and not extensive in
area. The principal defects that can occur, their probable cause sand where
possible their cures are listed below:

(i) Flushing

Flushing is a condition where the surface has the appearance of being dark and very
rich, with the majority of surface voids filled and very smooth texture. It is
undesirable because of the loss of skid resistance and the likelihood of it leading to
bleeding under further traffic compaction. The causes may be due to too high
bitumen content or too low residual air voids in the design. No action should be taken
to cure the defect upon the laid surface at this stage but it must be carefully
monitored to watch for the possible growth of bleeding or loss of stability which may
be displayed as channelling (rutting) or creep under traffic. Action however must be
taken at once to correct either the inaccuracy during production or an error in the
design.
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(ii) Bleeding

Bleeding is a condition where pools, lines or sheets of liquid bitumen are visible over
the surface. This is very unsatisfactory and a permanent indication of errors in
design, manufacture and/or construction. The causes of bleeding are most likely
errors in the design or manufacture, in the bitumen content or residual voids where
the bleeding is extensive or accompanied by a general flushed appearance. When
bleeding is detected manufacture must be stopped, tests carried out and the error
determined and corrected.

The most frequent occurrences of bleeding will be isolated patches. These are
most likely to be due to paving over badly reinstated potholes, fatty underlying
patches in old pavements and spillage from tack-coat emulsion trolleys. Such
defects will pin-point careless workmanship at inspection, repair and construction
stages.

Extensive bleeding cannot be cured. It can only be corrected by replacement of the

affected area. Areas of bleeding cannot be overlaid with asphaltic concrete as
reflection will occur within a month or two under average traffic conditions. Some of
the discomfort to traffic can be alleviated by liberal sanding and rolling until
plant and material are available for replacement.

Treatment of small areas of bleeding is effected by cutting out the area

concerned, removal of the fatty underlying cause, reinstatement of the base and
carpet patching.

(iii) Tracking (Rutting)

Tracking is the general term applied to longitudinal deformation in the wheel tracks
of traffic. It is also variously described as rutting, channelling and /or grooving. The
causes can vary and perhaps the most common cause is due to badly
designed or compacted base material or particularly dry (crushed) stone bases.
Tracking can and occasionally does occur through defects in asphaltic concrete
on a sound base. It will only become apparent after considerable usage by traffic.

The causes of tracking in asphaltic concrete are:

 Low stability caused by high bitumen content and low voids, where surface
conditions will probably be accompanied by flushing

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 Poor compaction during the construction stage is often due to rolling too cold
a carpet.

The cure of tracking is to place a regulating course of bitumen macadam or similar

low bitumen content mechanically into the depressed wheel track area and to
overlay the full pavement width with a thin wearing course.

(iv) Ravelling

Ravelling is the progressive loss of aggregate particles from the surface of the
carpet. First appearance will be an increased coarseness of the surface as similar
aggregate particles are lost and a pitted surface condition with loose particles
will be visible. Ravelling can be caused by poor compaction during
construction allowing weathering to occur in the excessively large residual voids.

Most frequent causes are due to poor quality or dirty aggregate. Insufficient bitumen
in design, usually due to underestimating absorption characteristics of aggregate, is
also a possibility as is overheating of the mix at the plant. In this case ravelling is
accompanied by a brownish appearance of the mat in the vicinity of the ravelling.
The cure for this condition is a slurry or light surface dressing as early as possible.

(v) Corrugation

Corrugation is the appearance of transverse undulations or ripples in the

surface. It is most likely to occur at junctions and places where traffic is stopping and
starting.

There are many causes based on inferior design such as too high a bitumen
content and too high a fine aggregate or filler content... Defects in construction
technique, such as fast rolling and rolling on a too hot carpet are also be
caused in asphaltic concrete by signs of corrugation that passed unnoticed in the
old surface.

The only method of elimination of corrugation is the removal of the entire affected
area, scarifying the old surface or base if it is due to reflection and replacement by a
new well designed and constructed carpet.

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(vi) Slip

Slip is a defect occurring due to a loss of bond between the carpet and surface on
which it was laid.

The causes of slip are most frequently absence of a tack coat and improperly
cleaned surface prior to lying, spillage of oil in construction and even occasionally
excessive quantities of tack-coat material. Cure of slippage failures is accomplished
by cutting out the affected area, thoroughly cleaning the old surface, applying a tack-
coat and replacing a new carpet patch.

(vii) Cracking

There are numerous causes of cracking, which are mentioned in detail under the
sections on routine maintenance. All of these may occur in asphaltic concrete
through no fault in the material itself or the construction technique. The risks of
cracking can be minimized, by careful inspection, preparation and repair of the old
surface prior to paving. Further insurance against cracking will be achieved by
proper joint construction and adequate suppleness in the mix design. Areas of road
that are suspect to cracking should not be overlaid with asphaltic concrete of a
too mathematically perfect design. Avoid over stiff, dense aggregate grading and
aim bitumen contents nearer to the higher limits.

The cures and treatments of cracking are dealt with under the sections dealing with
routine maintenance

8.6 Gravel Pavements

8.6.1 Gravel Surfacing

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

A gravel surface is a wearing course consisting of soil aggregate material either

as naturally occurring gravel (such as lateritic gravels or quartz gravels) or an
artificially manufactured material as described under Soil Aggregate. Gravel
surfacing is normally laid to a thickness of not less than 10cm to achieve stability of
the material and therefore act simultaneously as both a wearing course and an
element of base course.

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(ii) Functions

Gravel surfacing provides a wearing course that is relatively cheap and easy to
construct and has the following advantages over earth roads:

 They provide a comfortable riding surface

 They have good drainage characteristics

 They provide reasonably good skid resistance

 They remain in service during wet seasons

The above characteristics are dependent on good conditions, maintenance and light
traffic.

b. Application

Gravel surfacing may be satisfactorily applied to:

 Old gravel roads that have been eroded by traffic and weather

 Earth roads where traffic has grown above an average of 30 vehicles per day

 Old surface dressed roads that are breaking up due to inadequate height
over drainage levels

c. Strength

Since gravel surfaces a r e normally applied in layers of significant depth, this

thickness may be included in strength/depth calculations for pavement designs.
However, gravels exposed to traffic and weathering are highly susceptible to
erosion and will lose up to 125cm per year even under good maintenance. This
fact must be borne in mind in assessing life cycle and planning periodic maintenance.

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d. Design Principles

(i) Aggregate Grading

Gravel surfacing material, being soil aggregates, should conform to the basic
principles discussed under SOIL AGGREGATES. However, since surfacing materials
will be exposed to the wear of traffic and weather they require a higher percentage of
cohesive materials than those used for soil aggregate bases. The higher percentages
of material passing sieve size 40 and 20 means that a lower maximum aggregate
size is required. The recommended gravel for surfacing specifications is given in
Table 51 below:

Table 51: Recommended Gravel Material Specifications

Description Specification

Maximum size: 37,5 mm

a
Oversize Index (lo) 5 per cent (%)

b
Shrinkage product (Sp) 100 – 365 (Max preferable =240)

c
Grading coefficient (Gc) 16 -34

15 @ 95% Mod AASHTO

CBR d
compaction and OMC

Where:

a - lo = Oversize Index (% Retained on 37.5mm sieve)

b - Sp = Linear Shrinkage x %passing 0.425mm sieve

c - Gc = (% passing 26.5mm - % passing 2.0mm) x % passing 4.75mm/100

d - Tested immediately after compaction

The relationship between the shrinkage product and grading coefficient is given in
Figure 77 below.

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Figure 77: Performance of Gravel Wearing Course

Provided that naturally occurring gravels fit within the tolerances given in Table 51
above they should prove satisfactory for compaction and stability.

The material passing sieve No. 200 (0.075mm) represents the cohesive binder. The
greater the quantity of this material present in the gravel the greater its capacity to
resist loss of moisture in dry seasons. However, it will be weaker in wet seasons
and more liable to the formation of rivulets from surface water runoffs since it is more
impermeable. Generally, gravels with high clay content (passing No.200) should be
laid at a chamber of 3.5 to 4.0% cross fall. In order to avoid gap grading of
gravels it is desirable that the percentage passing sieve is No. 200 (0.075mm).

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(ii) Plasticity

Gravel surfacing material requires a higher percentage of binder material to resist

wear from traffic and weather, than do base materials. It is therefore normal to
specify a maximum liquid limit of 35% and a plasticity index of between 15% and 9%.

(iii) Moisture Content

Soil aggregates used as gravel surfacing materials must be tested to determine the
optimum moisture content for compaction. The material should be brought to a
little above this moisture content after spreading to allow for small losses into
underlying courses.

(iv) Ageing of Gravel Surfacing

The following elements influence the life of the gravel surface:

 Weathering by wind

 Weathering by rain

 Abrasion by traffic

Wind will tend to blow fine cohesive materials from the surface during the dry
season. Rain will pick up and carry fine cohesive materials from the surface onto
the shoulders and into drains during the wet season. Traffic will tend to brush coarse
materials off the surface towards the shoulders once they have become exposed due
to loss of fines.

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Figure 78: Expected Loss of Gravel

Thus, throughout the year, there is a steady loss of material. Figure 78 shows the
loss of gravel that may be expected each year on a two lane gravel highway of
approximately 7.5 metres carriageway width. An average daily traffic of 400
vehicles will result in 5.0cm loss of material in 5 years. Poor maintenance and
throwing to waste the coarse particles brushed to the roadside will accelerate this
loss.

(v) Practical Limits to Use

Gravel surfaced highways require continuous replacement of eroded soil aggregate.

They also require continuous grading, watering and rolling to correct corrugation,
rutting and loosening of the surface material. The frequency with which these
corrective operations must be carried out is shown in Figure 79. The annual hours
required are based on one kilometre of two lane highway.

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Figure 79: Gravel Surfacing – Annual Grader Hours

Continually throughout the year routine maintenance crews will undertake the repair
of potholes, remove and replace as necessary defective materials as shown in
Figure 79. It will be clear from the above that gravel surfaces, while being relatively
cheap to lay, are among the most expensive to maintain and that this cost is in part
proportional to the traffic using the highway

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Table 52: Practical Limits to Gravel Surfacing

ADT 0 - 30 30 - 200 200 - 300 300 - 500 >500

Gravel Gravel Gravel

Surface
dress if
Surface
Earth Surface natural
Surface dress all
Roads Dress on gravel
Dress in roads
gradients pits more
Villages
over 4% than
80km
from site

Table 52 above shows the practical limits for the use of gravel surfacing on
highways. Where the ADT exceeds 500 vehicles per day, it will generally be
uneconomic to maintain the highway in a gravel surfaced condition. Consideration
should be given to priming and surface dressing.

This total of 500 vehicles a day may have to be reduced to 300 vehicles per day
where naturally occurring gravel pits are more distant than 80 kilometres from site.
Where traffic exceeds 200 vehicles per day gradients steeper than 4% will become
extremely difficult to maintain in good condition during wet seasons. Under these
conditions a full width prime and surface dressing should be applied.

During the dry season dust thrown up by passing vehicles creates a nuisance and a
health hazard in villages. Highways, within built-up areas should certainly be primed
and surface dressed to full width when traffic densities reach 100 vehicles per day.

e. Equipment

The equipment requirements for gravel surfacing operations are those described
under Soil Aggregate

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f. Construction Methods

The following description is largely applicable both to naturally occurring and artificially
manufactured soil aggregate material. The latter will rarely be used in gravel surfacing
operations due to its higher cost. Areas where naturally occurring gravels are
unobtainable the artificially manufactured soil aggregate will usually be laid as a base
and overlaid with a prime and surface dressing.

(i) Inspection

A thorough inspection must be carried out, both on the highway to be resurfaced

and in the gravel pit, or pits to be used. Available routes between locations must be
checked for transport planning.

The purposes of the inspection are:

 Measurement of work

 Determination of preliminary repairs

 Determination of preparatory work

These factors combine to produce the final planning of the operation.

o Measurement

Site measurements are required to determine pavement width, shoulder

requirements if paved with gravel, size and number of turnouts at junctions, and
access roads and thickness requirements.

Measurement of material availability at gravel must be made visually and samples

taken for laboratory analysis and determination of optimum moisture content for
compaction. Traffic should be checked to determine the extent of disruption caused
by full width working and available bye-pass routes examined.

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o Repair

The inspection will detail all necessary repair works to be undertaken in respect of
culverts, drains, shoulders and bridge approaches. A check should be made on the
adequacy of existing highway furniture. If shoulders are to be raised with material
other than that of the gravel surfacing works, provision must be made for its
procurement and placing, either as part of the operation or as a supplementary task
to be completed simultaneously by the resident routine maintenance crews.

Repairs to potholes, ruts and corrugation in the old pavement may be ignored since
they will be dealt with during the preparatory works.

o Preparatory Works

 Gravel Pits

From the inspection and study of availability of gravels it may be necessary to

undertake preliminary works to facilitate speedy loading and start with the operation.

Overburden: If the suitable gravel beds are overlaid by undesirable material, this
must be stripped back prior to excavation.

Conglomerates: Should conglomeratic laterite be present in the gravel pit it

will be necessary to request advance use of a bulldozer and ripper to break out the
material and reduce it to usable size or set it aside for subsequent use elsewhere.

Haulage Distance: Should the gravel pit be distant from the working site it may be
necessary to load and transport material t to a more convenient stockpile site prior
to commencement of the operation.

 Existing Pavement Surface

The existing surface is likely to be deformed and eroded to an imperfect gradation of

particle sizes. It will therefore require scarifying and reshaping prior to laying the new
gravel surfacing material. Since the reshaped old surface will have to be compacted
thoroughly, it will be necessary to take a representative sample of material to
determine its optimum moisture content for compaction. Where the existing surface is

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heavily rutted, potholed or corrugated, the operational efficiency can be improved by

regarding it as described under GRAVEL GRADING prior to commencement of the
operation.

(ii) Planning

The normal sequences of planning may now be carried out involving:

 Site requirements

 Sequence of operations

 Loading capacity

 Transport requirements

 Equipment requirement

 Material quantities

 Measurement and testing

 Chains of command

 Traffic control

Particular attention must be given to transport needs. Although only 10cm thickness
of material is likely to be laid on most operations, this will amount to some 200 truck
loads per kilometre on a two lane highway. Material should always be available
ahead of the grader to avoid uneconomic loss of extensive equipment time but
stockpiles on the pavement should not be so far forward as to cause a traffic hazard
or result in segregation.

(iii) Safety

Gravel surfacing operations do not employ any dangerous or harmful materials or

machines. The only concern therefore is with the safety of traffic, workmen and
the gravel surfacing work being undertaken. These can be accommodated by the
provision of the standard range of warning signs, barriers, cones, stop-go boards or
signals and flagmen. Where by-pass or diversion routes are planned the assistance
of the local police and advance warning of the public should be sought.

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(iv) Operation

o Preparation of Existing Surface

The existing surface, unless previously re-graded, will require reshaping to remove
ruts, corrugations and potholes and thoroughly blended to correct dust patches and
irregular gradation due to traffic and weather erosion.

 Scarifying

This is first affected by scarifying to the full depth of the residual old gravel surfacing
of the pavement. The appropriate number of times on the scarifier bar of the grader
should be used depending upon the strength of existing material. The work may be
carried out by watering the surface within 30 minutes prior to scarifying.

 Blending

The full depth of residual gravel surfacing should be brought to a space on the
centre line of the pavement with one grader pass in each lane. The material in the
space may then be spread evenly back into shape to the correct camber selected for
the final surface. In this loose condition the surface must be regularly checked with a
camber board and string line. Should the existing surface be badly segregated with
windrows of coarse material brushed to the pavement shoulder edge, it may be
necessary to repeat the above procedure again to achieve a reasonably even
blending.

 Watering

The shaped material must now be watered with a water bowser to bring it to the
predetermined optimum moisture content for compaction.

 Compaction

The shaped and watered material may now be compacted as described below with
continual checking with a camber board and string line. Extreme care should be

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taken to achieve the highest possible degree of accuracy as this will simplify the
spreading and grading of the new gravel surface materials to be laid.

o Delivery to Site

The material will be brought to site in tipping trucks which will spread the material
onto the lane or lanes being worked as accurately as possible. Where available,
tippers which do not have the capability of spread-tipping, should clump the
materials in one-load stockpiles off the centre line in one lane only, so as to present
the minimum obstruction to traffic and construction machine movements.

o Spreading

The spread-tipped or dumped material is evenly spread over the full width of the
pavement or lane being worked and checked for average depth of loose layer.
The depth of layer laid shall not exceed 15cm compacted thickness for any one
course of construction.

o Watering

The loose layer of material spread as above should now be watered with a water
bowser to bring it to the optimum moisture content for compaction, as predetermined
from the samples of pit gravel taken earlier. If the work has been planned to be
carried out near to the beginning or end of the wet season the watering can be kept
to a reasonable minimum. It is however still necessary to know the optimum
moisture content and to supplement possible rain fall.

o Grading

The loose layer of material, approximately spread and accurately watered, may now
be shaped to level and cambered by grader. Very careful and frequent checking with
the camber board and a string line is necessary to ensure the accuracy of camber,
evenness of surface and constant depth of the course.

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o Compaction

Initial compaction should be carried out with one pass of a 6-8 ton steel wheeled
tandem roller, commencing at the edges of the pavement and progressing to the
centre line. On super-elevated sections of highway, the rolling will commence at the
lower edge of the pavement and progress to the higher edge. Intermediate
compaction is best undertaken with a pneumatic tyred roller at low tyre pressure
but may be carried out by steel wheel rollers if only those are available. 2-4
passes of a pneumatic tyred roller are usually sufficient to achieve satisfactory
compaction if the moisture content is correct. Where pneumatic tyred rollers are
used it is usually necessary to make one final and finishing pass with a 6-8 ton steel
wheeled tandem roller to erase wheel marks.

g. Defects

Naturally occurring gravels are less susceptible to segregation than artificially

manufactured materials. However, defects can materialize due to errors of workmanship
and weathering damage in stockpiles. The main defects that can materialize during
construction are:

(i) Segregation

Segregation patches may appear after compaction as areas of the surface showing
lighter or darker appearance relative to the general colour. Where excess fines
are present the patch will remain moist longer and appear darker than the
surrounding area. The converse applies to patches of excessively coarse material.

The most likely causes of segregation are either damage by weathering in long
standing stockpiles or overworking the material with the grader. The latter is a
frequent occurrence with trainee grader operators.

Segregated patches must be cut out to the full depth of the course, constructed and
replaced with well graded soil aggregate material and compacted at optimum
moisture content.

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(ii) Corrugation

Corrugation is a series of undulating lateral waves in the surface. Generally,

corrugation is caused by traffic and weathering removing a proportion of the fine
cohesive material and resulting in loose coarse particles being free to move under
the action of traffic. Corrugation may however occur during construction as a
result of high speed rolling while the gravel surfacing material still contains a high
proportion of water in a semi- compacted state. Evidence of corrugation must
immediately be corrected by scarifying the material to the full depth of the course and
re-grading and compacting.

(iii) Ruts

The formation of ruts is a defect to which gravel surfacing materials are prone.
Generally, as with corrugations, ruts will appear under the load of traffic. Should ruts
appear in construction, they are almost certainly due to inadequate or no
preparation of the old surface. The new material overlaying the old surface will
therefore be of unequal thickness resulting in signs of the defects below.

There is no alternative corrective measure other than total removal of the material
and reinstatement of the old surface prior to relaying.

8.6.2 Gravel Dressing

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Gravel dressing is the process of replacement of missing fractions of a soil aggregate

to correct imbalances due to losses attributed to weathering and traffic.

(ii) Functions

Gravel dressing when applied to gravel surfacing wearing courses fulfils the following
functions:

 It extends the life of gravel surfacing

 It reduces the tendency to corrugation of gravel surfacing

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 It economises on wastage of natural resources.

b. Application

Gravel dressing may be applied to any soil aggregate surfacing material, both natural
gravels and artificially manufactured materials that is showing signs of decomposition.
These signs of decomposition may become visible as:

 A tendency to dry out quickly and become very dusty

 A loose or coarse surface appearance

 Subject to corrugation.

c. Strength

Gravel dressing does not necessarily increase the strength of gravel surfacing
materials nor does it add any significant new depth to the pavement courses. It can
however make a partial compensation for loss of thickness due to losses of fine grained
particles.

d. Design Principles

(i) Decomposition of Gravel Surfacing

Gravel surfacing materials are continuously eroded under the influence of weather
and traffic on a highway carrying an ADT of 200 vehicles per day. Approximately
1cm of surfacing material is lost each year. Further physical changes occur to
individual particles that cause additional loss and disintegration of the surface. The
decomposition may be classified as being:

 Losses of material from weathering and traffic

 Wear and tear due to traffic

 Wastage by maintenance techniques

o Losses of Material

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Gravel surface are made up of soil aggregates, which are homogeneous blends of
gravels, sands, silts and clays. The finer material, primarily clays, acts as a
binder to give the whole mass stability. The action of wind and rainfall tends to
remove a proportion of the clays in the surface and carry them away as windblown
dust and into drainage channels.

Vehicle tyres loosen the surface, throw up more dust and expose more clay to
weathering. The continued effect of weathering and traffic is shown in Figure 56,
above.

o Wear and Tear by Traffic

With the coarser gravel and sand fractions of the soil aggregate at the surface held
less firmly by the reduced clay fraction, friction between individual particles is
caused by further traffic movements. This results in wearing down gravel particles to
sand sizes and sand particles to silt sizes. Thus, further material is created and
available for loss by weathering and traffic and the surface becomes progressively
looser.

o Wastage by Maintenance

Traffic movements tend to brush the loose coarse fraction material to the side of the
pavement where it builds up into loose granular windrows. If returned to the
pavement surface in this condition the coarse material would present hazard to
traffic, would tend to corrugate and would be an agent to accelerate further attrition.
Maintenance techniques therefore favour the removal of windrows of loose gravel
and dumping them in low areas within the right of way.

(ii) Change of Gradation

Measurement of the changes occurring in soil aggregates used in gravel surfacing

has shown major changes in the grading of the gravel due to the three factors
described above. In Figure 80 below, curve 1 shows the original grading of a typical
soil aggregate used for a gravel surface. Curve 2 shows the grading of the residual
material after 3 to 4 years of traffic usage under continual routine maintenance.

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Figure 80: Gravel Surfacing – Change in Grading

(iii) Analysis of Materials

The first step in t h e design is to analyse the existing gravel surfacing material
and the aggregates available for correction by blending. As shown in Figure 80
above, after 3 to 4 years the existing gravel surfacing is very short of material in
both extremes of coarse aggregate and fines. Therefore, research in the field should
be restricted to screened gravels or crushed stone and clays without too high a silt or
sand content. As an example, Table 53 below shows typical grading curves of
screened gravel and silty clay n, together with the grading of the existing material
illustrated above, in both its original and eroded conditions.

Table 53: Typical Grading

Old Surfacing Available Material

Screened
Sieve Size Original Eroded Silty Clay
Gravel

Percentage Passing

19 mm 100 100 - 100

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12 mm 88 97 - 63

9 mm 80 94 - 54

No. 4 62 82 - 25

No. 10 43 63 100 7

No. 40 23 18 85 2

No. 200 12 4 65 1

(iv) Proportioning Materials

Using the Rothfuch Method of proportioning described fully under Soil Aggregate,
Section 8.8.1(d) (vi) the required proportions can be determined as summarized
below.

Construct to any scale a Rothfuch diagram as shown in Figure 81 using tire diagonal
OM as the original gravel surfacing material grading.

Figure 81: Rothfuch Diagram

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Plot eroded gravel surfacing material, silty clay and gravel. Construct the straight
lines by the minimum balanced area method for the three materials.

These are shown as dotted lines:

 OC‗ for the silty clay

 A‗G‗ for the eroded gravel surfacing

 B‗M‗ for the gravel

Join the points A'C'. and B'G'. Their intersections with diagonal OM give the following
proportions:

 Silty clay = 14%

 Gravel = 33%

 Eroded gravel surfacing = 53%

A recalculation of those proportions compared with the grading of the original

gravel surfacing is shown in Table 54 below:

Table 54: Grading of Blended Gravel

Original Gravel Blended Material

Sieve Size
Percentage Passing

19 mm 100 100

12 mm 88 86

9 mm 80 82

No. 4 62 66

No. 10 43 50

No. 40 23 22

No. 200 12 12

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This result is sufficiently close to the original and well within the range acceptable
tolerances to ensure adequate compaction and stability. The example chosen was of
very badly eroded gravel surfacing, which would have required about four years of
traffic to reach this degree of decomposition. A loss of at least 4cm of depth or
about 40% of the gravel surfacing could be expected in this time. Gravel dressing
would have been more economical and more easily achieved at an earlier date.

(v) Moisture Content

A blended sample using the proportions determined above should be made up and
tested to determine the optimum moisture content for compaction.

e. Equipment

The equipment requirements are those defined under Soil Aggregate for on-
site manufacture of blended material.

f. Construction Methods

(vi) Inspection

A thorough inspection must be carried out on site and in all existing and potential
new gravel pits. These inspections will determine:

 Nature of work to be undertaken

 Quality of materials available

 Equipment and material requirements

 Repairs to be undertaken

 Traffic control problems

o Measurement

On site measurements are required to determine:

 Surface widths, levels and thickness

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 Size and location of turnouts for junctions and access roads

 Material requirements for shoulders

o Repair

All defects to drainage, culverts, shoulders and bridge approaches must be

measured for repair prior to commencement of the gravel dressing operation.

(vii) Planning

The most efficient method of carrying out gravel dressing operations is on full width
pavements. However, should total closure create too much disruption to traffic it is
quite possible to perform the operation in single lanes. Once a decision has been
made on this the remaining aspects of the work may be coordinated, for:

 Sequence of operations

 Design

 Material quantities

 Transport requirements

 Equipment requirements

 Measurement and testing

 Chains of command

 Traffic control

(viii) Safety

All normal safety precautions are required for protection against injury and damage
to the public, work force and the pavement works being undertaken. Warning signs,
barriers, cones, stop-go boards or signals and flagmen are required.

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(ix) Operation

o Preparation of Old Surface

The existing road surface must first be corrected for all faults. This is best achieved
in the following sequences.

 Grading

All material available on the pavement should be graded to the centre line or to the
centre of the lane being worked. This may consist of one lane and one shoulder if
the surface dressing material brought into the windrow should include loose
windrows of coarse material and if these are present and have been included in the
representative samples taken.

The windrows will next be graded uniformly across the working width correct to
grade and level and of uniform depth. Camber boards and string lines will be used to
ensure accuracy. Should the old surfacing material be in a hard compacted
condition it should first be scarified carefully to the depth of the gravel surfacing?

 Compaction

The old surfacing material will show a more or less even bending and true to
camber with all ruts, corrugations and potholes removed, it should be lightly watered
and if necessary and partially compacted with one or two passes of a steel wheeled
tandem roller.

o Addition of Gravel Fraction

 Spreading

The gravel fraction should be delivered to site in tippers and either spread-tipped
onto the worked lane or, if mainly single sized, laid with a chipping spreader. If
spread-tipping is used it should be spread evenly over the reconstituted old surface
by a grader and should be continuously checked with camber board and string-line to
ensure accuracy.

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 Compaction

The gravel fraction should be watered if necessary and partially compacted with one
or two passes of a steel wheeled tandem roller.

o Addition of Clay Fraction Spreading

 Spreading

The clay fraction should be delivered to site in tippers and spread-tipped onto the
working lane. It should be accurately spread to camber and levelled with a grader to
achieve a uniform thickness. In the worked example above, 14% clay fraction
would amount to a layer of 1.6cm on a residual old gravel surface of 6.0cm
thickness. Had the quantity to be laid been less and had the material contained little
or no silt, the clay fraction could have been added as slurry with a water bowser.

 Compaction

The clay fraction should be lightly compacted in a dry condition by one or two
passes of a steel wheeled tandem roller in order to make a smooth level platform for
the mixing operation.

o Blending materials.

The three materials are now loosely compacted in three separate layers of uniform
depth in the proportions determined during the design stage. Blending is achieved
by a single pass of a pulvimixer set to the total depth of the three layers. This will to
some extent disturb the evenness of the surface, which will therefore require a final
grading to correct the camber.

o Watering

The moisture content should now be brought to the optimum moisture content for
compaction by watering with a water bowser.

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o Compaction

Compaction is achieved with a single initial pass of a steel wheeled tandem

roller and followed by 2 to 3 passes with a pneumatic tyred roller. One final pass
with a steel wheeled tandem roller will erase wheel marks. Rolling sequences in all
cases will be from the lower edges to centre line and to higher edges on super-
elevated curves.

g. Defects

The resultant pavement after gravel dressing operations is subject to all possible defects
occurring naturally or due to blended soil aggregates used in gravel surfacing. One
major risk of defects in this operation occurs from inaccuracy of workmanship and
resulting in segregated patches.

(i) Segregated Patches

These segregated patches, which may materialize immediately after compaction is

complete, will become visible as patches of material which appear to be drier or
wetter than the surrounding area.

This is most frequently caused by high and low spots in the surface of the old gravel
surface, or more likely, by the surface of the first added material laid. This
causes an imbalance in the design blending. Correction of the defect can only
be accomplished by removal of the defective patches to the full depth of the course
(all three-material) and replacement by correctly graded material manufactured off-
site.

8.7 Bases

8.7.1 Soil Aggregate (Laterite Gravel)

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

Soil aggregates are composite materials made up of a homogenous blend of gravels,

sands, silts and clays. The larger sized particles provide strength and mechanical
stability while the smaller sized particles provide the cohesive binder.

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Soil aggregate may be found as naturally occurring soils such as lateritic gravels
(‗pea‘ gravel with lateritic clay) and quartz gravel (quartz gravel and sands with silty
clay). Soil aggregate may also be artificially manufactured by mixing available
aggregates and soils.

(ii) Functions

Soil aggregates, depending upon their make-up, use within the paving courses
provide:

 A means of transporting loads from the surfacing courses to the weaker

materials in the sub grade.

 A platform upon which a higher quality base, or a wearing course can be

constructed.

b. Application

A soil aggregate is a versatile, easily constructed and relatively cheap material, which
may be used in the following courses:

(i) Sub-Base

On heavily trafficked roads soil aggregates are used as sub basses to transmit loads
from the higher quality base to the weaker sub grade.

(ii) Base

On light to medium trafficked roads soil aggregates may be used as a base, being
primed, surface dressed and occasionally overlaid with bituminous carpets.

(iii) Wearing Course

On very lightly trafficked roads soil aggregates and particularly naturally occurring
lateritic gravels are used as surfacing and wearing courses. For this purpose the
material requires a higher proportion of fine cohesive material specified under Gravel
Surfacing.

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c. Strength

Soil aggregates are medium to strong flexible bases, which, depending upon their
content and grading, will show CBR values of between 15 and 80%. Thicknesses of soil
aggregate courses must be included in depth/strength calculations for pavement design.

d. Design Principles

As with all coarse granular material the most stable mix is likely to be the one which
conforms most closely to the appropriate Fuller Curve for that size of aggregate. The
design table below provides data based on AASHTO standards..

The grading tolerances are usually expressed in terms of percentages passing each of a
series of square mesh sieve sizes. See Table 55 below:

Table 55: Grading Tolerances

Nominal Maximum Size: 40mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

40 100

25 75 – 95

9 40 – 75

4.75 (No.4) 30 – 60

2.0 (No. 10) 20 – 45

0.425 (No.40) 15 – 30

0.075 (No. 200) 5 - 20

Two dangers occur with these methods of presentation, namely, inadequate fines by
fuller curve calculation and the risk of gap grading.

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(i) Plastic Fines

The fuller curve, as shown below, is based on the theory of minimum voids for
granular and non-plastic material. Practical results conform to the theory very closely
with dry stone bases that are genuinely non-plastic. However, a soil aggregate must
contain plastic cohesive fines as a binder and practical results show that the
percentage passing sieve 0.075mm (No. 200) as shown by the fuller curve (4%) is
inadequate for cohesive stability.

Figure 82: Fuller Curve of Soil Aggregate Base

The lower limits specified for materials finer than sieve No. 40 (0.425mm) have
therefore been increased and must be regarded as the absolute minimum if the
materials are to be satisfactorily compacted.

(ii) Gap Grading

With tabular presentation as shown in Table 55 above, it is possible to obtain a

material with 80% retained on sieve No.10 (0.425mm) and 20% passing sieve No.
200 (0.075mm), thereby exposing a gap through the entire sand range. Such gap
graded material is not normally mechanically stable.

Some authorities recommend the inclusion of a clause in specifications requiring a

minimum 10% retained between each pair of sieve sizes. This is not always easy

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when artificially blending materials without the introduction of a third or fourth

material and greatly increased cost and complexity.

It is recommended that in all cases where blending of two or more materials is

carried out, that the proposed mix be plotted on a mechanical analysis graph (as
shown in Figure 82) and that gap grading be avoided by obtaining as smooth a single
curves as possible.

(iii) Aggregate Grading

In Table 56 below three aggregate grading specifications are provided for material
suitable for bases and sub-bases.

Table 56: Base and Sub-Base Gradings

Nominal Maximum
50mm 50mm 25mm
Size:

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

50 100 100

25 - - 100

9 30 - 65 40 - 75 50 - 85

4.75 (No.4) 25 - 55 30 - 60 35 - 65

2.0 (No. 10) 15 - 40 20 - 45 25 - 50

0.425 (No.40) 8 - 40 15 - 30 15 - 30

0.075 (No. 200) 2- 8 5 - 20 5 - 15

The grading shown above are not normally suitable for wearing courses and should
be restricted for use as bases and sub-bases. They will however readily accept a
prime for subsequent overlay by surface dressing.

Two additional gradings are available for bases, being multipurpose materials, which
are capable of use as wearing courses in stage construction techniques.

It can be seen that the materials in Table 57 below require increased fines and a
greater percentage of cohesive material (passing sieve No. 200). This is required for
greater cohesion as a surfacing material and to resist the loss of moisture due to
evaporation.

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Table 57: Multi Purpose Base Grading

Nominal Maximum
25mm 25mm
Size:

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

25 100 100

9 - -

4.75 (No.4) 55 - 100 70 - 100

2.0 (No. 10) 40 - 100 55 - 100

0.425 (No.40) 20 - 50 30 - 70

0.075 (No. 200) 6 - 20 8 - 25

The two multi-purpose gradings are likely to be weaker than the three shown in the
previous Table 57and should only be used therefore where there is a temporary
requirement to act as wearing courses.

(iv) Plasticity

The material must be cohesive for stability but as a base or sub-base an

excessively large quantity of fines will render it too malleable and susceptible to
failure by water penetration. For bases the liquid limit should therefore not exceed
25% and the plasticity index should not exceed 6%.

(v) Moisture Content

The final proposed blend of soil aggregate or the naturally occurring material must
be tested to determine the optimum moisture content for compaction prior to laying.
The material, if artificially manufactured off site, should be transported to site in a
moist condition to avoid segregation.

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(vi) Aggregate Blending

In the majority of cases within highway maintenance operations blending of

aggregates will involve the use of only two materials for the purpose of:

 Addition of clay fraction to old traffic and weather worn lateritic gravels

 Addition of clay fraction to quartz gravels

 Addition of sand fraction to excessively plastic lateritic gravels

To obtain the correct proportions it is sufficient to plot the mechanical analysis of

each material on a grading chart and match them to the appropriate grading curve.
Greater difficulty occurs by the occasional need of blending three materials such as
crushed river gravels, sands and silty clays in areas where naturally occurring soil
aggregates are rare. The tri-axial chart method of proportioning as illustrated under
Asphaltic Concrete is not recommended for use with soil aggregates since it is
highly sensitive to the correct selection of sieve sizes used. A simple and more
flexible proportioning method is that developed by Rothfuchs.

o Rothfuch Method

The blending method is best illustrated with an example of blending three

aggregates, namely a crushed river gravel, sand and silty clay, which are first
mechanically analyzed as shown in Table 58 below:

Table 58: Gradings for Blending

Blended Material Available Materials

Sieve Size (mm)

Crushed Silty
Range Average Sand
Gravel Clay

40 100 100 100

25 75 - 95 85 90

9 40 - 75 57 17

4.75 (No.4) 30 - 60 45 9 10

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2.0 (No. 10) 20 - 45 32 5 80

0.425 (No.40) 15 - 30 22 2 55

0.075 (No. 200) 5 - 20 12 0 0 100

The average blend material required is shown in the Table 58 above. It is first
necessary to plot this as a straight line on a grading chart.

Any suitably dimensioned rectangle is drawn as shown in Figure 83 below. The

diagonal OM represents the average blend required.

Taking first the percentage passing sieve size 25mm (85% on the diagonal) a
vertical line is drawn to represent sieve 25mm. Similarly, the remaining sieve
positions are established on the horizontal axis in accordance with the required
percentage on the diagonal OM (i.e. 57% for 9mm, 45% for 4, etc).

Figure 83: Rothfuch Blending of Aggregates

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The chart is now calibrated and the three available materials can be plotted. OC
shows the silty clay representing the sand and BG (which coincides with M)
representing the crushed gravel.

It is now necessary to replace the grading curves of the available aggregates by

straight lines on the minimum balanced area method. This is shown in Figure 82
where AS' replaces the curve AS and GB' replaces the curve GB. The opposite ends
of these three aggregate straight lines are now joined giving demarcation lines AC
and B'S. The points where these two demarcation lines cut the require blend –
diagonal OM – provide the percentages of material proportions (11% and 35%).

Thus the blending of the three materials will be in the following proportions:

 Crushed Gravel = 65%

 Sand = 24%

 Silty Clay = 11%

Table 59 shows the blending split as per the above percentages:

Table 59: Combined Grading of Blended Mix

Crushed Combined
Sand Silty Clay
Sieve Size Gravel Grading
(mm)
100% 65% 100% 24% 100% 11%

40 100 65 24 11 100

25 90 58 24 11 93

9 17 11 24 11 46

4.75 (No.4) 9 6 100 24 11 41

2.0 (No. 10) 5 3 80 19 11 33

0.425 (No.40) 2 1 55 13 11 25

0.075 (No. 200) 0 0 0 0 100 11 11

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The blend obtained above is plotted on the grading chart and shown in Figure 84
below. It is relative to the fuller curve and lies comfortably within the tolerances of the
required grading.

Figure 84: Grading of Blended Gravel

e. Equipment

(i) Off-Site Manufacture

Soil aggregates can be obtained from naturally occurring gravel pits or

manufactured by blending materials off site. In either case, they will be transported
and laid on the sub-grade or sub-base in their completed blending. For the purpose
of manufacture of artificially blended materials, the following equipment can be used.

o Batch-Mix Plant

For large scale manufacture a standard batch-mix plant as described under

'ASPHALTIC CONCRETE' or a more suitable and available continuous mix plant
may be used.

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o Concrete Mixer

For small scale jobs and repair to localized base failures consistently good blending
can be achieved with a weigh-batch concrete mixer. Provided a small amount of
water is added to each mix, the material may be stockpiled in dry seasons for
subsequent use. Laying soil aggregates may be carried out with the following
equipment.

o Aggregate Spreader

For large scale works, particularly where artificially blended materials have been
used, an aggregate spreader provides fast and accurate work and avoids the risk of
subsequent minor segregation due to overworking the material by graders. The
aggregate spreader is described under DRY STONE BASE.

o Graders

The most common method of laying the soil aggregate material is by grader.
Provided the operators are reasonably skilled little segregation will occur in
spreading and shaping soil aggregate.

(ii) On-Site Manufacture

For reasonably large areas and for correction of grading of existing bases the most
common method of blending aggregates is by road mixing. For this operation only
one specialist machine is required.

o Pulvimixer

Where materials are mixed on site they are usually spread in volumetric proportions
on the road-bed and blended together with a pulvimixer working to the required
depth. The machine consists of a large number of tines set at varying angles on a
drive shaft, which is operated by the power take-off unit of a tractor. The mechanism
is enclosed in a hood, which prevents loss of material and acts as a drag
screed plate to level the resulting surface.

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(iii) Other Equipment

Other equipment requirements for laying soil aggregate include graders, water
bowsers and compaction equipment usually consisting of pneumatic tyred rollers and
non-vibrating steel tandem rollers of 6-8 ton capacity.

f. Construction Methods

(i) Inspection

A thorough site inspection is required prior to construction, reconstruction or repair of

soil aggregation bases. The inspection will define:

 Nature of working to be undertaken

 Size of operation

 Quality of existing materials

 Construction technique

 Equipment and material requirements

 Repair to be carried out

 Traffic control problems

The inspection may also necessitate visits to existing and new borrow pits for:

 Assessment of quantities available

 Taking samples for laboratory analysis and design

o Measurement

On site measurements are required to determine:

 Base widths, levels and thicknesses

 Size and location of lay-bys

 Size and number of turn-outs for junctions and access roads

 Variations to shoulders.

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o Repair

The inspection must detail all necessary repairs to be undertaken prior to base
construction, especially in respect to drains, culverts, shoulders and bridge
approaches.

o Preparatory Works

 Drainage

Adequate provision must be made for drainage of excess water during construction,
especially if the work is to be undertaken against existing high shoulders.

 Road Bed

The surface onto which the base is to be laid, except in respect of on-site mixing
techniques, must be cleaned and graded to the correct profile and level and
thoroughly compacted.

(ii) Planning

The standard planning sequences are required as listed under Dry Stone Base.

(iii) Safety

Safety requirements are the same as for those discussed under Dry Stone Base.

(iv) Operation

o Off-Site Manufactured Material

The sequence of operations listed applies equally to artificially blended material and
naturally occurring soil aggregates. The operation is restricted to grader use only
since this will normally be adequate for the small to medium sized works carried out
by maintenance crews.

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 Delivery of Material

The material will be delivered to site by tippers and deposited along the centre-line
of the section to be worked. Should the material be sufficiently loose it may be
spread-tipped to ease the work of spreading and thereby reduce the risk of
segregation.

 Spreading Soil Aggregate

The material should be spread uniformly by a grader to the correct camber and
grades and to a maximum thickness after compaction of 15cm. Should a thicker
base be required, it must be constructed in two or more separate courses. During the
spreading and shaping stage the surface of the soil aggregate should be
continuously checked with strong lines and camber boards.

 Moisture Content

The material which is now spread and shaped and in loose condition should now be
brought to the predetermined optimum moisture level for compaction. This is
achieved with tractor towed water bowsers. No rolling should be permitted until the
addition of water has been completed and all visible surface water has soaked
away. This will normally occur very rapidly since soil aggregates for bases do not
contain a very high percentage of plastic fines.

 Compaction

Compaction should be carried out with a pneumatic tyred roller working from the
outer edges to the centre line and completed by a smooth wheeled tandem roller of
6-8 ton size. Where the aggregate grading is fine, it is useful to give material a first
pass with a smooth wheel tandem roller. This reduces early distortion and the
tendency of fines to rise to the surface if the moisture content is too high.

o On-Site Manufactured Material

This technique of road-mixing should be confined to blending two materials, one of

which is preferably an existing road bed material. Where three materials require

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blending the operation is more easily performed in a batch-mix plant for large
volumes or in a concrete mixer for smaller jobs.

 Preparation of Road Bed

The existing road bed, base or first material laid and lightly compacted, should be
scarified and graded to profile. It should be lightly watered with a water bowser and
then lightly compacted with a smooth wheeled roller. The profile, camber and depth
of material should be accurately checked.

 Addition of Second and Third Type of Material for Blending

The designed portion of second and third material is brought onto site by tippers
and spread- tipped. It is then spread to full width and required thickness. Very
careful control of thickness and profile is required by continual checking with
camber boards and string lines. The loose material should be lightly watered and
then lightly compacted with a single pass of a smooth wheeled roller.

 Mixing

With the correct proportions of all materials to be blended laid one over the other
in even layers it is now possible to mix them together with a single pass of a
pulvimixer set to the predetermined depth.

 Moisture Content

The moisture content of the residual loose mix should be checked and if necessary
raised to optimum for compaction by watering with a bowser.

 Compaction

Compaction will follow the same sequences as described in (iv) (4) above.

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g. Defects

As a base material, soil aggregates are not exposed to wear by traffic and weather.
The only defects likely to materialize will be those created by segregation and errors
of workmanship. These are extremely rare in the case of plant manufactured
materials. On site mixing of aggregates can result in patches of excessively fine or
excessively coarse material.

(i) Segregated Patches

These, which may materialize immediately after compaction is complete, will

become visible as patches of material and appear to be drier or wetter than the
surrounding area.

This is most frequently caused by high spots in the surface of the first material laid
resulting in an imbalance in the design blending. Correction of the defect can only
be effected by removal of the defective patches to the full depth of the course and
replacement by correctly graded material manufactured off-site.

(ii) Other Defects

Where soil aggregate bases are employed temporarily as wearing courses they will
be liable to the same defects as listed under Gravel Surfacing.

8.7.2 Dry Stone Base

a. General Theory

(i) Definition

A dry stone base is a homogeneous base composed of crushed stone particles,

mechanically interlocking with voids filled by smaller stone particles for maximum dry
density and is maintained in a dry condition throughout its operational life. The
material used for a dry stone base is commonly known as crusher-run or crushed-
graded-aggregate. In principle the base is similar to concrete without the cement
content. It is a flexible base capable of adjusting itself to minor deformation of the sub
grade without failure.

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(ii) Functions

In common with all other flexible bases a dry stone base fulfils the following
functions:

 Transmits and distributes the concentrated wheel loads from the surfacing
courses (wearing and binder if present) to the lower pavement courses of sub-
base or sub grade.

 Reduces load intensity to acceptable levels for the lower grade materials
underlying it.

 Provides a platform on which the surfacing course may be laid

b. Application

A dry stone base can be laid onto any lower base, sub-base or sub grade material,
provided that care is taken to protect it from:

 Clay pumping

 Capillary rise of ground water

Where the base is to be laid direct upon a cohesive soil sub grade or material containing
high moisture content a sand (drainage) blanket of not less than 10cm thickness
should first be laid and compacted. Where the base is to be laid on a strong soil
aggregate sub- base, such as lateritic gravels, a sand blanket of 2.5 - 3.0 cm will be
sufficient to prevent the rise of clay into the base aggregate.

A dry stone base can be completed with a good quality of texture and evenness by,
receiving a wearing course or preferably binder and wearing courses, without the
necessity of inter- posing a regulating course.

c. Strength

Dry stone bases are the stronger and most versatile of flexible bases and thicknesses
may therefore be included in depth/strength calculation for pavement design.

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d. Design Principles

Before studying the design principles, it is necessary to consider the one major
weakness of crusher-run materials, namely segregation, which plays a major part in
every step of design, planning and construction.

(i) Segregation

Segregation is the tendency of crusher-run aggregates to separate into their coarse

and fine particles under the influence of wind, gravity, rain, vibration and working.

o Wind

Crusher-run aggregates loaded off conveyors into tippers under windy conditions will
deposit a surprisingly large quantity of their fine particles onto the downward side of
the truck. The effect can be reduced by attaching a tabular canvas chute to the
conveyor head.

o Gravity

Crusher-run aggregates loaded off conveyors into tippers will tend to segregate the
larger stone particles by running down the side slopes loaded mound. The conveyor
should be kept as low as possible and loads in tippers should be raked level
continually during loading.

o Rain

Crusher-run aggregates stockpile exposed to rain will eventually concentrate

the fine particles into the base of the stockpile as a normal drainage effect.
Stockpiles have therefore to be reworked from time to time.

(ii) Construction Techniques

The problems of segregation have given rise to two primary construction techniques
known as the ―Wet Process‖ and the ―Dry Process‖.

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o Wet Process

The wet process consist of adding a small amount of water, in no case greater than
5% by weight, to the combined aggregate either at the quarry site or at the
construction site. The amount of water used will vary with the type of aggregate but
should be sufficient only to bond temporarily the fine fraction particles to the larger
stone particles. The complete graded material is laid as a homogeneous mass either
by a spreader paver or by graders. This method reduces the risk of segregation but
does not totally eliminate it. Care is still required at every step. The main advantage
to the use of the wet process is that it utilizes standard maintenance equipment and
can be employed (by grader spreading) on relatively short lengths of the highway.

o Dry Process

The dry process, also known as the segregated method, separates the aggregates
at the quarry into its coarse and fine fractions (usually at the 9mm screen). The two
types are transported separately and laid separately. The fine fraction, laid over the
top of the compacted coarse fraction is vibrated into the voids.

This method totally eliminates the risk of segregation and produces a consistently
dense base. The disadvantage is that an aggregate spreader is required for laying
the coarse fraction and specialized, high frequency vibrating compaction equipment
is necessary for inserting the fine fraction. As a result the method can only be used
on relatively long construction lengths.

o Wet Segregated Process

A less efficient variation to the dry or segregated process, lays the coarse fraction
as described above under DRY p rocess and washes the fine fraction into the
voids using plain rollers or very low frequency vibrating plate compactors. The
only advantage of this variation is that it can be done by hand in relatively small
areas where access of heavy equipment is not possible.

(iii) Choice of Construction Method

The first design step is to select the method of construction to be used dependent
upon the nature and size of the job and equipment availability.

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o Extensive Base Construction

Heavy base construction length in excess of one kilometre will normally constitute a
part of a major rehabilitation or reconstruction programme, which will be planned and
submitted for tender by the Federal Ministry of Works. Where such long lengths of
base constructions are within the capacity of the maintenance organization the work
may be undertaken by either:

 Dry process (if equipment is available).

 Wet process.

 Short Length of Base construction

o Short Lengths of Base Construction

Length of up to one kilometre may frequently require to be laid in major repair and
upgrading exercises. The only practical method to be employed is:

 Wet Process

o Small Area of Base Construction

Short lengths of highway may require reconstruction in areas of washouts and low
formations at valley curves over culverts. Under these conditions the short length or
the need to work to half carriageway width may make the use of graders
impracticable. The method to be used, dependent on site conditions is:

 Wet process.

 Wet Segregated Process.

o Large Potholes

Where large potholes have damaged the base and require removal and
reinstatement of the damaged section the use of any wet method and construction
may well cause further necessary damage. Under these conditions it is
recommended that the replacement base be installed either by penetration
macadam or bitumen macadam.

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(iv) Determination of Depth of Course

The depth of base course to be implemented in any one lift is related to the following
factors:

 Choice of construction method

 Nominal maximum size of grading

 Effective compaction equipment

o Construction Method

Once the construction method has been chosen dependent on conditions as

discussed above, it will be possible to select the appropriate grading shown there in
a tolerance of maximum and minimum thickness that may be laid in any one course
of construction.

If, for example, the Wet Process is selected, only one grading is available and this
material may only be laid in course thicknesses of 10 to 15cm. It will not be possible
to achieve optimum compaction outside of this range.

o Nominal Maximum Size of Grading

Where the Dry Process is selected for use there is a choice available of four nominal
maximum sizes of coarse aggregate allowing a range of course thickness
varying from 8cm to 23cm of total compacted depth. Should it be necessary to
exceed the compacted depth of 23cm, then two or more courses will have to be laid

o Effective Compaction Equipment

When designing the course depth to be laid at any one time careful consideration
must be given to the available compaction equipment.

Where the dry process is used, high frequency vibrating compactors are necessary
and if only vibrating rollers are available then the thickness of course to be
laid should be reduced to the middle of the range as shown in Table 60 below.

Loose material for the wet process and for the coarse fraction of the Dry Process
should be laid to 17-20% above the final compacted thickness required.

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(v) Aggregate Grading

o Wet Process

Only one grading is given for this material since compaction will be by smooth
steel wheeled rollers and pneumatic tyred rollers. Vibratory equipment is not
recommended for compaction.

Table 60: Material Grading

Nominal Maximum Size: 50mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

50 100

25 60 - 90

9 40 - 60

4.75 (No.4) 30 - 40

2.0 (No. 10) 20 - 25

0.425 (No.40) 10 - 20

0.075 (No. 200) 3 - 10

Compacted Thickness (Single Course) = 10 – 15cm

This material is laid in a moist to wet condition to minimize segregation. Further

water may have to be applied rafter spreading to bring it to optimum moisture
content for compaction.

This is almost certain to raise the moisture content above 2.5%, which on an
average for limestone is the critical level at which high frequency vibration will result
in floating the fine fraction towards the surface. For this reason, all vibratory
equipment should be kept off the material until it is thoroughly compacted and dried.

o Dry Process

 Coarse Fraction

Four gradings are given in Table 61 below for Nominal Maximum Sizes of 75mm,
60mm, 50mm and 40mm coarse aggregates:

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Table 61: Material Grading for 75mm Aggregates

Nominal Maximum Size: 75 mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

75 100

60 90 - 100

50 35 -70

40 0 - 15

19 0-5

Compacted Thickness (Single Course) = 15 – 23cm

Table 62: Material Grading for 60mm Aggregates

Nominal Maximum Size: 60 mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

60 100

50 95 - 100

40 35 -70

25 0 - 15

12 0-5

Compacted Thickness (Single Course) = 12 – 18cm

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Table 63: Material Grading for 50mm Aggregates

Nominal Maximum Size: 50 mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

50 100

40 90 - 100

25 20 - 55

19 0 - 15

9 0-5

Compacted Thickness (Single Course) = 10 – 15cm

Table 64: Material Grading for 40mm Aggregates

Nominal Maximum Size: 40 mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

40 100

25 90 - 100

19 20 - 55

12 0 - 10

9 0-5

Compacted Thickness (Single Course) = 8 – 12cm

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 Fine Fraction

The grading for the fine fraction to be vibrated into the compacted coarse fractions
listed above is one common size passing the 9mm screen, as listed in Table 65
below:

Table 65: Material Grading for 9mm Fine Fraction

Nominal Maximum Size: 9 mm

Sieve Size (mm) Percentage Passing

9 100

No.4 85 - 100

No. 100 10 - 30

o Acceptable Materials

Only mechanically crushed stone aggregate may be used for coarse and fine
fractions of dry stone bases. Naturally occurring gravels and sands are not suitable
due to their rounded shapes. Best results are obtained from homogeneous materials
and it is not recommended to supplement the fine fraction material with material
from another quarry if this can be avoided.

e. Equipment

(i) Aggregate Spreader

The aggregate spreader is used for laying the coarse aggregate in the dry process
or total aggregate in the wet process. It consists of a crawler tractor mounted hopper,
which is open to the road bed surface at its base, side forms and an adjustable
tailgate. It is similar in appearance to a paver without bottom feed plate, lateral
screws, screed and tamper. The aggregate spreader replaces the screed of the
paver with two or more vertically adjustable gates, called strike plates, each of which
can be raised at either end to vary the thickness of carpet and allow for variation to

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camber or super-elevation relative to the road bed on which the machine operates.
The machine is illustrated below:

Figure 85: Aggregate Mixer

(ii) Paver

As an alternative to the aggregate spreader a paver may be used in the wet

process. Under no conditions should pavers be employed to lay coarse fraction
aggregates in the dry process since the aggregate without fines or water will cause
irreparable damage to the screed plate and tamper. The paver is described fully
under ‗Asphaltic Concrete‘.

(iii) Grader

A standard maintenance grader of 110-130 HP rating is suitable for spreading

t h e total aggregate in the wet process.

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(iv) Rollers and Compaction

o Wet process

 Initial compaction

Initial compaction should be carried out with steel wheeled tandem rollers of
approximately 8 ton size Without Vibration.

 Final Compaction

Final compaction is obtained in the wet process with a pneumatic tyred roller.

o Dry Process

 Coarse Fraction

First compaction immediately behind the aggregate spreader is best obtained with a
12 ton three wheel steel roller. Compaction should be completed with a 6 ton steel
wheeled vibrating tandem roller.

 Fine Fraction

The fine fraction is most easily inserted into the voids with a high frequency vibrating
multiple plate compactors.

In the absence of such a specialized tool, insertion of the fine fraction can be
achieved with more passes using a self-propelled vibrating roller of 6-8 ton size or a
towed vibrating roller, provided that the frequency of vibration is not less than 1800
cycles per minute.

f. Construction Methods

(i) Inspection

Inspection is a vital exercise that must be carried out by those persons responsible
for planning, design and construction. Its aim is to check measurements,
determination of work techniques, equipment and material requirements and
preliminary works in repair and preparation.

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o Measurement

On-site measurement is required to obtain:

 Pavement widths and levels

 Size and location of lay-bys

 Size and number of turnouts for junctions and access roads, making
allowance for tapering to levels

 Location and length of bridges. New bases will not be laid over bridge
decks but will be either feathered out to abutments or cut into abutment
backfill

 Increase in height and width requirements of shoulders

 Increased dimensions of culverts head and wing walls

 Relocation details for highway furniture.

o Repair

Details are required for planning and pre-repair to drains, shoulders, culverts and
bridge approaches.

o Preparatory Works

 Shoulders

For dry process construction and occasionally for wet process construction, it is
necessary to lay dry stone base against a pre-repaired side form, usually the
completed compacted shoulder.

 Drainage

Where shoulders are completed ahead of the work relief drains must be cut to drain
the road in the event of rain and during wet process construction. These lateral
drains should be placed one every 20 metres either side and may be temporary for
the construction period or permanent sub-soil drains where a sand blanket is used.

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 Road Bed

The surface on which the dry stone base is to be laid (sub grade, sub-base)
must be prepared to receive the material.

The surface must be shaped to an adequate camber, particularly if the wet process
is to be used and thoroughly compacted. If clay is present in the sub grade or sub-
base material the surface must be overlaid with a minimum of 2.5cm of compacted
sand. Where the sub grade or sub-base is in naturally damp condition or where
the wet process is to be employed within pre-constructed shoulder the minimum of
10cm sand blanket will be placed over the surface and laterally drained.

(ii) Planning

Planning exercises will be needed to coordinate all aspects of the work, namely:

 Site requirements

 Sequence of operations

 Production capacity

 Transport requirements

 Equipment requirements

 Material quantities

 Measurement and testing equipment and personnel

 Chains of command

 Traffic control

(iii) Safety

Danger to persons is not as great as with bituminous pavement work nor is

the material so likely to be damaged by traffic. However, normal safety precautions
must be taken and the provision of warning signs, barriers, cones, stop-go boards,
signals and flagmen will be required.

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(iv) Operation

o Wet Process

The most frequent usage of this technique for laying dry stone bases will be on
relatively short lengths of highways utilizing such equipment as is available from
standard stock holding in maintenance districts. The following brief description is
therefore confined to such methods.

 Open-Sided Construction

The normal method of laying dry stone bases with the wet process is by open-sided
(unsupported) construction to facilitate drainage of considerable amount of water
present. To ensure that there is no collapse of the unsupported edge it is necessary
to allow an additional 10cm width on either side and a 2:1 side slope. Allowance
must be made for this in setting out and ordering material.

 Delivery to Site

The material will be delivered to site in tippers and should be in a damp to moist
condition. It should be unloaded in heaps along the centre-line of the section to be
worked.

 Spreading and Blending

The material heaps will first be spread to full width and approximate camber by
grader. In this loose condition water is uniformly added by water bowsers to bring the
material to optimum moisture content for compaction. Since some segregation will
undoubtedly have occurred in transport and unloading, blending of the aggregate
will be necessary before compaction can start.

This is achieved by grader, by returning all material to a windrow along the centreline
and then spreading it out to full width again. One more repetition of this process
should be sufficient to obtain a good uniform mix. The spread material may now be
finally dressed to the correct camber and graded by the grader.

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 Compaction

Compaction should commence with an 8 ton steel wheel tandem roller and be
completed with a pneumatic tyred roller. The latter should be used for compaction of
the side slopes of each layer. One tandem roller and one pneumatic tyred roller will
compact approximately 100 square metres per hour.

The work must be checked continuously for level, camber and segregated spots in
the surface. Correction should be made wherever possible in the loose condition.
Once the material has been compacted correction can only be achieved by
scarifying and relaying with additional water to the full depth of the course.

 Finishing

When compaction is complete and surface has become thoroughly dry, all excess
fines must be removed from the surface.

If a second course of dry stone base is to be constructed, it will be sufficient to

broom the surface lightly with a power broom. This will leave the larger stones just
visible in a dust mortar.

Where the base is to be primed prior to a bituminous surfacing, the brooming should
be more firmly applied to depress the dust mortar about 3 mm below the stone
surface.

o Dry Process

Before this method of construction can be employed the following condition are
essential:

 Long length of base to be constructed

 Aggregate spreader available

 Shoulder to be pre- formed

 Coarse Fraction

The coarse fraction is delivered to site in tippers and tipped directly into the hopper
of the aggregate spreader. The operation of the spreader is identical to that of a
paver, pushing the tipper ahead as it shapes and levels the aggregate. Compaction
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is achieved with initial rolling by a 12 ton three, wheeled steel. Final compaction is
carried out with a 6-8 ton vibrating tandem roller. One aggregate spreader backed
by the pair of rollers referred to above will be able to lie and compact 250 –300
square metres per hour.

The compacted coarse fraction must be carefully checked for level and camber
since it controls the quality and evenness of the finished surface of the base. Minor
errors in low spot, caused by dragging of larger stone particles under the strike plate
of aggregate spreader, can be corrected prior to final rolling by dressing with
19 mm single size chippings.

 Fine Fraction

The fine fraction will be laid by a chipping spreader as a uniform blanket over
surface of the compacted course aggregate. Approximately 60 to 70 % of the total
required quantity will be applied in this first layer. The fine fraction is inserted into the
voids with a high frequency vibrating multiple plate compactors if available. A single
pass with such a machine will normally suffice to make the fine blanket totally
disappear. In the absence of such a compactor, a vibrating roller with frequency of
not less than 1800 cycle per minute will achieve the same result in 2 to 3 passes.

The remaining fines should now be similarly applied. A further two passes by the
plate compactor, or 3 to 4 passes by a vibrator, should succeed in choke filling all
voids in the coarse fraction. Any remaining coarse aggregate visible should be hand
dressed with fines and further vibrated. Care should be taken to stop vibration
treatment at a time when open textured course stones become visible, as further
vibration in this condition may loosen the coarse fraction interlock.

 Finishing

The compacted surface may be immediately lightly brushed with a power broom.
The finished surface texture should be dust free with the high points of the coarse
stone visible through a grit background.

g. Defects in Dry Stone Bases

Provided care is taken to check continuously with camber board and straight edge,
defects should be reduced to the minimum.
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(i) Ravelling

Ravelling will appear as patches of loose large stones lying on the surface. It is
caused either by traffic on material deficient in fines or by over-vibration.

The affected area should be excavated to a minimum of 10cm depth and re-
established with well graded material, watered and rolled.

(ii) Fine Patches

Fine patches appear as dusty pools or lines on the surface. The cause of this defect
is usually due to segregation created by overworking material during the blending
stage of Wet Process construction.

The cure follows the same procedure as described in (i) Ravelling above.

(iii) Ruts and Depressions

This defect may appear as tracking under construction traffic or as tracking in the
course at a later date. The cause of this failure is usually due to poor grading or
insufficient fines resulting in higher residual voids compacted by later traffic.

If the defect appears during construction, the affected area should be excavated
and replaced with well graded material. Should the defect appear after surfacing the
rut should be overlaid with wearing course material to return the surface to the
correct profile.

(iv) Corrugation

Corrugation appears as lateral waves on the surface of the base. U sually with
dry stone bases the wave length will be very short. Corrugation is caused by
construction traffic driving over completed bases that have excess fine fraction
material lying on the surface.

If evidence of corrugation can be seen early the defect can be corrected by lightly
plaining the surface with a grader and heavy brooming. If the corrugation
reappears or is too deep to be corrected by plaining then the entire affected areas
must be removed to a depth of at least 10cmand a new course must be constructed.

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8.7.3 Other Bases

Two other types of base in addition to those already described are in use in Nigeria:

 Cement stabilized base is in common use and there are many kilometres of
road which have this material as a base

 Bitumen stabilized base is very rarely used and it is believed that only two
roads in Nigeria amounting to about 200 kilometres have a bitumen stabilized base.

Both of these types of base require specialized machinery which is not normally held by a
maintenance department and for this reason the design and construction of such bases is
not covered by this manual.

For cement stabilized bases, the FMW General Specification (Roads and Bridges), Clauses
6220 to 6247, is applicable. There is no standard specification in Nigeria for bitumen
stabilized bases and its use is not recommended in view of the fact that in the present world
economic climate bituminous materials are rapidly becoming more expensive than locally
produced cement-based materials.

8.8 Drainage Structure

8.8.1 Culverts, General

The need to differentiate between bridges and culverts within administrations responsible for
the allocation of funds for design and construction of new highways in some countries has
led to erroneous descriptions of culverts, such as:

 ―A culvert does not form part of the highway surface‖

 ―A culvert is a drainage structure of less than 6 metres span‖

Both description can be and frequently are breached by multiple box culverts.

A culvert is therefore defined as a minor drainage structure that fully encloses the water
course that it transmits from one side of a highway to the other and may in its design be
permitted to flow full to accommodate peak rainfall intensities.

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Culverts are normally located on:

 Small water courses

 At the bottom of dry depressions

 At locations required for the release of surface water drainage

 In side drains beneath access roads and drives to adjacent property

Culverts are generally constructed of the following materials:

 Spun-reinforced concrete pipe-Precast concrete pipe

 Corrugated metal pipe

 Cast-in-situ reinforced concrete box sections

 Masonry box sections

8.8.2 Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts

a. Description of Pipes

Reinforced concrete pipes as referred to in this section are circular section, thin
wall concrete pipes with a steel reinforcing cage, manufactured in a spinning machine.

(i) Available Sizes

The sizes of pipes that may be purchased locally will depend upon moulds available
but normally these will be in the ranges of 0.60, 0.75, 0.90, 1.05 and 1.20 metres
internal diameter. They will be manufactured in 1.0, 1.8and 2.0 metre length.

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(ii) Joints

o Butt Joint

Butt joints are square ended pipes as illustrated in Figure 86. Joints are either
completed with mortar surrounds or filled with oversize rings or collars.

Figure 86: Butt Joint

o Ogee Joints

Ogee joints are tapered ends creating a spigot and socket effect without
increase to the outside diameter of the pipe, as illustrated in Figure 87

Figure 87: Ogee Joint

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b. Application

The need to construct new culverts by maintenance personnel arises from:

 Replacement of broken sections or whole culverts

 Replacement of undersize culverts resulting in floods and washouts

 Construction of additional culverts due to omissions in early drainage designs

c. Limitations of Responsibility

Culverts are drainage structures and consequently a thorough understanding of drainage

technology is necessary for their design. The responsibility of the maintenance engineer
is therefore restricted to the design and installation of small culverts for the purpose of
providing surface water drainage outlets and carriage of small streams. This may be
defined as a catchment area of 500 hectares or a culvert opening area of 3.5 square
metres. The latter is equivalent to a triple barrel pipe culvert of 1.20 metre diameter.

Any larger culvert or catchment area should be referred to higher authority for specialist
design or approval of design proposals.

d. Design Principles

For large culverts it is necessary to make a study of the hydrology of the catchment
area and a complete analysis of the hydraulics of the proposed design. For smaller
drainage structures within the limits of responsibility of the Maintenance Engineer this
study may be simplified but is still necessary for both new culverts and replacement of
existing structures. This analysis or design will cover the following aspects:

 Size or cross-sectional area

 Slope of culvert

 Location of culvert

 Depth of fill, or surcharge of culvert

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(i) Size of Culvert

o Drainage Outfall Culverts

Where the culvert to be installed is accommodating only the surface water run-off
from side drains it is possible to complete the peak flow by the method discussed
under SIDE DRAIN LINING. The quantity or quantities thus obtained in cubic metres
per second may be inserted into formulae for:

 Circular pipe culverts

2.5
Q = 1.5 d

³
Where Q is the total flow in m /sec

d is the internal diameter of the concrete pipe in metres

And for:

 Rectangular entrance pipe culverts

1.5
Q (max) = 1.7a .b

Where:

a = Height of opening in metres

b = Width of opening in metres

Q (max) = Capacity in cubic metres per second

These formulae are valid under the following conditions:

o The slope of the culvert shall be equal to or greater than critical slope

o The head at inlet shall be equal to the top of the pipe

o The outlet shall be free

o The velocity at entry shall be less than the velocity at outlet

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It is possible to obtain a greater capacity by increasing the head at inlet. This

however involves ponding of water on the inlet side, using the highway embankment
as a temporary demand thus greatly increase the velocity and hence the scour at
outlet. All of these conditions are basically undesirable in highway maintenance and
should be avoided wherever possible.

For standards pipe sizes the capacities are given in Table 66 below:

Table 66: Pipe Culvert Size and Capacities

Concrete Pipe Diameter

Maximum Capacity (m³ / sec)
(metres)

0.60 0.42

0.75 0.73

0.90 1.15

1.05 1.69

1.20 2.37

The minimum size of pipe culvert that may be used under a main highway, i.e. Truck
‗A‘ and Trunk ‗F‘ highways, is 0.75 meter. Culverts smaller than this are extremely
difficult to clean due to the relatively long lengths in these conditions.

o Culverts for Watercourses

For all culverts on watercourses and drainage outfall culverts that receive the
discharge from cut-off drains, it is necessary to consider the size and nature of the
catchment area. The most suitable design method for this purpose is the Talbot
Formula which has the following advantages over other methods.

 Simplicity

 Gives culverts size directly

 Accurate and safe within limits specified Section (c) above

 Based on actual observations in rural conditions where the bulk of

maintenance problems arise.

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The formula is expressed as:

¾
A = 0.188CM

Where : A = Waterway opening in m²

M = area drained in hectares

C = coefficient, based on the contour of the land drained.

C = 1 for steep and rocky ground with abrupt

= 2/3 for rough hilly country of moderate slopes

= ½ for uneven valleys, very wide as compared to length

= 1/3 foe rolling agricultural country where the length of the valley is three or four
times the width.

= 1/5 for level country with gentle slopes.

(ii) Slope of Culvert

Three factors of pipe flow, such as quantity velocity and slope, are governed by a
correlation expressed by the Manning formula. Various charts exist in part 1 of the
highway manual (Highway Design) for the determination of velocity and depth of
flow, given the discharge, the slope and the pipe size. From these charts it can
be concluded that:

 Too shallow a slope results in considerable reduction of capacity, reduced

velocity and likelihood of deposition

 Maximum discharge (Culvert Capacity) is at the critical slope at which

critical velocity occurs.

 Any increase in slope above the critical slope will result in no increase in
discharge, but will result in an increase in velocity

From practical observations it has been found that concrete pipe culverts laid at
slopes less than 0.5% will be liable to silting and a slope of 0.5% can thus be
considered as design minimum.

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On the other hand, slopes in excess of the critical slope probably do more harm than
good because they create increased velocity (and thus scour) and decreased
capacity. So the ideal slope lies somewhere between 0.5% and critical slope and as
close as possible to the latter.

(iii) Location of Culverts

The fundamental principle in establishing the location of culverts is to follow as

closely as possible the alignment of the natural water course.

o Replacement Culverts

Where new culverts are being constructed to replace old or defective ones on
water courses, the opportunity exists to make improvement to drainage alignment.

Many old culverts were located at right angles to the highway alignment for
economy of pipe length. These may, when necessary, be replaced at a skew
location as shown in Figure 88, giving the advantage of reduction of bank erosion at
the outlet end and better stream flow characteristics. A secondary advantage
exists in that the new location enables the new culverts to be constructed totally in
the dry.

Figure 88: Replacement of Culvert to Prevent Soil Erosion

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o Drainage Outfall Culverts

Drainage outfall culverts normally cater for relatively small volumes and low
velocities. Thus, little advantage will be gained by placing these culverts at a skew.

(iv) Depth of Fill

The loads to which pipe culverts are subjected to are the live load of the traffic using
the highway, intensity reduced with depth and the dead load imposed by the weight
of fill over the pipe.

The most critical factor in the design of culverts is therefore the depth at which they
are placed. Similarly, given a standard factory produced spin reinforced
concrete pipe, its strength will predetermine the limits of maximum and minimum
depth at which it may be safely installed. The strength of such a pipe is dependent
upon three main factors:

 Wall thickness
 Quantity of reinforcement
 Position of reinforcement

A fourth factor, the grade or quality of concrete, may also be introduced but since
this is incorporated only for large diameter pipes and very high strength under heavy
fill, it is of minor importance to maintenance engineers. The standard grade of
concrete used in the range of pipes discussed below is U.4000.

o Factory Specifications

Reinforced concrete pipes produced by factories and major contractors may be

marketed with full detailed specifications as being in accordance with certain
standards. The most common standard used in pipe manufacture is AASHTO: M
170-74 (ASTM: C 76-72a).

Where this is quoted then the permissible limits to which pipes may be installed are:

 Class I from 0.6 to 5.8 metres

 Class II from 0.6 to 3.9 metres

 Class III from 0.6 to 5.1 metres

 Class IV from 0.6 to 7.9 metres

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 Class V from 0.6 to 10.0 metres

o Unspecified Pipes

In many instances pipes will be available without specification detail but with data of
available reinforcement. To assist maintenance engineers in analysing such pipes
the following simplified presentation is made drawn largely from AASHTO: M 170

 Reinforced Cages

Three basic reinforcement cage types are employed for reinforcing pipe culverts:

o a single inner circular ring, usually for small diameter pipes or

o an inner circular ring together with an outer circular ring, usually for medium
and

o large sized pipes or

o an epileptical ring for all diameters of pipe.

 Reinforced Fabric

Reinforcement cages are usually made up from welded reinforcing steel fabric in
which the main bars at closer spacing are circumferential and the transverse bars,
usually a smaller diameter, run parallel to the axis of the pipe. In Table 67 below the
area of steel quoted in cm²/m of pipe refers to the total cross sectional area of the
main bars only.

o Use of Tables

The tables below are restricted to the standard range of pipes referred to in
8.9.2(a)(i) Available Sizes above, namely 0.60, 0.75, 0.90, 1.05 and 1.20 metre
internal diameter respectively. The tables show the range of wall thickness, standard
reinforcement cage types, cross-sectional area of main steel per linear metre of
pipe and equivalent depth of fill limits. From these tables the maintenance engineer
will be able to identify the class of pipe offered and obtain direct or by interpolation
the safe depth to which it may be installed.

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Table 67: 0.60 Metre Diameter Pipe

Reinforcement (cm² / m)
Wall
Permissible
Thickness Circular
Fill Depth (m)
(mm) Elliptical
Inner Outer

2.8 - 2.3 0.6 – 3.9

63 3.6 - 3.0 0.6 – 5.1

6.1 - 5.7 0.6 – 7.9

1.5 - 1.5 0.6 – 3.9

76 1.5 - 1.5 0.6 – 5.1

5.7 - 4.9 0.6 – 7.9

95 1.5 1.5 1.7 0.6 – 7.9

A standard type of 63mm wall thickness and internal diameter 0.60 metre reinforced
with an inner circular cage of 6mm steel at 7.5cm centres spacing would provide
²
3.7cm /metre of reinforcement. Such a pipe could be safely installed with not less
than 0.6 metre fill over the pipe and not more than 5.1 metres of fill over the pipe.

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Table 68: 0.75 Metre Diameter Pipe

Reinforcement (cm² / m)
Wall
Permissible Fill
Thickness Circular
Depth (m)
(mm) Elliptical
Inner Outer

3.2 - 3.0 0.6 – 3.9

70 4.0 - 3.8 0.6 – 5.1

8.0 - 7.4 0.6 – 7.9

3.0 - 2.5 0.6 – 3.9

89 3.8 - 3.2 0.6 – 5.1

7.4 - 5.9 0.6 – 7.9

108 1.9 1.5 2.1 0.6 – 7.9

Table 69: 0.90 Metre Diameter Pipe

Reinforcement (cm² / m)
Permissible
Wall Thickness
Circular Fill Depth
(mm) Elliptical
(m)
Inner Outer

3.0 2.1 3.2 0.6 – 3.9

76
4.4 3.4 4.7 0.6 – 5.1

2.5 1.9 2.8 0.6 – 3.9

101 3.6 2.8 4.0 0.6 – 5.1

6.3 4.7 7.0 0.6 – 7.9

1.5 1.5 1.7 0.6 – 3.9

120 1.7 1.5 1.9 0.6 – 5.1

3.0 2.1 3.2 0.6 – 7.9

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Table 70: 1.05 Metre Diameter Pipe

Reinforcement (cm² / m)
Wall
Permissible Fill
Thickness Circular
Depth (m)
(mm) Elliptical
Inner Outer

3.4 2.5 3.8 0.6 – 3.9

89
5.3 4.0 5.9 0.6 – 5.1

3.2 2.5 3.6 0.6 – 3.9

114 4.4 3.4 4.9 0.6 – 5.1

7.4 5.5 8.3 0.6 – 7.9

2.1 1.7 2.3 0.6 – 3.9

133 2.5 1.9 2.8 0.6 – 5.1

4.2 3.2 4.7 0.6 – 7.9

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Table 71: 1.20 Metre Diameter Pipe

Reinforcement (cm² / m)
Wall
Permissible Fill
Thickness Circular
Depth (m)
(mm) Elliptical
Inner Outer

4.5 3.4 4.9 0.6 – 3.9

101
6.8 5.1 7.4 0.6 – 5.1

3.8 3.0 4.2 0.6 – 3.9

127 5.1 3.8 5.7 0.6 – 5.1

8.9 6.8 9.9 0.6 – 7.9

3.0 2.3 3.2 0.6 – 3.9

146 3.4 2.5 3.8 0.6 – 5.1

5.5 4.2 6.1 0.6 – 7.9

o Exceptional Conditions

Where the available cover over the top of the pipe culvert is less than 0.60 metres
then the whole of that deficiently covered length within the pavement and shoulders
shall be haunched and fully clad with 15cm of concrete.

Similarly, culverts requiring to be installed at depths greater than the limits

shown as permissible in the tables above may be haunched and clad with 15cm of
concrete.

e. Equipment

Standard equipment requirements for culvert construction are:

 Tractor and backhoe

 Concrete mixer

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 Vibrating plate compactor

 Vibrating roller, hand operated

Additionally, it is desirable to allocate a flatbed truck to the team. The truck should be
fitted with a 3 ton hydraulically operated crane arm and out-riggers to facilitate off loading
and placement of the relatively heavy culvert pipe sections.

f. Construction Methods

(i) Inspection

The primary purpose of the site inspection is the collection o f data necessary for
design, essential repair works and planning.

o Factors Governing Design

 New Drainage Outfall Culverts

Measurement must be made of side drain length and cross fall detail of highway,
where cut-off drains feed into the proposed outfall culvert estimation must be
made of the catchment area of the cut-off drain and observation of the type of
topography in the area should be noted.

Levels of drain inverts on either side of the highway and pavement crown levels
should be recorded together with lowest available outfall level at the discharge end of
the proposed culvert.

 Replacement Culverts on Water Courses

Observation and estimation of the catchment area is necessary as for cut-off drains
above. Levels must also be recorded as above.

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 Repair Works

The only essential repair works that must be undertaken prior to installation
of new culverts are those involving repair or lining to side drains discharging into the
proposed location. It is desirable to ensure that new culverts are not exposed to
unnecessary scour or silting.

 Alignment Improvements

Every opportunity should be taken to improve alignment when replacing culverts.

Thus, all evidence of scour and tendencies of streams to meander should be
recorded. However, the full volume of all existing serviceable culverts and structures,
aprons, wing walls, spillways and control works should be noted.

(ii) Planning

The construction of a culvert on an in-service highway constitutes a major

observation to traffic. One of the primary objectives of planning is therefore the
choice of culvert type, design and operational technique that enables this obstruction
to be reduced to a minimum.

The factors that will be studied and carefully analyzed are:

 Half width construction or bypasses

 Stream by-passes

 Sequence of operations

 Material requirements

 Transport requirements

 Stockpile areas

 Traffic control

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(iii) Safety

Safety measures must be provided for the safety of highway users with the provision
of warning signs, cones, stop-go boards or signals and flagmen. Since the works
cannot be completed and the site closed up within one working day, lamps and
watchmen must be provided for overnight safety

The safety of workmen must be provided for with adequate barriers. Where
excavations are deep the trench sides must be adequately shored to prevent
collapse. Safe working depths will vary depending upon the nature of soil in the
formation but as a general rule any excavation of depth greater than 2.0 metres
should be shored in the interest of workmen‗s safety, if not for the preservation of
the pavement stability.

(iv) Operation

Prior to initiating the construction of a new or replacement culvert, it is advisable to

bring to the site the materials plants, signs and tools envisaged to be necessary for
the work. This should ensure that the construction will take the minimum time
and shorten the period in which the road user will face a major obstruction in the
highway.

Half-width construction is the most usual way of building culverts. The engineer
should give thought to the layout of the plants and materials for most economic
operation, bearing in mind also that space must be reserved for dumping of spoil
from the excavation. Pipes should be stored as near as conveniently possible to the
design alignment in order to minimize handling, which frequently can give rise to
broken pipes.

The length of road to be closed, usually one lane wide, should be long enough to
provide space on the carriageway for all of the excavation and concrete materials
and machinery.

Work will commence on the lowest (outlet) side of the culvert and progress toward
the higher (inlet) side. The sequence of operations is normally.

 Excavation and shoring

 Concreting of culvert base

 Pipe installation

 Concrete hunching or surround, if required

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 Removal of shoring and backfill

 Pavement reinstatement (to release the road to traffic)

 Construction of end structures (headwalls, wing walls, spillways, splash areas)

 Reinstatement of embankments, verges and shoulders

o Excavation

Excavation may be carried out manually or with a tractor and backshore. The
sides must be vertical and the trench width restricted to minimum necessary for
installation and consolidation of backfill. Recommended excavation widths are shown
in Figure 89 and Figure 90 below:

Figure 89: Single Pipe Recommended Excavation Widths

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Figure 90: Multiple Pipe Recommended Excavation Widths

Where multiple pipe culverts are being constructed, a gap of width equal to half the
diameter of the pipe must be left between pipes to allow space for compaction of
backfill and to provide adequate lateral support.

If the excavated material is of good quality and it is intended to re-use it for backfill,
the spoil should be dumped in a place where it will not deteriorate due to becoming
wet or soaked. If the spoil is unsuitable, it should be either dumped in thin
layers elsewhere within the right-of-way or taken to tip by lorry or dumper.

The bottom of the trench should in any case be manually trimmed to correct level..

o Shoring

Excavations in excess of 2 metres will require shoring using either timber planks or
steel trench sheet and timber or adjustable steel struts (e.g. Acrow).

Many trenches of less than 2 metre depth will also require shoring and the engineer
should inspect the state of the sidewalls of the trench. The presence of soft, wet or
unstable earth will indicate the need for shoring.

Placing of the struts requires some planning in order not to interfere with the
concreting and installation operations. Normal minimum strut requirement are at the
bottom, middle and top of the trench. The bottom strut to be removed after the
concrete base has been poured and set as the base itself then acts as the strut. The
middle struts should preferably be place high enough to get the pipe comfortably
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underneath. The whaling (longitudinally placed to take the earth pressure to the
struts) should be long enough and strong enough to give strut spacing, longitudinally
of about 2 to 3 metres, for convenient working space. For deep (over 3 metres)
excavations, proper design must be made in advance by the engineer, taking into
account anticipated earth pressures.

CAUTION: There are more deaths caused in works of civil engineering by trench
collapses than in any other operation and the engineer must satisfy himself that the
excavation is safe. If he has doubts about safety due to a possible trench collapse,
he must consult higher authority and in any case ensure that no personnel are
allowed inside or adjacent to the excavation until its safety has been ensured.

o Culvert base.

Concrete pipe are constructed as rigid structures and therefore require a sound,
unyielding base. Occasionally, a well compacted granular material is sufficient for
small culvert or if the base of the trench is rock, normally a 15 cm bed of concrete is
used as the culvert base.

The top of the base can be either shaped or flat to receive the pipe. , A good
standard of finish is desirable to prevent any undue point loading on the installed
pipe.

In wet trenches, the concrete can be mixed relatively dry on the assumption that
some of the free water will combine with the mix to give a not too sloppy and
unworkable concrete.

The concrete base must be given enough curing time to develop its strength,
particularly if the base is intended to replace the bottom struts of a shored trench and
three days is normally sufficient for average situations.

o Pipe Installation

Commencing at the outlet end, the first pipe is installed in such a way that it is in the
correct longitudinal position relative to any intended headwall. The pipe, if it is Ogee
or any other male/female type of joint, must be installed with the female socket
facing upstream. The pipe is firmly wedged to line and level using pre-formed
concrete blocks or sound rock or gravel stones.

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The next pipe is laid so that the joint is not tight but snug and with a gap between
corresponding features of 1-2cm. This process is continued and jointing can then
commence. For small pipes jointing, 1:3 cement/sand mortars will have to proceed
as each pipe is installed. But for bigger sizes, in which a man can comfortably work,
jointing can be done after all the pipes are laid. Care should be taken that the
jointing mortar completely fills the gap around the full perimeter of the joint and
special attention should be given by the engineer to the areas of difficult access,
which is usually at the invert of the pipe.

To secure a good straight line of pipes it is helpful to fix a tight string line at around
―10 o'clock‖ or ―2 o'clock‖ on the outside perimeter of the pipeline, running
longitudinally over several pipes. A long spirit level is also an invaluable aid to install
pipes to a good line and level.

o Concrete haunch or surround

No further operations should be carried out until the engineer has checked and
satisfied himself that the pipeline is satisfactory as to line and level. This can be
done by eye and by checking the invert with a level. When checking is complete,
other operations may proceed. If a haunch or a surround is specified, this can now
be placed using a stiff, fairly dry, concrete.

Care should be taken to ensure that the specified thickness or width of concrete is
obtained.

o Backfill

On completion of pipe installation, hunching or surround the trench may be backfilled

in layers not exceeding 15cm each. Granular materials should be used if
there is no haunch or surround up to 1.5cm above the top of the pipe.

It is essential to ensure that backfill material is placed so that no voids are left,
particularly near the underside of a pipe run. Compaction by any suitable means
must be thorough. The shoring sheet can be removed as backfill proceeds.

From 15cm over the pipe and upwards any suitable backfill material may be used
and compacted with a vibrating plate compactor. Finally, the pavement courses
should be reinstated with new material and finished to match the existing pavement
condition.

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o Completion

For half width construction methods, the above process is repeated on the second
half after opening the downstream half to traffic. Note that the construction of
headwalls and wing- walls being normally well away from the carriageway edge,
need not prevent that the road is opened to traffic prior to construction of these end
structures.

g. End Structures

The purpose of end structures is to channel the flow of water into, or away from,
the culvert pipe in such a way as to prevent scour or erosion to road embankment,
to the culvert foundation or to the stream banks themselves.

For small flows and culvert alignments at or near 90° to the road centre-line, a simple
rip- rap headwall is normally sufficient. See Figure 91.

Figure 91: Simple Rip-Rap Headwall

Figure 92 below shows a concrete headwall and rip-rap embankment toe protection.

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Figure 92: Concrete Headwall and Rip-Rap Embankment Protection

For larger flows and normally for larger angles of skew, a more sophisticated structure is
called for such as that shown in Figure 93

Figure 93: End Structure for Larger Flows

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Construction details for the typical end-structures described above are shown in the
following diagrams.

Figure 94: Plan View of End Structure

Figure 95: Cross Section of End Structure

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After all headwall or wing wall work is completed, reinstatement of the embankment,
verges and shoulders should be carried out to the same standards as existed prior to the
culvert construction works.

8.8.3 Corrugated Steel Pipe Culverts

a. Description of pipes

Corrugated steel pipes as referred to in this section are circular section steel pipes, which
are corrugated along the axis of the pipe to 12.7mm depth and 67.7mm pitch. The pipes
are obtainable in the market as prefabricated pipes with riveted or welded seams, as
semi circular sections usually called ―Nestable‖ for assembly on site and as multi plate
pipes for assembly on site in larger diameter pipes. A similar range is available in pipe-
arches, which have the advantage of requiring less headroom for a given waterway
opening. Within the limits of responsibility of maintenance engineers and within the limits
of practical use on maintenance sites this section is restricted to use of nestable pipes
and nestable pipe-aches of the sizes and strength most commonly required.

(i) Available Sizes

Corrugated steel pipe is manufactured in a range of diameters from 29 cm up to

183cm within the nestable class. The range of standards most useful to maintenance
works and normally available on the market is 60, 75, 90 105 and 120cm diameter
respectively.

Corrugated steel pipe arches are manufactured in a range from 46cm span, 33cm
rise up to 183cm span and 122cm rise within the nestable class. The range of
standards most useful to maintenance works is 76/50, 91/57, 107/66, 122/75, 137/84
and 152/93cm span/rise respectively.

(ii) Strength of Pipes

Both nestable pipes and nestable pipe-arches are manufactured in a range of sheet
thickness to suit loading and depth of fill conditions A standard range of five gauge
thickness is quoted for most sizes in sales brochures. The gauges quoted are
usually U.S. standard for sheet and plate, which refer to constant standard weight
per area (kg/m²).

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The actual plate thickness will therefore vary dependent upon the base material
used in manufacture. Table 72 below gives the standard gauge, numbers, weight
in kg/m² and equivalent thickness for steel plates.

Table 72: Specifications of Corrugated Steel Pipe Culverts

Weight
U.S. Gauge No. Thickness of Steel (mm)
( kg/m² )

8 33.57 4.176

10 27.46 3.416

12 21.36 2.657

14 15.26 1.897

16 12.21 1.519

(iii) Coating

Nestable c orrugated steel pipes and pipe arches are normally available in
galvanized coated finish. This has become a standard and it is recommended that
only this class be purchased for use in maintenance works.

Factory produced pipes are also available in bitumen coated, asbestos-bounded and
bounded-bitumen coated. These provide added protection in water courses of
corrosive or abrasive nature. However, it has been found that the general purpose
maintenance pipe, which undergoes variable storage and transport handling,
becomes easily damaged in respect to specialist coatings.

o Acidic Watercourses

Where old culverts show signs of corrosion, which is quite common in

streams in lateritic soil areas, the standard galvanized sheet can be hot dipped in
straight run bitumen prior to assembly.

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o Abrasive Watercourses

Streams carrying sands and gravels in suspension will greatly reduce the life of the
zinc coating on standard galvanized sheets. Under these conditions it is advisable to
hot dip or internally paint the lower sheet in bitumen and then apply a hot-mix
bituminous paving material to the pipe invert. The paving should fill the corrugation
troughs and cover the crest paving by 3mm within the lower 60° segment of the
pipe. A suitable paving material for this purpose is specified in Section 8.5.5,
BITUMEN MACADAM. The fine-graded material is being recommended.

(iv) Joints

Nestable pipes are supplied in standard 0.61 metre length and that is overlapped one
corrugation longitudinally. The joint between the top and bottom holes of the pipe is
established by inserting the plain edges into the saw tooth parts of the offset
edge as shown in Figure 96(a).

The top and bottom sections are staggered as in stretcher bond brick work. The joint
is secured with metal stitches for pipes of 61cm and 76cm diameter or with hook
and eye bolts for larger size pipes and all pipe-arches. Stitches and hook and eye
bolts are illustrated in Figure 97

Figure 96: Corrugated Steel Pipe Culvert

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Figure 97: Stitches and Hook and Eye Bolts

(v) Advantages of Corrugated Steel Pipe.

There is little difference in cost between a complete culvert constructed in reinforced

concrete and a complete culvert constructed of corrugated steel pipe. The primary
advantages of corrugated steel pipe are therefore individual to the maintenance
engineer and offer

 Fast and simple construction

 No heavy concrete bases

 Ease of transport and storage

o Fast and Simple Construction

In the assembly and reinforcement of corrugated steel pipe culverts there is no time
delay in waiting for concrete to cure. A culvert may therefore be excavated,
assembled and backfilled in two successive halves in one working day. The
disruption of traffic is therefore kept to a minimum.

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o No Heavy Concrete Bases

Corrugated steel pipe culverts are flexible structures and are therefore laid upon
compacted granular soil bases. They are not hunched with concrete. Thus no
concrete mixer or crane for handling materials or pipes is required on site and the
necessary equipment is minimal.

o Ease of Transport and Storage

The entire pipe requirement for a single barrel pipe or pipe arch culvert will fit into a
pick- up. Similarly, large quantities of nestable pipe or pipe-arch can be stocked in a
warehouse under cover and secured and held for planned programmes or
emergencies.

b. Application

Corrugated steel pipe-arch culverts may be applied to the situations listed in Section
8.8.2 (b) Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts.

c. Limitation of Responsibility

The limitations, as discussed in Section 8.8.2 (c) Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts,
apply equally to corrugated steel pipes.

d. Design Principles

The simplified design data presented here is applicable within the limitation of the small
culvert sizes permissible for design and installation by maintenance engineers and
within the limitations of the maintenance control conditions, which are:

 The slope of the culvert shall be equal to, or greater than, the critical slope

 The head at inlet shall be equal to the top of the pipe

 The outlet shall be free.

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Under these conditions, the factors governing the design of culverts are

 Size or cross-sectional area of culvert

 Slope of culvert

 Location of culvert

 Depth of fill over the culvert

(i) Size of Culvert

o Drainage Outfall Culverts

Where the culvert to be installed is accommodating only the surface water run-off
carried by side drains the quantity of peak flow may be calculated by the method
discussed in Section 8.2.6 Side Draining.

The quantity so obtained may be used to select the appropriate size of pipe or pipes
by use of the maximum capacities shown in Table 73 below:

Table 73: Pipe Size and Capacity

Diameter (cm) Area (m²) Max Capacity (m³ / sec)

61 0.29 0.42

76 0.45 0.73

91 0.65 1.13

107 0.89 1.67

122 1.17 2.35

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Similarly where the need arises to reduce headroom and where nestable pipe
arches are available, Table 74 may be used to select the appropriate pipe arch size
or sizes to satisfy capacity requirements.

Table 74: Pipe Arch Sizes per Capacity

Size (cm)
Max Capacity (m³
Area (m²)
/ sec)
Span Rise

76 50 0.32 0.43

91 57 0.44 0.64

107 66 0.59 0.92

122 75 0.74 1.24

137 84 0.93 1.64

152 93 1.14 2.12

It should be noted that the minimum size of culverts for use under main highways, i.e.
Trunk ―A‖ and Trunk ―F‖ highways, are 76cm diameter round corrugated steel pipe
and 97/57cm corrugated steel pipe arches respectively. The smaller sizes are
included here for possible use as continuation of side drains under access roads and
secondary feeder roads.

o Culverts on Watercourses

For all culverts on water course and drainage outfall culverts, that receive the
discharge from cut-off drains, the calculation of water way required should be made
using the Talbot Formula as described in Section 8.8.2 Reinforced Concrete Pipe
Culverts. Applying the values of the Coefficient ―C‖ described therein, the equivalent
drainage area capacity of standard size corrugated steel pipe culvert is given in
hectares as follows:

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Table 75: Drainage Area Capacity

Equivalent Catchment Area (Hectares)

Pipe Diameter
(cm)
C=1 C = 2/3 C = 1/2 C = 1/3 C = 1/5

61 1.9 3.0 4.7 7.5 15.9

76 3.4 5.8 8.5 14.6 28.9

91 5.5 9.4 13.8 23.8 46.9

107 8.3 14.2 20.9 35.8 70.8

122 11.9 20.4 29.9 51.3 101.5

Similarly, the equivalent catchment areas for corrugated steel pipe arches are given
in hectares in Table 76.

Table 76: Drainage Area Capacity for Pipe-Arches

Pipe – Arch (cm) Equivalent Catchment Area (Hectares)

Span Rise C=1 C = 2/3 C = 1/2 C = 1/3 C = 1/5

76 50 2.1 3.6 4.8 9.0 17.7

91 57 3.2 5.4 8.0 13.8 27.2

107 66 4.7 8.1 11.9 20.4 40.3

122 75 6.5 10.5 16.3 28.0 55.4

137 84 8.7 15.0 22.0 37.7 74.6

152 93 11.5 19.7 28.9 49.7 98.2

(ii) Slopes of Culvert

The comments contained in Section 8.8.2 (d)(ii) apply equally to corrugated steel
pipes.

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(iii) Location of Culverts

The recommendations in Section 8.8.2 (d)(iii) are relevant to corrugated steel pipe
and pipe arch culverts.

(iv) Depth of Fill

Corrugated steel pipe and pipe arch culverts derive their strength from the
thickness of steel (gauge) and by virtue of their flexibility which enables them to
balance the direct vertical loads with the lateral soil pressures within the highway
formation. The depths, both minimum and maximum to which they may be safely
installed, are therefore dependent solely upon the gauge of steel but subject to the
condition that they must be maintained as flexible structures. The tables given below
are therefore accurate provided that the structure is NOT built upon a concrete or
similar rigid base.

o Corrugated Steel Round Pipes

Table 77: Depth of Fill for Corrugated Steel Round Pipes

Depth of Fill Over Top of Culvert (m)

Diameter (cm)

14 gauge 12 gauge 10 gauge 8 gauge

61 13.5 21.0 30.0 -

76 9.0 13.5 21.0 30.0

91 - 9.0 13.5 30.0

107 - 7.5 10.5 30.0

122 - 6.0 7.5 10.5

The gauges referred to above are US standard gauges for steel sheet and are
defined in Section (a)(ii) above.

The depths are the maximum permissible depths of fill over the top of the culverts.
The minimum permissible depth of fill is 0.60 metre in permanent construction. Some
manufacturers of corrugated steel pipe recommended minimum fill down to 23cm.

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This is the absolute minimum that may be permitted during construction if the
highway must be reopened to traffic prior completion of pavement courses. Under
these conditions, it is advisable to insert temporary internal timber struts into the pipe
to protect it from distortion by impact loads.

o Corrugated Steel Pipe-Arches

Corrugated steel pipe arches cannot carry such heavy loads of fill as the round
pipes but since pipe arches normally used only in conditions of limited headroom
this disadvantage is not relevant. Limits of fill depth are as follows:

Table 78: Depth of Fill for Corrugated Steel Pipe-Arches

Size (cm) Depth of Fill Over Top of Culvert (m)

Span Rise 14 gauge 12 gauge 10 gauge

76 50 6.0 - -

91 57 6.0 - -

107 66 - 6.0 -

122 75 - 4.5 6.0

137 84 - 2.5 6.0

152 93 - 2.5 6.0

The gauges referred to are US standard gauges for steel sheet and are defined in
(a)(ii) above. The minimum permissible depth of fill over top of the culvert is in all
cases 0.60metres.

e. Equipment

Equipment requirements for corrugated steel pipe arch culverts are minimal. No concrete
mixer is required except in so far as there is need for end structure construction .

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f. Construction Methods

Inspection, planning and safety sequences are the same as those listed in Section
8.8.2 (f)(i) to (f)(iii) inclusive

(i) Operation

Site layout and organization considerations are the same as those applying to
reinforced concrete culverts except that it must be borne in mind that all corrugated
steel pipe and pipe arch construction will always begin at the up-stream or inlet of the
culverts.

o Excavation

Excavation may be carried out manually or with a tractor and back-hoe. The trench
sides must be vertical and the trench width restricted to the minimum necessary for
installation and consolidation of backfill. Recommended excavation widths are shown
in Figure 89 and Figure 90 of Section 8.8.2(f)(iv).

Where multiple pipe culverts are being constructed a gap of width equal to
half the diameter of the pipe must be left between pipes to allow space for
compaction of backfill and t o provide adequate lateral support. Similarly, spacing
between pipe arches should be one third of the span of the pipe arch, as shown in
Figure 98 below:

Figure 98: Pipe-Arch Excavation

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o Shoring

Excavations in excess of 2 metres will require shoring as described in Section

8.8.2(f)(iv). Safety measures will be required to ensure that no superimposed load
of machinery or material is placed closer than permitted by the angle of repose of the
soil.

o Culvert Base

Corrugated steel pipe and pipe arch culverts are flexible structures and as such must
not be placed on concrete or rigid foundations. However, the base or foundation is
equally as important for these structures as it is for concrete pipes and requires
careful preparation. The pipe or pipe arch must be bedded on well compacted
granular material as illustrated in Figure 99 below:

Figure 99: Backfill for Corrugated Steel Pipe Culverts

Where the trench is carried down into good granular soils the trench bed should be
well compacted and shaped to receive the lower quarter of the perimeter or the base
of the pipe arch. Where soft soil or rock is encountered, a further 15cm of the
trench will be excavated and replaced by 15cm of good granular material, such as
sand or sand- gravel. In the absence of naturally occurring materials a dense
crusher-run aggregate may be used.

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o Pipe Installation

Nestable type corrugated steel pipe and pipe arches are supplied in bundles of 6-10
sheets each as described in Section (a)(i) to (iv) above. Standard hand tool sets
are available consisting of drawbar, pinch bar, mallet and bending bar or open-ended
spanners. Assembly of both pipe and pipe arch is simple providing that the
sequence of operations shown in Figure 100 below.

Figure 100: Assembly of Corrugated Steel Pipe

Referring to Figure 100 above, the following steps are taken commencing
construction at the up- stream or inlet end of the culvert.

 Lay section (1) with twin holes at the upstream end

 Insert section (2) under section (1) with a one corrugation overlap

 Place end closure section (3) (4 corrugation length) over the top of section
(1) and insert the plain edges into the offset edges

 Bring holes into line with the drawbar

 Insert stitches or hook-and-eye bolts and close the joint

 Place section (4) over the top of section (3), with one corrugation overlap,
bring edges into position, align holes and make the joint between section (4)-
(1) and (4)-(2)

 Continue in sequence (5), (6), etc.

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o Backfill

On completion of the pipe installation the trench may be backfilled in layers not
exceeding 15cm each. Granular materials should be used up to the top of the pipe
and approximately 10cm above it. Care should be taken to water and ram the
material under the pipe haunches and at its sides without disturbing the pipe, which
is relatively light in weight. From 10cm over the pipe and upwards any suitable
backfill material may be used and reinstated with new material and finished to match
the existing pavement condition. Where the material used to bed and surround the
pipe is sand, it will be necessary to contain the ends with a one metre plug of
cohesive soil or soil aggregate at either end of the trench and embankment side
slope.

o Completion

For half width construction methods, the above process is repeated on the
second half after opening the up-stream half of the highway to traffic.

g. End Structures

The purpose of end structures and the forms in which they may be constructed are
basically the same as those described in Section 8.8.2(h) of Reinforced Concrete
Pipe Culverts.

However, bearing in mind the flexible nature of corrugated steel pipe and pipe-
arches, it is generally undesirable to build heavy rigid end structures, which may restrict
the ability of the culvert to adjust itself to minor deformations of the embankment in
which it is constructed. The most common end condition for these pipes and pipe arches
is therefore the open end with rip-rap dressing.

(i) Bevelled Ends

Some manufacturers of corrugated steel pipe produce bevelled end sections,

which are cut to conform to standard side slopes. y They greatly enhance the
beauty of the installation.

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(ii) Fish Tail Ends

Standard fish tail shaped end sections are available from most manufacturers in both
pipe and pipe -arches. These spread to approximately twice the diameter or span of
the pipe and are cut away to 2,5: 1 side slope. They may incorporate a toe-plate to
reduce erosion undermining and are effectively apron and wing wall installations that
may be bolted to pipe ends.

8.8.4 Reinforced Concrete Box Culverts

a. Description of Reinforced Concrete Boxes

Reinforced concrete box culverts are thin wall reinforced concrete boxes consisting of a
floor, which serves as a spread foundation, two walls and a roof, which may either act as
a pavement base or support the embankment fill. The box may terminate in truncated
ends to match the embankment side slopes or be provided with wing walls and aprons
as end structures.

b. Application

The fabrication of a reinforced concrete box culvert necessitates high quality concrete, a
large percentage of steel reinforcement, a lot of high quality form work and extreme
accuracy of workmanship in all areas of operations. All of these factors result in a high
cost of construction compared to a similar span of bridge at one end of the scale and
compared to pipe culverts at the lower end of the scale

In Section 8.8.2: Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts it was stated that the limit of
practical use of pipe culverts prior seeking specialist design advice was a 3 x 1.22
metres diameter culvert, providing 3.5 square metres of water way opening and a
capacity of a little over 7 cubic metres per second at beyond the critical slope under
ideal maintenance control conditions. It follows therefore that it would be practical to
utilize reinforced concrete box culverts in the following circumstances:

 Where the watercourse flow demands a waterway opening greater than 3.5m²

 Where the available headroom, i.e. difference in level between culvert invert and
pavement edge, does not allow for at least 0.60 metre cover over the top of the pipe.

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 Where foundation conditions for a small bridge demand the use of spread
foundations.

c. Limitations of Responsibility

Where the demand capacity is small and the deciding factor is one headroom restriction,
consideration should be given to the use of small simple box culverts as described in
Section 8.8.5 Masonry Culverts.

Elsewhere, where the governing factors include a demand for a waterway opening larger
than 3.5 square metres, the proposal to construct a reinforced concrete box culvert must
be referred through the State Maintenance Engineer for advice and specialist design
by Federal Ministry of Works, Housing and Urban Development.

d. Design

A number of standard designs of reinforced concrete box culverts are available but
extreme care is required in their use since the reinforcement designs of single and
multiple boxes and of boxes for zero fill to many metres of fill varies fundamentally.

A reinforced box culvert is designed for one specific set of conditions of loading and may
not be structurally capable of operating outside these conditions. Even where standards
are available the criteria in (c) Limitations of Responsibility above, apply and the
District Maintenance Engineer shall refer to his State Maintenance Engineer for approval
prior to committing the operation.

e. Construction

The construction of reinforced concrete box culverts entails the opening of a larger
excavation, the provision of wherever possible a byp a s s and a length sequence of
operations in bar bending.

Fixing, formwork assembly and placement of concrete is time-consuming. It is therefore

an operation, which places a long duration obstruction upon the highway. Maintenance
engineers should therefore give their full consideration to all possible alternatives, such
as for each pipe, pipe arches and masonry culverts before committing themselves to
reinforced concrete box culvert operations.

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Similarly, long duration of construction operations make reinforced concrete box culverts
uneconomic and impracticable for direct labour utilization of the small maintenance
crews available to the District Maintenance Organization. The average district cannot
afford to have its bridge crew tied up at one side for such a long period of time.

The construction of reinforced concrete box culverts will therefore be put out to tender for
construction by contract. Although the standing supervision of such works may well
become the responsibility of then District Maintenance Engineer such tenders should
normally be called through the State Maintenance Engineer‘s office.

8.8.5 Masonry Culverts

a. Description of Masonry Culverts

(i) Definition

Masonry culverts consist of two parallel masonry or block walls upon a mass
concrete floor, which act as their foundation supporting a precast sectionalized
reinforced concrete deck slab as shown below.

Figure 101: Masonry Culvert

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In Figure 101 and elsewhere within this section the walls are shown or referred to
only as block work since this is the most commonly available material.

(ii) Available Sizes

A masonry culvert may in theory be built to almost any dimension. However, bearing
in mind that it can never compete economically with pipe or pipe arch culverts and
due to a more lengthy time obstruction upon the highway, its practical use will be
restricted to relatively small drainage outlet culverts where headroom is
restricted. A range of four standard design deck slabs has been produced for use
with zero cover, i.e. to be provided with a wearing course only over the concrete
slab. These are listed in Table 79 below and details of design are given in Section
(d) below:

Table 79: Deck Slab Alternatives

Length Clear Span Weight per 50cm. width

(kg)
(m) (m)
(g)
1.10 0.70 260

1.30 0.90 300

1.60 1.20 360

1.80 1.40 400

b. Application

The masonry culverts detailed in this section may be used for

 Replacement of old broken culverts

 Replacement of old undersize culverts

 As new culverts at transverse drainage outlets

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All of the above are conditional on the necessity of providing a culvert where restricted
headroom makes the more practical pipe culvert impossible to install. The masonry box
culverts are not designed for placement under heavy fill conditions.

c. Limitations of Responsibility

The maximum size specified herein is a single cell of 1.40 metre by a maximum height of
1.00 metre of block walling. This provides a waterway opening of 1.40 square metres,
which constitutes a minor watercourse within the limits of responsibility of District
Maintenance Engineers. It should be noted that multiple boxes of masonry culverts
are not recommended in this design since intermediate walls would require design with
concrete caps and dowels to resist lateral displacement of the slabs.

d. Design Principles

(i) Deck Slabs

The deck slabs should be pre-cast using U.4500 grade of concrete and be reinforced
in accordance with the details in Figure 102 to Figure 105

Figure 102: Type 1 – Deck Slab Details

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Figure 103: Type 2 – Deck Slab Details

Figure 104: Type 3 – Deck Slab Details

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Figure 105: Type 4 – Deck Slab Details

(ii) Pre-casting Yard

The slabs should be manufactured under ideal conditions in a pre-casting yard

where they may be cured and stocked pending requirement on site.

The size of the slabs shown in Figure 102 to Figure 105 and the weights shown refer
to a standard slab width of 50cm. Slabs of this size and weight will require the use of
a hydraulic crane on a flat-bed truck for handling and placement of culvert walls.

If these are found in practice to be too cumbersome, they may be reduced to

33.5cm in respect to type 1and 28cm in respect of type 2 to 4 inclusive (i.e. to
include for main reinforcement links). This will result in reduced weights of 175, 170,
200, 225kg respectively. In no case should the slabs be reduced to elements of less
than 150kg each since this would render them less stable under traffic.

(iii) Size of Walls

Masonry culvert side should be constructed in stretcher bond block work up to a

height of 1.00 metre.

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(iv) Floor Slab

The floor slab should be cast in U: 1800 grade mass concrete to a thickness of 18cm
and to full width extending 20cm beyond the outer faces of the walls.

(v) Culvert Capacity

The capacity of masonry box culverts, when laid under ideal conditions, i.e. at critical
slope and head entry equal to height of opening and outlet free, is given by the
formula:

1.5
Q (max) = 1.7a .b

where:

a = Height of opening in metres

b = Width of opening in metres

Q (max) = Capacity in cubic metres per second

For ease of reference, maximum capacity tables are included in Section (d)(vii)
below.

(vi) Critical Slope

The critical slope at which maximum culvert capacity is obtained lies in the
range of 0.5% to 0.6%. A lesser slope will result in silting and unnecessary increase
in routine maintenance cleaning. A greater slope will not result in capacity increase
but greatly in increase of velocity and scour.

(vii) Culvert Capacity Chart

As an aid to the selection of appropriate span of deck slab, Table 80 below

gives t he maximum capacity of each span type for variations of wall heights. These
are the maximum capacities under the ideal control conditions referred to in Section
(d)(v) above.

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Table 80: Culvert Capacity

3
Wall Maximum Capacity (m /sec)

Height
Type Type
(m) Type I Type II
III IV

0.34 0.24 0.31 0.41 0.48

0.46 0.37 0.47 0.63 0.71

0.57 0.51 0.66 0.88 1.03

0.69 0.68 0.87 1.16 1.35

0.80 0.85 1.09 1.46 1.70

0.91 1.04 1.34 1.78 2.08

1.03 1.24 1.60 2.13 2.48

e. Equipment

Equipment requirements for the construction of masonry culverts are the same as those
listed in Section 8.8.4(e) - Reinforced Pipe Culverts. It should be noted that a flat bed
truck fitted with a hydraulically operated crane arm is essential for handling and placing
the precast deck slabs.

f. Construction Methods

The requirements for inspection, planning and safety are precisely the same as those
detailed in Section 8.8.4(f)(i – iii) - Reinforced Pipe Culverts with allowance made for
the additional time factor for the casting and covering of the necessary deck slabs.

(i) Operation

Where possible a bypass should be constructed or provided by diversions. Where

this cannot be undertaken, as in built up areas, half width working may be employed.

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o Excavation

Excavation should be carried out with a tractor mounded back-hoe making the
relatively shallow cut with vertical sides. Shoring should not normally be a provision
for its transport to suitable spoil areas and should be allowed for in planning.

o Culverts Base

On completion of excavation the trench bed will be trimmed and shaped to the
design slope and prior to laying the base be given a 5cm thick dressing of sand or
lean mix concrete in wet conditions..

The mass concrete base is most easily constructed starting at the downstream or
outlet end. To maintain profile and thickness string lines and level used.

o Side Walls

The position of walls will be marked out on the mass concrete base and the surface
area within these lines shall be thoroughly cleaned and, if necessary, hacked back
to remove all surface laitance prior to laying the initial mortar bedding. The walls will
be constructed in stretcher bond with 1:3 cement and mortar joints and will be struck
flat or weather jointed.

o Deck Slabs

The deck slabs should be placed on mortar bedding on the side wall heads with a
clearing width of 20cm at either end. Provided that individual section weights are
not less than that specified in Sub-section (d)(ii) above, no lateral restraint is
required.

o Backfill

On completion of decking the excavated volume between the side walls and trench,
sides may be backfilled in layers not exceeding 15cm in thickness and
thoroughly rammed. This part of the operation will not however be undertaken until
the side walls are at least 36 hours old. Selected and undamaged material from the
excavation may be used for backfilling.

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The highway base should be made up to the ends of deck slabs in dry stone
(crushed) base or with block pitching to provide longitudinal support.

o Completion

With the surface profile of the deck slabs shown in Figure 102 to Figure 105, it is
necessary to allow for a binder or regulating course prior to reinstatement of the
wearing course to match the existing pavement. This can be carried out in
penetration macadam or bitumen macadam as described in 8.5.4 and 8.5.5 of this
manual.

Where half width working has been undertaken the second half work will follow
precisely the same sequence of operations after the first half has been opened to
traffic.

g. End Structures

End structures are required for all masonry culverts and will consist of at least a
headwall in blocks carried up to finish flush with the outside edge of the shoulder. The
headwall will be supported either with wing walls and apron or quarter-cones as
described and illustrated in Section 8.8.4:

Reinforced Concrete Pipe Culverts.

(i) Finishing

End structures may be finished o f f with a cement mortar or plaster rendering

to external block work or masonry faces. If however the quality of course
construction is high and joints have been well struck joining the raw block work or
masonry racing is an attractive furnishing to a highway.

8.9 Bridges

Many of the operations required for periodic maintenance of bridges will normally be beyond
the anticipated capacity of maintenance departments and will require specialist services
from contractors or suppliers.

There are however some operations, which are within the capacity of the maintenance
departments and these are outlined further below. However, the most important operation
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that the maintenance department will be called upon to execute is a thorough and
systematic inspection of its bridges, annually around the middle of the financial year, so that
if major periodic maintenance is planned for the following financial year.

8.9.1 Inspection Of Bridges

a. Purpose

The purpose of bridge inspections and reports is to bring to the attention of the
responsible authority (FMW - Director of Federal Highways) any defects which may
require a more detailed investigation and for which a well qualified senior engineer will
be assigned to assess the necessary remedial action.

b. Frequency of Inspections

Inspections should normally be carried out annually, but if the maintenance engineer
has any suspicion of a defect or malfunction in a bridge structure, an inspection of the
causes and effects should be made immediately and a report marked as ‗Urgent‘ be
forwarded to higher authority . In a possibly dangerous situation the e ngineer should
also state what measures he has taken to safeguard the public from danger and to
prevent further deterioration of the affected structure.

c. Inspection Procedure

(i) Record Drawings

The inspection engineer will obtain a set of as-built- drawings of the entire structure.
If such drawings are available, a set of drawing will be prepared by taking
measurements of the piers, abutments, beams and bearing and by taking levels
along the centre-line of the bridge deck.

(ii) Scouring at Piers and Abutments

Where possible, a record of the ―high water level‖ will be maintained and evidence of
changes in the profile of the water course will be investigated by carrying out a
thorough inspection, sounding and underwater surveying as necessary. For the major
crossings in Nigeria, a specialist company may have to be contracted for this work as
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maintenance departments are not normally in possession of some of the special

equipment needed for these types of surveys.

(iii) Erosion of Embankments

Approach embankments will be checked for erosion from any cause.

(iv) Settlement

The level of the bridge deck will be checked by means of an instrument survey and
compared to the record drawings. Any settlement in excess of 0.03 metres will be
reported as a matter of urgency and weekly checks will be instituted where
progressive settlement is suspected.

(v) Concrete Flaws

Concrete surfaces will be examined for spilling, cracking, scaling, exposure of

reinforcing bars and any other deterioration. The presence of dark stalactites is
usually evidence of advanced deterioration. Cracking at points of maximum bending
and maximum shear stress must be carefully examined and recorded.

(vi) Steelwork Flaws

Steel trusses must be examined for links, bends or deformation of any member and
structural welds should be visually inspected for cracks or damaging corrosion.
Rivets and bolts must be individually checked for looseness and rusting. Any
evidence of excessive vibration under load must be fully investigated. Bearings
of the roller should be examined for dirt, corrosion or deformation.

(vii) Timber Flaws

Timber members should be examined for decay, crushing, splitting, insect-attack or

loose connections. Timber in areas subject to wetting caused by the ebb and flow or
rivers or sea water should be tapped with the pointed side of a shipwright‗s hammer
to detect any attack by ―dry rot‖ or marine animals.

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(viii) Paintwork Defects

Painted surfaces should be examined for the condition of paint, existence of bare
spots or blisters.

(ix) Abutment and Anchorage Defects

Abutments should be examined for evidence of setting, sliding, tilting, scouring or

cracking under load or as a result of movement either of the abutment or of the
associated bridge beams and deck. The bridge seat should be checked for harmful
accumulation of debris or rubbish. Exposed piles should be examined for corrosion
and deterioration in the splash zone and at ground line.

(x) Piers and Bearings

Piers should be checked for verticality, settlement, horizontal displacement and

scour. Signs of shear failure such as cracks or spalling should be carefully
investigated. Signs of deterioration or excessive vibration under load should be
recorded and reported without delay.

(xi) Bridge Decks

The bridge deck should be inspected both from above and from beneath the bridge.
Signs of cracking at the centre of the span, at the supports or at changes of section
should be carefully noted and investigated. Signs of deterioration or excessive
vibration under load should be recorded and reported without delay.

(xii) Guardrails and Handrails

Guardrails and handrails on walkways should be inspected for damage from traffic.

(xiii) Wearing Surfaces

Wearing surfaces on the bridge decks should be inspected for failures and uneven
wear.

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(xiv) Expansion Joints and Bearings

Bearing and expansion devices such as rockers, rollers, hangers, rocker-arms, plate
bearings and rubber members should be examined for position, deformation,
condition, corrosion and freedom of movement. Bolsters and fixed plate bearings
should be checked for fullness of bearing, condition and security of attachment to the
pier or abutment.

Elastic and laminated fabric bearings should be checked for oxidation, tears, position
and general condition. Expansion combs and similar devices should be examined
for condition and adequate space for movement.

(xv) Main Truss Members and Cables

Main support members of the bridge trusses should be checked for alignment,
buckling or signs of fatigue. Locking bolts, pins, braces and spacers should be
checked for wear and rigidity.

(xvi) Connectors

Connecting cleats, web connectors, cross frames, diaphragms and all other
secondary members should be checked for function and condition and any
looseness, excessive corrosion, cracking or spalling should be carefully checked and
recorded.

(xvii) Moving Parts

Moving parts of bridge structures must be examined for cleanliness, adequacy of

lubrication and proper function free from obstruction and distortion.

(xviii) Vibration and Deformation

The performance of the bridge under heavy load conditions should be observed and
where excess vibration or deformation is noted urgent report should be forwarded for
action.

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d. Non-Destructive Testing

The extent of cracks and flaws and the approximate strength of structural concrete can
be determined and investigated by the use of non-destructive testing aid.

For steel members, radiographic techniques employed in conjunction with ultra sonic
testing are recommended. Magnetic particle inspection and the use of cleaners and dye
penetrators are also recommended to disclose surface cracks and discontinuities.

With regard to concrete members the soniscope, reinforcing steel indicator, rebound
hammer or sounding bar are advised. Examinations by soniscope, ultrasonic testing or
radiography should only be carried out by thoroughly trained experts and for the
present it is recommended that such examinations should be carried out by an
experienced service company that specializes in this type of work and provides the
equipment necessary to carry it out.

e. Reporting

The form of report recommended is the one in use by the Ohio Department of
Highways, modified for use in Nigeria and shown in Figure 106 and Figure 107.

8.9.2 Periodic Maintenance of Bridges

Some defects can be dealt with locally with the available resources of the maintenance
department. The operations, which can be done locally include:

 Correction to embankment erosion

 Minor concrete flaws

 Tightening of loose steel connections replacement of minor timber members

 Paintwork

 Removal of accumulated debris or rubbish

 Cleaning out of all joints and bearing areas lubrication of roller bearings

 Guardrail, handrail and walkway repairs

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 Vehicular speed and/or load restriction measures if excessive vibration or other

condition warrants it

 Replacement of timber decks on Bailey Bridges

 Replacement of bridge surfacing. In this case, it is essential to remove the existing

surfacing and replace it with material of the same weight as existed prior to
replacement.

Most other items or elements that requiring periodic maintenance will almost certainly be
beyond the intended capacity of maintenance crews. Thus, the larger jobs, if they do
become necessary, will need to be carried out by contractors and the design and
tendering of such work be referred to the construction divisions of the State or federal
ministries.

8.9.3 Bailey Bridges

It is not uncommon for maintenance departments to be called upon to provide an

emergency water crossing with great urgency. The Bailey bridge was originally invented to
solve such problems for military uses and the advantages of such a simple solution
were rapidly appreciated in civilian applications.

There are now many active Bailey Bridges in Nigeria and all m u n i c i p a l i t i e s
should aim at procuring sufficient components to be able to provide a 50 metre crossing a
short notice. It is also recommended that a special crew be trained to assemble and launch
Bailey Bridges but the crew members, who could be taken from other routine or periodic
maintenance crews would have to be available at short notice to respond to the emergency.

The design and construction of Bailey Bridges is well covered by manufacture‗s literature
and is therefore not repeated here. The major suppliers of such components and manuals in
Nigeria have so far been Messrs. Thos Storey (Engineers) Limited, London and Messrs.
Mabey and Johnson Limited, London.

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8.10 Highway Furniture

Highway furniture includes all items erected or constructed to improve the serviceability of
the highway to vehicles or pedestrians and which belong to the authority under whose
jurisdiction the highway falls.

8.10.1 Pavement Markings

Pavement markings consist of centrelines and edge lines, information, directives (e.g.
STOP) and directions, applied to the road surface to assist the motorist in using his vehicle
in a safe way without danger to himself or to other road users.

All pavement markings, even regular maintenance, eventually deteriorate to such a point
that they become ineffective and hence no longer serve their original purpose. This is
manifested in the wearing away of the markings by the combined effects of traffic and
weather and ultimately the marking completely disappears.

Well before this occurs, the engineer should assess the areas where markings are fading
and implement a programme of renewal. Some markings are a lot more durable than others
and the frequency of replacement will depend directly on the durability. The durability in turn
depends mainly on the traffic intensity. Therefore it is not possible to give hard-and-fast rules
about probable durations of markings. Types of markings available, in ascending order of
durability (and cost) are:

 Road Paint

 Spray thermoplastic

 Screed thermoplastic

 Cold-applied resin based materials.

Road studs (cat‘s eyes) are the most durable of all markings but their use is not common in
Nigeria, probably because of their high initial cost.

All new pavement markings should be reflective, which is achieved by the addition, at a
specified rate at the time of application, of tiny glass spheres usually called Ballotini.

Most likely, the only marking which the maintenance department can apply is road paint, as
more expensive markings require more sophisticated application machinery normally not
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owned by maintenance departments. The maintenance engineer will thus have to consider
the use of specialist road marking companies for the larger jobs and confine his own road
marking team to more specialized situations requiring fairly frequent but small scale
attention. On major highways with moderate to heavy traffic, the engineer will observe the
deterioration on various routes or stretches and form a replacement plan which may span
several years. For example, centre lines may be renewed on worn-out stretches in one year
and edge lines renewed the following year, etc.

In general, the better-marked a road is the lower is the accident rate and the maintenance
engineer is thus obliged to ensure that his roads are kept in well-marked state, while at
the same time being aware of cost-effectiveness.

A cheap road paint which lasts only 6 months cannot be said to be cost-effective as a
thermoplastic, which may last 5 or 6 times longer and cost only twice as much. Therefore,
the use of more expensive materials should be given favoured consideration and be
considered in the budget.

8.10.2 Road Signs

Road signs need periodic improvement or renewal either because of weathering, which
renders the sign illegible, or a change in routes or destinations, which may arise when new
roads are constructed in the area. In all cases, it is advisable to conduct an annual survey
of signs and carry out corrective action. The need for new signs, for instance in
accident black-spots, should also be considered. It may be advisable to apply a retro-
reflective material on signs outside urban centres.

8.10.3 Kilometre Posts

While painting of kilometre posts is deemed to be a routine maintenance activity, the sitting
of kilometre posts is considered as a periodic activity.

If new roads or by-passes are constructed in the area, the kilometre posts may become
obsolete or in the wrong position (possibly due to a shortened distance which new roads
normally bring about). In such cases the posts should be moved to their correct positions or
repainted with new information.

Damaged posts should be either repaired or replaced and surveys for this activity should be
carried out annually.

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8.10.4 Guide Posts

These are commonly placed at edges of embankment or to alert the motorist to a specific
hazard or danger. The need for them and their conditions should be reviewed annually and
corrective actions should be taken.

8.10.5 Guard Rails

The condition of all guard rails should be examined annually taking particular note of loose
posts, bent alignments, missing bolts, low-standard temporary repairs and the state of the
rails galvanise.

All defects should be corrected and in the case of badly weathered or corroded rails these
should be replaced from the stock and possessed by the district.

The need for additional guard rails should also be assessed in the light of accidents, etc.,
which the presence of a guard rail may have prevented or alleviated. It should be borne in
mind however that guard rails in general are placed in locations where there are hazards
and because guard rails themselves can be a hazard, they should only be used if the
engineer considers that the overall safety in a particular location will be improved.

8.10.6 Lay-Byes

A periodic cleaning up of lay-byes should be conducted as they tend to become areas of

collection of assorted traffic and vehicular debris. The drainage should be checked and
the provisions for collection of rubbish (e.g. concrete bins) checked to see if they are
sufficient in number.

8.10.7 Street Lighting

While the electrical system of street lighting is normally maintained by the M and E Division
of Works ministries, the physical condition, particularly of the bottom 2 metres, is more
usually the responsibility of the road maintenance department. Damaged posts should be
removed and the bottom 2 metres of all posts should be given a coat of white or reflective
paint once a year. The condition of lamp-post bases should also be examined to correct any
defects, which for instance were caused by traffic accidents.

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8.10.8 Other Furniture

There are a variety of other items of highway furniture, all of which should be checked
periodically. These include:

 Culvert markers

 Public service authority markers (e.g. NEPA)

 Flower beds

 Public seating

 Bus-stops

 Posts for telephones, electricity, etc.

 Taxi-stands

 Anti-parking devices

 Speed bumps

In cases where another authority is the owner of such furniture, they should be requested to
repair or correct any damages in coordination with the road department‗s own periodic
operations.

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Figure 106: Bridge Inspection Record

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BRIDGE INSPECTION REPORT

BRIDGE / CULVERT NUMBER: DISTRICT: STATE:

ROUTE TYPE SPAN / SIZE KILOMETRE YEAR BUILT

SUPER STRUCTURE REMARKS:

DECK SLAB:
REINFORCED CONCRET E = 1 T IMBER ST RIP = 2 T IMBER PLANK = 3 T YPE COND.
FILLED ST L GRID = 4 OPEN ST L. GRID = 5 CORRUGAT ED ST L. = 6
BUCKLE PL. = 7 CHECKER PL. = 8 JACK ARCH = 9 OT HER = 10
WEARING SURFACE :
Conc. = C Bituminous = B Other = 0 T ype Cond.
CURBS & MEDIAN : WALKWAYS :
Conc. = C Steel = S T imber = T Other = 0 See Deck Slab for T ype Code
RAILINGS :
Conc. = C Steel = S T imber = T Conc + Aluminum = A Other = 0
JOIST S :
Steel = S T imber = T
FLOORBEAMS :
Conc. = C Steel = S T imber = T
FLOORBEAMS CONNECT IONS :
Rod = R Plate = P Angle = A
LONGIT UDINAL BEAMS OR GIRDERS :
Steel = S Conc. = C Prestressed Conc. = P T imber = T
T RUSS ALIGNMENT :
Steel = S T imber = T
HIP VERT ICALS.
END POST S :
Steel = S T imber = T
T OP CHORDS :
Steel = S T imber = T
BOT T OM CHORDS :
Steel = S T imber = T T ype Cond.
WEB MEMBERS - VERT ICAL : DIAGONAL:
Steel = S T imber = T Steel = S T imber = T
PORT ALS : SWAYBRACING :
Steel = S T imber = T Steel = S T imber = T
LAT ERAL BRACING : CROSS FRAMES or DIAPHRAGMS :
Steel = S T imber = T Steel = S T imber = T Conc. = C
DECK EXPANSION DEVICES :
Steel = S Other = 0 Brie f De scription:
BEARINGS :
Rockers = R Bolsters = B Rollers = N Plates = P Elastomeric = E Other = 0
DRAINAGE SYST EM :
T rough Curbs = T Scuppers = S Scuppers with Downspouts = D Other = 0
ARCHES : MOVABLE BRIDGE MACHINERY :
Conc. = C Steel = S Masonry = M T imber = T Bascule = B Vertical Lift =V Swing = S
SUSPENSIO N BRIDGE CABLE or CHAIN BENTS :
SUSPENSION SYST EM MAIN : SUSPENSION BRIDGE T OWERS :
Cable = C Eyebar = E Steel = S Masonery = M Cable = C
PAINT : SUSPENDER : Response to Live Load
Show Year Last Painted Excessive Defl. & Vib. = E Satisfactory = S
SUB - STRUCTURE
ABUT MENT S :
Wall = W Gravbity = G
BACKWALLS : WINGWALLS :
Conc. = C Masonry = M Other = 0 Conc. = C Masonry = M Other = 0
BRIDGE SEAT S : Abutment : Pier :
Conc. = C Masonry = M Steel = S T imber = T
PIERS :
Column = C Wall = W Capped Pile = P Other = 0
SUSPENSION BRIDGE ANCHORAGES : PILING : Steel = S T imber = T
Conc. = C Masonry = M Cast-in-place = C Precast Conc. = P
GENERAL : Wate rway
ST REAM CHANNEL - Show in Left Block SCOUR - Show in T ype Block ALIGNMENT : Show in Cond Block
Unrestricted = U Restricted = R Scoured = Y Not Scoured = N Faulty = F
BANK PROT ECT ION :
Show in T ype Block : Additional Protection Needed = Y or No = N
CULVERT S :
Box = B Arch = A Slab. T op = S Conc. Ring = R Armco = M
APPROACH GUARDRAIL : Deep Beam = D Cable = C APPROACH EMBANKMENT :
Woven = W Armco = M Other = O Show in T ype Block: Settled=Y Not Settled= N
APPROACH PAVEMENT : APPROACH ALIGNMENT & GRADE :
Conc = C Bituminous = B Other = O Satisfactory = S Poor = P
APPROACH SLABS : SUMMARY : Satisfactory = 1 Needs Housekeeping Maint = 2
Show in T ype Block: Settled = S Not settled = N Minor Repair = 3 Major Repair = 4

INSPECTED BY: REVIEWED BY:

DATE: DATE:

DISTRICT MAINTENANCE MAINT. ENGINEER

Figure 107: Bridge Inspection Report

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Figure 108: Asphalt Properties Plotted against Binder Content

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Figure 109: Side Drain Capacity Chart

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9 Improvements

Improvements fall into two categories;

 Minor improvements which are within the technical capability and resources of
maintenance departments; and

 Major improvements, which are normally beyond the technical capability and
resources of maintenances departments and are therefore treated in the same way
as new construction, i.e. design, tender and award of contracts.

Minor improvements are based on experience and are quite frequently made as a result of
an engineer‗s observation of certain defects, which either present a hazard to road users or
hazards to the road itself. This chapter, as such not exhaustive, will highlight a few examples
of minor improvements.

9.1 Geometric Improvements

Geometric improvements to a highways alignment, cross section, or longitudinal section are

normally made necessary to the roads by the inability of the road designer to foresee a
certain combination of hazardous circumstances. This can be the case of older –
undersigned – roads, with factors such as too-tight curves for the normal speed of the traffic
and large erosions caused by a drainage system that occurred by nature, rather than by
design. The need for most improvements will be indicative on the road itself by showing a
higher than normal accident rate.

The maintenance engineer should be aware of such factors and should as a driver examine
the circumstances, which tend to create the higher accident rate. Apart from the frequent
cause of too high speed, it may be found that for instance the visibility, i.e. sight distance, is
too low and thereby presenting a hazard to the driver, which he sees too late to take
effective action. All roads should thus be examined annually for sight lines.

9.1.1 Sight Lines (Site Distance)

The safest roads are normally those on which the driver has the longest possible sight
distance. By being able to see such hazards as oncoming traffic or bends in the roads, he

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can adjust his speed in accordance with the hazards he sees. Clearly, if he cannot see
these hazards until it is too late for appropriate action, accidents may occur.

One of the most common causes of accidents in Nigeria is reduction of sight distance on
horizontal curves either by vegetation growth or earthworks in cutting, both of which restrict
the distance the driver can see.

Therefore, notwithstanding the remarks made in Chapters 7.4 and 8.4 on the inside of
some curves it may be necessary to cut the vegetation to a height of no more than 60 cm
right to the fence line, every 2 months, in order to maintain a longer sight distance.

Some cutting may be found to give rise to the same problem—low sight distance and the
engineer should give some thought to possibly widening the earthworks on the inside of
curves in order to improve visibility. This may be a large operation but it should not be
beyond the capability of maintenance departments. The job need not necessarily be done
very quickly and the cutting may be improved by a small team or minor equipment
working for several months.

Another situation which reduces sight distance is a convex vertical curve of short vertical
radius in which the visibility to the driver is limited to the top or crest of the curve. He
cannot see what is on the other side of the hill. This situation can only be resolved by
earthwork and platform modifications. In some instances the m aintenance d epartment
may have the resources to handle it. This is an expensive modification because the
existing pavement has to be excavated and a new pavement must be provided at a lower
level.

The engineer can only decide whether to do this sort of job with direct labour or contract
after he has made a thorough survey of the new grade level required and the earthworks
and paving works involved.

Many accidents occur where there are road junctions, slow moving traffic coming on to
the main road or traffic crossing it. This traffic may be obscured to the fast moving main
roads traffic by limited sight distance. In these circumstances, the possible solutions are.

 To improve the visibility, both to the side road traffic and main-road traffic;

 Move the junction to a safer place;

 In any case, erect special signs

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Overtaking is probably the one manoeuvre that causes more road deaths in Nigeria than any
other single action. The engineer should not close his eyes to this situation. Light vehicles
will overtake lorries whenever they can and it is thus the engineer‗s responsibility to make
this as safe as possible throughout the entire length of a particular road.

Hence, periodic maintenance can also include that the engineer should drive slowly along all
his roads at least once annually to review such geometric defects.

9.1.2 Pavement Widening

With the increasing length of heavy vehicles, more accidents are being caused nowadays
because the older type of roads are no longer suitable in width to allow safe passage of such
vehicles without presenting a hazard to other road users. Long and heavy vehicles are now
all articulated (i.e. tractor and trailer) and the rearmost axle will on curves follow a much
flatter radius than the steering axle. To compensate for this, the vehicle driver must steer in
a line, which allows the rear axle to remain on the pavement. He can only do this by driving
to the left of the centre-line of the road. On-coming traffic is thus presented with an
unexpected hazard, which can only be attributed to poor road geometry.

The solution to this particular problem is to leave the centre-line where it is, but increase the
pavement width on the inside of the curve to accommodate the motion of long
vehicles. There are well known formulae for calculating the pavement widening necessary
for any particular curve radius. These can be found in the Highway Manual, Part 1and
highway design. In the absence of this, a widening of up to 1 metre will accommodate most
problems, although the normal widening is between 30 and 60cm.

9.2 Structural Improvements

Structural improvements become periodically necessary for reasons such as increased

traffic and inadequate drainage systems.

9.2.1 Pavement Strengthening

Pavements do not get stronger with age. On the contrary, the effects of traffic and weather
tend to make them weaker.

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Traffic too, is constantly increasing and thereby accelerating the decay of the pavement.
There comes a time when a pavement designed to take a certain number of traffic
movement passes its design life and pavement strengthening is called for.

The maintenance engineer will not be taken by surprise by the above sequence of events if
he maintains his highway register. Indeed, he will be able to fairly accurately predict when
strengthening of the pavement will become necessary.

The decision as to whether to do pavement strengthening by own labour or by contract will

obviously depend upon the scope of the work and the resources available to the engineer.
However, “a stitch in time saves nine” and it may be more attractive in both, a political
and engineering sense, to effect small strengthening‗s more frequently by direct labour
rather than a major strengthening at infrequent intervals at perhaps 10 – 15 years.

There is no difficulty in predicting when a strengthening becomes necessary if regular traffic

counts and assessment of the existing pavements are made.

The principles involved in this prediction are fully described in volume 1 of this manual – The
Highway Register.

9.2.2 New Culverts

New culverts become necessary during a road‗s life either because of changing
circumstances adjacent to the road or because the existing drainage system has proved to
be inadequate.

a. Highway – Culverts

Highway culverts may need to be increased in either number or capacity because

 The existing drainage system is not capable of handling maximum flows

 Changing circumstances, for instance large scale agricultural or urban

development, increase the amount of water to be handled by any particular
culvert.

In these circumstances, the maintenance engineer should make a survey and

determine the maximum flow which can be expected and design a new culvert or an
addition to an existing culvert in accordance with the principles set forth in Chapter
8.9 Drainage Structures, in this manual.

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b. Access –Culverts

A commonly occurring situation in Nigeria is new roadside development in which the user
of adjacent property requires access to his property from the road. He will normally make
his own entrance without regard to the highway drainage system, thereby putting at risk,
albeit innocently, the structure of the pavement.

The question of whether this adjacent land-user is entitled to do what he has done is
better left for higher authorities. The job of the maintenance engineer is to see that his
road is not endangered by such activities and if this involves the construction of an
access culvert, he will be well advised to do it.

The cost of such culverts is small compared to the cost of a possible road closure through
pavement or earthworks failure and although they may in some circumstances prove to
be an annoying duty, which may keep an entire gang busy for the whole year. It is a
better solution to put in the culverts now and argue later. The longitudinal flow of water
along a highway is potentially the most damaging act of nature to the highway and the
engineer should keep this constantly in his mind.

9.3 Ancillary Improvements

These improvements are too numerous to categorize but there are three particular items
that should receive annual review.

9.3.1 Drain Lining

The engineer should make it his duty to occasionally drive slowly down a particular section
of road during heavy rain and , examine the flow of water as regards both quantity and
velocity of flow along every single metre of the road‗s drainage system. Quantity is on the
whole less damaging than velocity, which can give rise to erosion and washing away of the
road structure at an alarming rate.

If erosion is observed, the procedures detailed in Chapter 8.2.6: Side Drain Lining should
be investigated.

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9.3.2 Erosion Control Structures

In some instances, large flows and velocities may occur in a direction tending to be
transverse to the highway. Such action of water may lead to scour of the toe if the
embankment covers quite a length at each side of a culvert. If this is the case, the engineer
should consider the protection of the embankment by either loose stone, rip-rap or concrete.

Similarly, the stream banks at either side of a bridge over water should be examined at
seasonal maximum flows to ensure that no damage to the immediate vicinity of the bridge is
occurring. Solutions such as those given above are all appropriate.

9.3.3 Lay-Byes

Traffic, particularly commercial traffic, develops habits which the maintenance engineer
cannot ignore. Lorry drivers are gregarious worldwide and will stop where fuel, water and
food are always plentifully available. If no proper provision is made for the parking of
vehicles off the road, they will naturally park on the shoulders, which are seldom designed
for heavy standing vehicles at frequent intervals.

So the engineer should always be alert for such developments and, in the interest of the
safety of both stopping and passing traffics provide a properly constructed hard-standing or
lay-byes as soon as the need becomes readily apparent.

No driver likes to park his vehicle where there may be danger to it from other traffic. He will
readily use a lay-bye in preference to the shoulder even if some walking distance is
involved.

Lay-byes are not cheap to build, so the Engineer must assess the need by constant
observation of traffic habits. By proper planning and smart use of funds a number of lay-
byes in the most necessary locations can usually be accommodated within a financial year.

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