ABE 165 – Tractor and Agricultural Equipment Operation

MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION

Farming in the tropical countries is labor intensive. The ratio of rural population to arable land in Asia is twice as
great as in Africa and three times that of Latin America. It is estimated that human effort provides more than 70%
of the energy required for crop production tasks (FAO 1987). Improvement in the existing tools, equipment and
methods of work has significant effects in minimizing human strain and fatigue and increasing farm productivity.

I. DIFFERENT OPERATIONS PERFORMED IN THE FARM

Crop production requires a number of operations like seed bed preparation, seeding, fertilizing, spraying, dusting,
irrigation, harvesting and threshing. The various farm equipment/machines have been used on the farm to
perform these operations in order to enhance their output capacity, efficiency, timeliness of operation and to
reduce drudgery involved.

1. Seed bed preparation

Seed bed preparation is the first operation in production of crop which is very labor-intensive operation. The main
objective of seed bed preparation is to provide favorable condition for proper crop growth through mechanical
manipulation of soil. Soil tillage consists of breaking the compact surface of earth to a certain depth and to loosen
the soil mass so as to enable the roots of the crops to penetrate and spread into the soil.

Tillage operations for seed bed preparations are classified as:

i) Primary tillage
ii) Secondary tillage.

2. Seeding

Seeding or sowing is an art of placing seeds in the soil to have good germination in the field. A perfect seeding
gives:
➢ Correct amount of seed per unit area.
➢ Correct depth at which seed is placed in the soil.
➢ Correct spacing between row-to-row and plant-to-plant.

The various Sowing methods are as below:

(i) Broadcasting
(ii) Dibbling
(iii) Drilling
(iv) Seed dropping behind the plough

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 (v) Transplanting
(vi) Hill dropping
(vii) Check row planting

3. Intercultural operation

Weeds can compete with productive crops or pasture, or convert productive land into unusable scrub. Weeds
are also often poisonous, distasteful, produce burrs, thorns or other damaging body parts or otherwise interfere
with the use and management of desirable plants by contaminating harvests or excluding livestock. They provide
competition for space, nutrients, water and light.

The weeder can be classified as:

(i) Dry land weeder
(ii) Wet land weeder

4. Plant Protection

There is increase in plant pests and diseases as more fields remain covered under crops for longer duration of
time due to multiple cropping, intensive farming and better irrigation facilities. So, it has become necessary now
to use pesticides and fungicides for controlling the pests and diseases. The chemicals are applied on plants in
the form of spray and dust. Many types of sprayers and dusters are available in different sizes for plant protection
work.

Sprayer

Sprayer is a machine to apply fluids in the form of droplets. Sprayer is used

for the following purpose.
➢ Application of herbicides to remove weeds.
➢ Application of fungicides to minimize fungus diseases.
➢ Application of insecticides to control insect pests.
➢ Application of micro nutrients on the plants.

The main functions of sprayer are

• To break the liquid droplets of effective size.
• To distribute them uniformly over the plants.
• To regulate the amount of liquid to avoid excessive application.

Crop Production in the Philippines

Major agricultural systems include lowland irrigated farming, rainfed farming and upland farming. Irrigated farm
areas mainly grow rice and sugarcane whereas rainfed areas are planted with coconut, corn and cassava. The
Philippines' major agricultural products include rice, coconuts, corn, sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, and
mangoes

Among the major temporary crops, palay was the top temporary crop grown in the Philippines that covers 4.72
million hectares of rice farm according to PSA in 2020. The next major temporary crop was corn, covering 2.55
million hectares. Other temporary crops planted were tubers, roots and bulbs, fruit bearing vegetables, and
sugarcane.

Step-by-Step Rice Production

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Pre-planting
Pre-planting activities involve choosing the right variety, developing a cropping calendar, and preparing the
rice field for planting.
Growth
Important management factors should be considered during the growth of the rice crop. These include
planting method, water, fertilizer, weeds, and pests and diseases
Postproduction
After harvesting, the rice paddy undergoes postharvest processes including drying, storage, and milling to
ensure good eating quality and marketability.
Farm Activities for Rice Production

1. Seed quality and selection

Seed is a living product that must be grown, harvested, and processed correctly in order to realize the yield
potential of any rice variety. Good quality seed can increase yields by 5-20%. Using good seed leads to
lower seeding rates, higher crop emergence, reduced replanting, more uniform plant stands, and more
vigorous early crop growth. Vigorous growth in early stages reduces weed problems and increases crop
resistance to insect pests and diseases. All of these factors contribute to higher yields and more productive
rice farms.

Good seed is pure (of the chosen variety), full and uniform in
size, viable (more than 80% germination with good seedling
vigor), and free of weed seeds, seed-borne diseases,
pathogens, insects, or other matter.

Choosing seed of a suitable variety of rice that suits the

environment it will be grown in and ensuring the seed chosen of
that variety is of the highest possible quality is the essential first
step in rice production.

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2. Land preparation
Before rice can be planted, the soil should be in the best physical condition for crop growth and the soil
surface is level. Land preparation involves plowing and harrowing to ‘till’ or dig-up, mix and level the soil.

Tillage allows the seeds to be planted at

the right depth, and also helps with weed
control. Farmers can till the land
themselves using hoes and other
equipment or they can be assisted by
draft animals, such as buffalo, or tractors
and other machinery.

Next, the land is leveled to reduce the

amount of water wasted by uneven
pockets of too-deep water or exposed
soil. Effective land leveling allows the
seedlings to become established more
easily, reduces the amount of effort
required to manage the crop, and
increases both grain quality and yields.

3. Crop establishment
The two main practices of establishing rice plants are transplanting and direct seeding.

Transplanting is the most popular plant

establishment technique across Asia. Pre-
germinated seedlings are transferred from
a seedbed to the wet field. It requires less
seed and is an effective method to control
weeds, but requires more labor. Seedlings
may be transplanted by either machine or
hand.

Direct seeding involves broadcasting dry seed or pre-

germinated seeds and seedlings by hand or planting
them by machine. In rainfed and deepwater ecosystems,
dry seed is manually broadcast onto the soil surface and
then incorporated either by ploughing or by harrowing
while the soil is still dry. In irrigated areas, seed is
normally pre- germinated prior to broadcasting.

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4. Water use and management
Cultivated rice is extremely sensitive to water shortages.
To ensure sufficient water, most rice farmers aim to
maintain flooded conditions in their field. This is especially
true for lowland rice. Good water management in lowland
rice focuses on practices that conserve water while
ensuring sufficient water for the crop.

In rainfed environments when optimal amounts of water

may not be available for rice production, a suite of options
are available to help farmers cope with different degrees
and forms of water scarcity. It includes sound land
preparation and pre-planting activities followed by
techniques such as saturated soil culture, alternate
wetting and drying, raised beds, mulching, and use of
aerobic rice that can cope with dryer conditions.

5. Nutrient management
At each growth stage, the rice plant has specific nutrient
needs. This makes nutrient management a critical aspect
of rice farming.

The unique properties of flooded soils make rice different

from any other crop. Because of prolonged flooding in
rice fields, farmers are able to conserve soil organic
matter and also receive free input of nitrogen from
biological sources, which means they need little or no
nitrogen fertilizer to retain yields. However, farmers can
tailor nutrient management to the specific conditions of
their field to increase yields.

6. Crop health

The rice plant has a wide array of ‘enemies’ in the field.

These include rodents, harmful insects, viruses, diseases,
and weeds. Farmers manage weeds through water
management and land preparation, by hand weeding, and in
some cases herbicide application. Understanding the
interactions among pests, natural enemies, host plants,
other organisms, and the environment allows farmers to
determine what if any pest management may be necessary.

Avoiding conditions that allow pests to adapt and thrive in a

particular ecosystem helps to identify weak links in the pests'
life cycle and therefore what factors can be manipulated to
manage them. Retaining natural ecosystems such that
predators and natural enemies of pests and diseases are
kept in abundance can also help keep pest numbers down.

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 7. Harvesting
Harvesting is the process of collecting the mature rice crop from the field. Depending on the variety, a
rice crop usually reaches maturity at around 105–150 days after crop establishment. Harvesting activities
include cutting, stacking, handling, threshing, cleaning, and hauling. Good harvesting methods help
maximize grain yield and minimize grain damage and deterioration.

Harvesting can be done manually or mechanically:

Manual harvesting is common across Asia It

involves cutting the rice crop with simple hand tools
like sickles and knives. Manual harvesting is very
effective when a crop has lodged or fallen over,
however it is labor intensive. Manual harvesting
requires 40 to 80 hours per hectare and it takes
additional labor to manually collect and haul the
harvested crop.

Mechanical harvesting using reapers or

combine harvesters is the other option, but
not so common due to the availability and
cost of machinery. Following cutting the
rice must be threshed to separate the grain
from the stalk and cleaned. These
processes can also be done by hand or
machine.

source: ricepedia.org & irri.org

II. TYPES AND USES OF AGRICULTURAL FARM MACHINERIES AND EQUIPMENT

Machineries used in crop production. Used in land preparation and in transporting farm inputs and
products. The best-known example is a tractor. There are also many other farm implements.

Traction and power

A tractor is a farm vehicle. Agricultural implements may be towed behind or mounted on the tractor and a
tractor may also provide a source of power if the implement is mechanized. A farm tractor is used for pulling or
pushing agricultural machinery or trailers, for ploughing, tilling, disking, harrowing, planting, and similar tasks.

i) Hand Tractor - Used to pull a plow and harrow in preparing large area of land

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 ii) Four-wheel tractor - Used to pull disc plow and disc harrow in preparing much bigger area of
land.

Soil cultivation

• A plough/plow is used for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed or planting. The primary
purpose of ploughing is to turn over the upper layer of the soil, bringing fresh nutrients to the surface,
while burying weeds and the remains of previous crops, allowing them to break down. It also aerates the
soil, and allows it to hold moisture better. In modern use, a ploughed field is typically left to dry out, and
is then harrowed before planting.

Disk Plow

• (A set of) harrows is an implement for cultivating the surface of the soil. It is different in its effect from
the plough, which is used for deeper cultivation. Harrowing is often carried out on fields to follow the
rough finish left by ploughing operations. The purpose of this harrowing is to break up lumps of soil and
to provide a finer finish, a good soil structure that is suitable for seeding and planting operations.
Harrowing may also be used to remove weeds and to cover seed after sowing. There are nominally three
types of harrows: spike harrows, drag harrows, disk harrows.

Disk Harrow

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 • A rotary tiller, also known as a rototiller, rotavator, rotary hoe, power tiller, or rotary plough is a motorized
cultivator that works the soil by means of rotating tines or blades. Rotary tillers are either self-propelled
or drawn as an attachment behind a tractor.

Rotavator

• A cultivator is a farm implement for stirring and pulverizing the soil before planting or to remove weeds
and to aerate and loosen the soil after the crop has begun to grow. It is powered by a tractor and stirs
the soil, usually to a greater depth than does the harrow (which is usually not powered). Many are
equipped with hydraulic wings that fold up to make road travel easier and safer.

3-Point Hitch Cultivator

Planting

• A broadcast seeder (alternately: broadcast spreader or fertilizer spreader) is a tractor implement

commonly used for spreading seed, lime or fertilizer.

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• A seeder It is a tool that is used in crop sowing / planting. Its purpose is to sow the seeds evenly over
the entire surface. A seeder needs a machine that pulls it because it is not self-propelled. Row spacing
and the depth of sowing can be controlled.

• The rice transplanter consists of prime mover, transmission, engine, float, lugged wheels, seedling tray,
seedling tray shifter, pickup fork and pickup fork cleaner. It is a walk behind type rice transplanter using
mat type nursery and it transplants the seedling uniformly without damaging them. The planting depth
and hill-to-hill spacing can be adjusted. Automatic depth control helps in maintaining uniform planting
depth. The machine has safety clutch mechanism, which prevents break down of planting device from
the impact against stones in the field. For operation, the machine is transported to the field and mat type
nursery is loaded in the tray of the transplanter. The machine is put in transplanting mode and operated
in the puddle field. The performance of the transplanter is checked within 2-3 m of travel for transplanted
seedlings for hill-to-hill distance, depth of placement and number of seedlings per hill.

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 II. SAFETY OPERATIONS OF FARM MACHINERIES AND EQUIPMENT

DANGERS OF AGRICULTURAL MACHINERY

Farm machinery uses power to do work. This creates many possible hazards for both operators and bystanders.
Even though manufacturers take many steps to make machinery safe, all hazards cannot be removed. Minor
and serious injuries can occur when workers are not paying close attention, taking shortcuts, ignoring warnings
or failing to follow safety rules. The wide variety of warning, caution and instructional decals placed on machinery
are there for your safety. There are many different types of farm machinery, but they all have similar
characteristics and hazards. Not all these hazards can be completely shielded, so farmers must use caution
when operating them.

Shear Points

Shear points exist when the edges of two objects move toward or next to each other closely enough to cut
relatively soft material. Cutting points happen when a single object moves forcefully or rapidly enough to cut.
They can be found on many types of crops cutting equipment, such as forage harvester heads and sickle bars,
and grain augers. Shear and cutting points are hazards because of their cutting force. They often move so rapidly
that they may not be visible, so it is easy to forget that they are there.

Pinch Points

Pinch points exist when two objects move together, with at least one of them moving in a circle. They are common
in power transmission devices, such as belt and chain drives, feed rolls and gear drives. Fingers, hands and feet
can be caught directly in pinch points or they may be drawn into the pinch points by loose clothing that becomes
entangled. Contact may be made by brushing against unshielded parts or by falling against them. Shields cover
most of these areas to prevent accidents, but one caught, these machines move too fast for someone caught to
get out of a pinch point. Be aware of these hazards and wear clothing that cannot be caught. Never reach over
or work near rotating parts. Turn off machinery to work on it and replace any missing shields.

Wrap Points

Any exposed, rotating machine component is a potential wrap point. Protruding shaft ends can also become
wrap points. A cuff, sleeve, pant leg or just a thread can catch on a rotating part and result in serious injury.
Entanglement with a wrap point can pull a person into the machine or wrap their clothing so tightly the person is
crushed or suffocated. A person can even lose their balance and fall into other machine parts. Even a perfectly
round shaft can be a hazard if there is enough pressure to hold clothing against the shaft. Shafts that are not
round increase the hazard significantly. Universal joints, keys and fastening devices also can snag clothing. Be
aware of potential wrap points and shield those that can be shielded. Place warnings on those that cannot be
covered or paint them a bright color.

Crush Points

Crush points exist when two objects move toward each other, or when one object moves toward a stationary
object. Hitching tractors to implements may create a potential crush point. Failure to block up equipment safely
can result in a fatal crushing injury. Workers need to be careful so they do not get caught in crush point areas.
Crushing injuries most commonly occur to fingers at the hitching point. Wait until the tractor has stopped before
stepping into the hitching position. The head or chest of an operator may be crushed between the equipment
and a low beam or other part of a farm building. Usually, these accidents occur when the machine is operating
in reverse. Tree limbs are also potential hazards.

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Free-Wheeling Parts

The heavier a revolving part, the longer it will continue to rotate after power is shut off. Rotary mower blades,
baler flywheels and various other farm machinery components will continue to move after power stops. Workers
must allow time for these wheels or blades to stop before approaching them. This may take as long as two and
a half minutes.

Pull-In Points

Pull-in points usually occur when someone tries to remove plant material or other obstacles that have become
stuck in feed rolls or other machinery parts. Always shut off the power before attempting to clear plugged
equipment.

Springs

Springs are commonly used to help lift equipment, such as shock absorbers, and to keep belts tight. Springs
may harbor potentially dangerous stored energy. Know what direction a spring will move and how it might affect
another machine part when released, and stay out of its path.

Hydraulic Systems

Hydraulic systems store considerable energy. They lift implements, such as plows, change the position of
implement components, such as a combine header or bulldozer blade, operate hydraulic motors and assist in
steering and braking. Careless servicing, adjustment or replacement of parts can result in serious injury. High
pressure blasts of hydraulic oil can injure eyes or other body parts by burning or penetrating the tissue. Leaks
are a serious hazard. Never inspect hydraulic hoses with your hands because a fine jet of hydraulic fluid can
pierce the skin. Get medical attention quickly, or you could lose that part of the body that was injected. Use a
piece of cardboard to test the hose for leaks. Follow the instructor's manual when servicing hydraulic systems.
Make certain the hydraulic pump is turned off. Lower the attached equipment to the ground and confirm that load
pressure is off the system. Treat hydraulic fluid as flammable liquid. Avoid open flames and sparks if hydraulic
fluid has been spilled. Being aware of these machinery hazards is the first step to prevent accidents. Following
manufacturer's guidelines and working cautiously will help to produce a safer working environment for everyone.

OPERATING A TRACTOR

Tractors are the main cause of accidental deaths on farms. Over the years, many farmers, farm workers and
others living on or visiting farms, have been killed or seriously injured falling from moving tractors, being run over
by tractors, or being crushed when a tractor rolls sideways or backwards. Moreover years, manufacturers have
added many safety features such as seat belts, roll over protection structures (ROPS), and power takeoff (PTO)
guards. Although today’s tractors are safer than previous models, they are still involved in farm accidents. A well-
trained operator, aware of the potential hazards will help minimize this risk.

Protective Structures

Roll-over protective structures (ROPS) refer to the operator compartment structure, typically a cab or framework
intended to protect operators from injuries caused by overturns or rollovers. Seat belts are an integral part of any
ROPS and should always be
used.

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All tractors should be equipped with ROPS, and most new tractors are installed with ROPS. However, not all
tractor cabs are ROPS, so consult your tractor’s operator’s manual to determine if your cab is a ROPS. If it is
not, a ROPS can be installed by a certified farm equipment dealer.

Falling object protective structures (FOPS) should be installed (tractors with front end loaders) if there is a risk
of the tractor operator being struck by debris.

Before Operating a Tractor

Your tractor has been designed and built with your safety in mind. Its safe operation, however, is entirely in your
hands.

Know Your Tractor

Be familiar with your tractor’s operator’s manual and any attached

implements before operation. Seek training on safe operation from a
competent instructor.

• Know each control, its location, and how it works.

• Know how to stop the tractor quickly in the event of an emergency.
• Never use a machine unless it is properly maintained.
• Never operate farm machinery under the influence of drugs or alcohol.

Dress properly:

• Avoid clothing that could get caught in moving parts (e.g., loose fitting, scarves, or clothes with
strings).
• Tie back long hair or contain in a hat.
• Avoid wearing jewelry.
• Wear closed-toe shoes that are sturdy with non-skid soles.
• Wear eye and hearing protection as appropriate or required.
• Wear work gloves as needed.

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Start-up Safety Checklist

Before starting;
1. Complete an inspection.
• Verify that all lights are visible and working.
• Verify that all safety guards are in place.
• Check for clear visibility on all sides.
2. Ensure all bystanders are at a safe distance.
3. Verify that tractor is in park or neutral.

Operator Platform

The operator’s platform consists of steps, seat with seat belt, and multiple controls at hand and foot positions.
• Ensure steps are clear of obstructions (mud, manure, chains, tools, or hitch pins).
• Check and adjust the seat and steering column so that you can comfortably reach all controls.
• Seat belt should be worn at all times when the tractor has a ROPS. Never wear a seat belt in a
tractor without a ROPS. • Ensure the cab windows are clean and vision is not obstructed.
• When equipped, ensure there is a fire extinguisher with the pressure gauge in the charged range
(green zone).
• A first aid kit is recommended.
• Always use access steps and hand-holds. Never jump from the platform.
• Enter and exit facing the tractor to ensure a good grip.
• Never get on or off a tractor while it is moving.

Spot the hazard

Regularly check for hazards relating to tractors, attached implements and field conditions. Hazard areas could
include mechanical parts, operator training, other people, work procedures, unsafe jacking, climatic conditions,
chemicals used, uneven terrain, and any other potential causes of an injury or a hazardous incident. Keep a
record to ensure identified hazards are assessed and controlled.

Assess the risk

Once a potential hazard has been identified, assess the likelihood of an injury or hazardous incident occurring.
For example, risk to children playing near a tractor will vary, depending on what the tractor operator is doing,
how close they are to the tractor and whether the operator knows they are there. Consider ways of minimizing
risk.

Make the changes

• Read and follow safety procedures in the manufacturer's manual.

• Ensure an approved cab or rollover protective structure (ROPS) is fitted.
• Fit and use a seatbelt on tractors with ROPS.
• If there is a risk from falling objects, fit a fall-on protective structure (FOPS).
• To reduce risk of back strain, fit a seat with side restraints and a backrest.
• Wear hearing protection, and remember, not all tractor cabs are sound proof.
• Keep children away from tractors and machinery.
• Remove starter keys when tractors are not in use.
• Have an up-to-date maintenance schedule.
• Follow safe maintenance and jacking procedures. (See Tractor Maintenance.)
• Ensure the operator is properly trained for each type of tractor work.
• Always mount and dismount on a tractor's left side - to avoid controls.
• Adjust the seat so all controls are safely and comfortably reached.

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 • Keep all guards in place, including the power take-off (PTO).
• Operate the self-starter from the operator position only.
• Never carry passengers.

When operating a tractor

• Drive at speeds slow enough to retain control over unexpected events.

• Reduce speed before turning or applying brakes.
• Watch out for ditches, logs, rocks, depressions and embankments.
• On steep slopes, without a trailed implement, reverse up for greater safety.
• Engage the clutch gently at all times, especially when going uphill or towing.
• Use as wide a wheel track as possible on hillsides and sloping ground.
• Descend slopes cautiously in low gear, using the motor as a brake.
• Never mount or dismount from a moving tractor.
• Ensure the park brake is on and operating effectively before dismounting.
• Take short breaks regularly when working long hours.

When towing implements

• Fit attachments according to the manufacturer's instructions.

• Always attach implements to the draw bar or the mounting points provided by the manufacturer.
• Never alter, modify or raise the height of the draw bar unless provided for by the manufacturer.
• Regularly check safety pins on towed lift-wing implements, to ensure they are not worn.
• Ensure all guards on towed implements are in place before operating.
• Never hitch above the centerline of the rear axle, around the axle housing or to the top link pin.
• Never adjust or work on implements while they are in motion.
• Never attach implements unless the PTO shaft is guarded.
• When parking, always lower the three-point linkage and towed implement.

To avoid strain injury

• Adjust the tractor seat for back support and comfort.

• When buying a tractor, ensure seating is safe and comfortable.
• Check seat height, seat depth, backrest height and angle, fore and aft movement, seat tilt, firm padding,
partial pivoting (if you have to spend long periods looking behind you), and vibration-absorbing
suspension.
• Dismount every hour or so, and spend 5 or 10 minutes doing something active.
• Plan for your next tractor to include suitably low steps, handgrips, adequate doorway and cab space, and
a safe mounting platform.
• Dismount by climbing down - not jumping down - and use each provided foot and handhold.

More information about safety procedures of agricultural operation can be read in PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL
ENGINEERING STANDARD (PAES) 101 : 2000 Agricultural Machinery – Technical Means For Ensuring Safety
– General.
You can visit this website/link https://amtec.ceat.uplb.edu.ph/ for the full copy of PAES.

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