Simulation of Faults in Long Transmission line

using MATLAB Simulink

EE449: MAJOR PROJECT – 1

Under the Guidance of K.Rajagopala, Associate Professor, NITK

Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the

Requirements for the Award of Degree of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
by
Chandan G Krishna (171EE113)

Tarun Varma K (171EE247)

Shashwath Bhandary(171EE139)

Kondeti Chaitanya(171EE122)

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

ENGINEERING
NATIONAL INSTITUE OF TECHNOLOGY KARNATAKA,
SURATHKAL, SRINIVASNAGAR-575025, INDIA.

April, 2021

1
 CONTENTS

Title Page No.

Declaration 3

Acknowledgement 4

Abstract 5

Introduction 6

Theoretical Background 8

Simulation and Results 26

Conclusion 29
Bibliography 29

2
 DECLARATION

This is to certify that the Major Project Report entitled Simulation of Long
Transmission line using MATLAB Simulink which is being submitted to the
National Institute of Technology Karnataka, Surathkal in partial fulfilment of
the requirements for the award of Bachelor of Technology in Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, in the Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering is a bonafide report of the project work carried out by us. The
material contained in this report has not been submitted to any University or
Institution for the award of any degree.

Names:
Chandan G Krishna-(171EE113)

Tarun Varma k-(171EE247)

Shashwath Bhandary-(171EE139)

Kondeti Chaitanya-(171EE122)

Place: NITK, Surathkal

Date: 15 April 2021

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We would like to thank Mr. K Rajagopala, Associate Professor,

Electrical and Electronics Engineering for the project and providing
us with an opportunity to research and gain extensive knowledge in
our project topic. This project gave us a platform to hone our research
skills, to gain vast scientific knowledge in the field and to contribute
useful research to the scientific community and the society in general.
It helped us exercise and master all the skills that we learnt in our
journey towards becoming an able and skilled electrical engineer. We
would also like to thank the ancillary staff of our department and the
PhD students for their help, assistance and constant support. We
would also like to thank the department and the institute for providing
us with the facilities and opportunities for conducting our research.

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 ABSTRACT
Transmission line protection is an important issue in power system engineering
because 85-87% of power system faults are occurring in transmission lines.
This paper presents a technique to detect and classify the different shunt faults
on a transmission lines for quick and reliable operation of protection schemes.
Discrimination among different types of faults on the transmission lines is
achieved by application of evolutionary programming tools. MATLAB software
is used to simulate different operating and fault conditions on high voltage
transmission line, namely single phase to ground fault, line to line fault, double
line to ground and three phase short circuit. The discrete wavelet transform
(DWT) is applied for decomposition of fault transients, because of its ability to
extract information from the transient signal, simultaneously both in time and
frequency domain. The data sets which are obtained from the DWT are used
for training and testing the SVM architecture. After extracting useful features
from the measured signals, a decision of fault or no fault on any phase or
multiple phases of a transmission line is carried out using three SVM classifiers.
The ground detection task is carried out by a proposed ground index. Gaussian
radial basis kernel function (RBF) has been used, and performances of
classifiers have been evaluated based on fault classification accuracy. In order
to determine the optimal parametric settings of an SVM classifier (such as the
type of kernel function, its associated parameter, and the regularization
parameter c), fivefold cross-validation has been applied to the training set. It is
observed that an SVM with an RBF kernel provides better fault classification
accuracy than that of an SVM with polynomial kernel. It has been found that
the proposed scheme is very fast and accurate and it proved to be a robust
classifier for digital distance protection.
Transmission lines happen to be one of the important subjects in Electrical
Power System curriculum. Unfortunately, the theoretical concepts learned in
the class room cannot be verified in a laboratory. The development of
laboratory model to perform experiments is very much essential. This project
discusses the steps involved in the design and development of laboratory
model of transmission line using MATLAB Simulink. Moreover, the MATLAB
based simulation of the designed line is also presented.

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 INTRODUCTION

A transmission line is a structure intended to transport electromagnetic signals

or power. A rudimentary transmission line is simply a pair of wires with one
wire serving as a datum (i.e., a reference; e.g., “ground”) and the other wire
bearing an electrical potential that is defined relative to that datum.
Transmission lines having random geometry, are useful only at very low
frequencies and when loss, reactance, and immunity to electromagnetic
interference (EMI) are not a concern. However, many circuits and systems
operate at frequencies where the length or cross-sectional dimensions of the
transmission line may be a significant fraction of a wavelength. In this case, the
transmission line is no longer “transparent” to the circuits at either end.
Furthermore, loss, reactance, and EMI are significant problems in many
applications. These concerns motivate the use of particular types of
transmission lines, and make it necessary to understand how to properly connect
the transmission line to the rest of the system.

In electromagnetics, the term “transmission line” refers to a structure which is

intended to support a guided wave. A guided wave is an electromagnetic wave
that is contained within or bound to the line, and which does not radiate away
from the line. This condition is normally met if the length and cross-sectional
dimensions of the transmission line are small relative to a wavelength –
say λ/100λ/100 (i.e., 1% of the wavelength). For example, two randomly-
arranged wires might serve well enough to carry a signal at f=10f=10 MHz over
a length l=3l=3 cm, since ll is only 0.1% of the
wavelength λ=c/f=30λ=c/f=30 m. However, if ll is increased to 33 m, or if ff is
increased to 1 GHz, then ll is now 10% of the wavelength. In this case, one
should consider using a transmission line that forms a proper guided wave.

Preventing unintended radiation is not the only concern. Once we have

established a guided wave on a transmission line, it is important that power
applied to the transmission line be delivered to the circuit or device at the other
end and not reflected back into the source. For the random
wire f=10f=10 MHz, l=3l=3 cm example above, there is little need for concern,
since we expect a phase shift of
roughly 0.001⋅360∘=0.36∘0.001⋅360∘=0.36∘ over the length of the transmission
line, which is about 0.72∘0.72∘ for a round trip. So, to a good approximation,
the entire transmission line is at the same electrical potential and thus
transparent to the source and destination. However, if ll is increased
to 33 m, or if ff is increased to 1 GHz, then the associated round-trip phase shift
becomes 72∘72∘. In this case, a reflected signal traveling in the opposite
direction will add to create a total electrical potential, which varies in both
6
magnitude and phase with position along the line. Thus, the impedance looking
toward the destination via the transmission line will be different than the
impedance looking toward the destination directly. The modified impedance
will depend on the cross-sectional geometry, materials, and length of the line.
Cross-sectional geometry and materials also determine the loss and EMI
immunity of the transmission line.

An electric power system consists of three principle divisions: the generating

station, the transmission line and the distribution systems. Transmissions lines
are the connecting links between the generating stations and the distribution
systems and lead to other power systems over interconnections. Though, the
transmission lines can be used both for transmission of electrical energy at power
frequency and for sending communication signals at high frequency, here a power
transmission line transferring electrical power from one end to other is modelled.
A transmission line is an electrically conductive medium delivering electrical
energy among various circuits in an electric power system. For the purpose of
analysis, a transmission line is said to have a sending end and a receiving end.
The power frequency transmission lines usually carry higher voltages and
currents at power frequency (50Hz or 60Hz). This project highlights design,
fabrication and testing of transmission line.

7
 Theoretical Background
A long transmission line is defined as a transmission line with an effective
length more than 250 km (150 miles). Unlike short transmission lines and
medium transmission lines, it is no longer reasonable to assume that the line
parameters are lumped. To accurately model a long transmission line, we must
consider the exact effect of the distributed parameters over the entire length of
the line. Although this makes the calculation of ABCD parameters of
transmission line more complex, it also allows us to derive expressions for the
voltage and current at any point along the line.

In a long transmission line, the line constants are uniformly distributed over the
entire length of line. This is because the effective circuit length is much higher
than what it was for the former models (long and medium line) and hence we
can no longer make the following approximations:

1. Ignoring the shunt admittance of the network, like in a small transmission

line model.
2. Considering the circuit impedance and admittance to be lumped and
concentrated at a point as was the case for the medium line model.

Rather, for all practical reasons, we should consider the circuit impedance and
admittance being distributed over the entire circuit length as shown in the figure
below. The calculations of circuit parameters, for this reason, are going to be
slightly more rigorous as we will see here. For accurate modelling to determine
circuit parameters let us consider the circuit of the long transmission line as
shown in the diagram below.

8
Here a line of length l > 250km is supplied with a sending end voltage and
current of VS and IS respectively, whereas the VR and IR are the values of
voltage and current obtained from the receiving end. Let us now consider an
element of infinitely small length Δx at a distance x from the receiving end as
shown in the figure where.

V = value of voltage just before entering the element Δx.

I = value of current just before entering the element Δx.
V+ΔV = voltage leaving the element Δx.
I+ΔI = current leaving the element Δx.
ΔV = voltage drop across element Δx.
zΔx = series impedance of element Δx
yΔx = shunt admittance of element Δx

Where, Z = z l and Y = y l are the values of total impedance and admittance of

the long transmission line.

Therefore, the voltage drop across the infinitely small element Δx is given by

9
Now to determine the current ΔI, we apply KCL to node A,

Since the term ΔV yΔx is the product of 2 infinitely small values, we can ignore
it for the sake of easier calculation.

Therefore, we can write

Now derivating both sides of eq (1) w.r.t x,

Now substituting from equation (2)

The solution of the above second order differential equation is given by.

Derivating equation (4) w.r.to x.

10
Now comparing equation (1) with equation (5)

Now to go further let us define the characteristic impedance Z c and propagation

constant δ of a long transmission line as

Then the voltage and current equation can be expressed in terms of

characteristic impedance and propagation constant as

Now at x=0, V= VR and I= Ir. Substituting these conditions to equation (7) and
(8) respectively.

Solving equation (9) and (10),

We get values of A1 and A2 as,

Now applying another extreme condition at x = l, we have V = VS and I = IS.

Now to determine VS and IS we substitute x by l and put the values of A1 and
A2 in equation (7) and (8) we get

11
By trigonometric and exponential operators we know

Therefore, equation (11) and (12) can be re-written as

Thus compared with the general circuit parameters equation, we get the ABCD
parameters of a long transmission line as,

Interpretation of the Long Line Equation

As already said in Eq. (5.26), γ is a complex number which can be expressed as

The real part α is called the attenuation constant and the imaginary part β is called
the phase constant. Now Vx of Eq. (5.21) can be written as

The instantaneous voltage Vx (t) can be written from Eq. (5.30) as

12
The instantaneous voltage consists of two terms each of which is a function of
two variables—time and distance. Thus they represent two travelling waves, i.e.

At any instant of time t, νx1 is sinusoidally distributed along the distance from the
receiving-end with amplitude increasing exponentially with distance, as shown in
Fig. 5.11 (α > 0 for a line having resistance).

After time Δt, the distribution advances in distance phase by (ωΔtlβ) Thus this
wave is travelling towards the receiving-end and is the incident wave. Line losses
cause its amplitude to decrease exponentially in going from the sending to the
receiving-end.
Now

After time Δt the voltage distribution retards in distance phase by ωΔtlβ). This is
the reflected wave travelling from the receiving-end to the sending-end with
amplitude decreasing exponentially in going from the receiving-end to the
sending-end, as shown in Fig. 5.12.

13
At any point along the line, the voltage is the sum of incident and reflected voltage
waves present at the point [Eq. (5.32)]. The same is true of current waves.
Expressions for incident and reflected current waves can be similarly written
down by proceeding from Eq. (5.21). If Zc is pure resistance, current waves can
be simply obtained from voltage waves by dividing by Z c.

If the load impedance

i.e. the line is terminated in its characteristic impedance, the reflected voltage
wave is zero (VR-ZcIR=0).
A line terminated in its characteristic impedance is called the infinite line. The
incident wave under this condition cannot distinguish between a termination and
an infinite continuation of the line.
Power system engineers normally call Zc the surge impedance. It has a value of
about 400 ohms for an overhead line and its phase angle normally varies from 0°
to — 15°. For underground cables Zc is roughly one-tenth of the value for
overhead lines. The term surge impedance is, however, used in connection with
surges (due to lightning or switching) or transmission lines, where the lines loss
can be neglected such that

Surge Impedance Loading (S1L) of a transmission line is defined as the power

delivered by a line to purely resistive load equal in value to the surge impedance
of the line. Thus, for a line having 400 ohms surge impedance,

14
where |VR| is the line-to-line receiving-end voltage in kV. Sometimes, it is found
convenient to express line loading in per unit of SIL, i.e. as the ratio of the power
transmitted to surge impedance loading.
At any time the voltage and current vary harmonically along the line with respect
to x, the space coordinate. A complete voltage or current cycle along the line
corresponds to a change of 2π rad in the angular argument βx. The corresponding
line length is defined as the wavelength.
If β is expressed in rad/m,

Now for a typical power transmission line

g (shunt conductance/unit length) = 0

Now time for a phase change of 2π is 1/f s, where f=ω/2π is the frequency in
cycles/s. During this time the wave travels a distance equal to λ, i.e. one
wavelength.
Velocity of propagation of wave,

which is a well-known result.

For a lossless transmission line (R = 0, G = 0),

15
For a single-phase transmission line

Since r and r’ are quite close to each other, when log is taken, it is sufficiently
accurate to assume that In

The actual velocity of the propagation of wave along the line would be somewhat
less than the velocity of light.
Wavelength of a 50 Hz power transmission is approximately given by

16
 LOSS LESS LINE

For loss less line R=0 and G=0.

So our above equations reduces to

𝐿
ZC = √
𝐶

γ = jω + √(𝐿𝐶)

Observe that for loss less line, Zc becomes a pure resistance. We also know
that γ = α+j β, for this loss less situation we get
α=0
β = w + √𝐿𝐶

Now our previous voltage and current equations for surge impedance loading
reduces to

V(x) = Vr + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥
I (x) = Ir + 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥

As in case of lossy line here also at any distance x from receiving end the ratio
of voltage and current is always same that is Zc, the surge impedance of the
line. Using the complex algebra you are sure that the magnitude of V(x) is Vr
and I(x) is Ir. Which means that for loss less line the voltage and current at any
distance x from the receiving end is same. It also implies voltage at sending end
is same as voltage at receiving end which is same as voltage at any intermediate
point. So Vs = V(x) = Vr. At Surge Impedance Loading the reactive power
generated by the line capacitance is equal to the reactive power absorbed by the
line inductance for every unit length of line. In Power industry it is said that the
voltage profile is flat. So we conclude that for a lossless line the voltage
magnitude is same throughout the length of line. As in case of lossy line the
term 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑥 is the phasor responsible for phase shift. It is simply giving phase

17
shift to the voltage wave along the length of line. The phase angle between
sending and receiving end voltage is 𝑒 𝑗𝛽𝑙 .
It is clear that if the distance between the sending and receiving end is more
then the phase difference between the voltage phasors at both the ends of the
line will be more.

For Loss less line the surge impedance loading (SIL) is

SIL = Vl2 / Zc
Where
Vl = √(3) * Vr

It should be recalled that Zc is pure resistance for lossless line.

Vr and Vl are the receiving end phase and line voltage respectively.
Approximate SIL for few nominal voltages
• 132/138 kV - 50 MW
• 230 kV - 150 MW
• 345 kV - 400 MW
• 400 kV - 500 MW
• 500 kV - 900 MW
• 765 kV - 2090 MW

Above values of SIL is true for both 50 Hz and 60 Hz systems.

Line Loadability:
System planners usually use line loadabilty curve for deciding loading
capability of the line. See Fig-D. The relationship between SIL and length in km
shown in Fig-D is almost same for all voltage levels.

18
 Transmission of Energy
When the load is connected directly to the source of energy, or when the
transmission line is short, problems concerning current and voltage can be
solved by applying Ohm’s law. When the transmission line becomes long
enough so the time difference between a change occurring at the generator and
the change appearing at the load becomes appreciable, analysis of the
transmission line becomes important.
Electrical transmission is the process of delivering generating electricity - usually
over long distances - to the distribution grid located in populated areas. An
important part of this process includes transformers which are used to
increase voltage levels to make long distance transmission feasible.
The electrical transmission system combined with power plants, distribution
systems, and sub-stations to form what is known as the . The grid meets
society's electricity needs, and is what gets the electric grid from its generation to
its end use. Since power plants are most often located outside of densely
populated areas, the transmission system must be fairly large.
.

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 DC Applied to a Long Transmission Line
In DC transmission line, the mercury arc rectifier converts the alternating
current into the DC. The DC transmission line transmits the bulk power over
long distance. At the consumer ends the thyratron converts the DC into the AC.
When a battery is connected through a relatively long two-wire transmission
line to a load at the far end of the line. At the instant the switch is closed, neither
current nor voltage exists on the line. When the switch is closed, point A
becomes a positive potential, and point B becomes negative. These points of
difference in potential move down the line. However, as the initial points of
potential leave points A and B, they are followed by new points of difference in
potential which the battery adds at A and B. This is merely saying that the
battery maintains a constant potential difference between points A and B. A
short time after the switch is closedas A and B, respectively. The points of
charge are represented by plus (+) and minus (-) signs along the wires.
The directions of the currents in the wires are represented by the arrow heads on
the line, and the direction of travel is indicated by an arrow below the line.
Conventional lines of force represent the electric field that exists between the
opposite kinds of charge on the wire sections from A to A’ and B to B’. Crosses
(tails of arrows) indicate the magnetic field created by the electric field moving
down the line. The moving electric field and the accompanying magnetic field
constitute an electromagnetic wave that is moving from the generator (battery)
toward the load. This wave travels at approximately the speed of light in free
space. The energy reaching the load is equal to that developed at the battery
(assuming there are no losses in the transmission line). If the load absorbs all of
the energy, the current and voltage will be evenly distributed along the line.

AC Applied to a Long Transmission Line

When the battery is replaced by an ac generator each successive instantaneous
value of the generator voltage is propagated down the line at the speed of light.
The action is similar to the wave created by the battery except that the applied
voltage is sinusoidal instead of constant. The AC transmission line transmits the
alternating current over a long distance. The AC transmission line uses three
conductors for long power transmission. The AC transmission line has
inductance and surges.The high voltage drop occurs across the AC terminal
lines when their end terminals voltage are equal. The phenomenon of the skin
effect occurs only in the AC transmission line. The skin effect causes the losses,
and this can be reduced by decreasing the cross-section area of the conductor.

20
 Power Flow through a Transmission Line
So far the transmission line performance equation was presented in the
form of voltage and current relationships between sending-and receiving-
ends. Since loads are more often expressed in terms of real (watts/kW)
and reactive (VARs/ kVAR) power, it is convenient to deal with
transmission line equations in the form of sending- and receiving-end
complex power and voltages. While the problem of flow of power in a
general network will be treated in the next chapter, the principles involved
are illustrated here through a single transmission line (2-node/2-bus
system) as shown in Fig. 5.17.

Let us take the receiving-end voltage as a reference phasor (VR=|VR|∠0°)

and let the sending-end voltage lead it by an angle δ(Vs=|Vs|∠δ).
The angle δ is known as the torque angle whose significance has been
explained in Chapter 4 and will further be taken up in Chapter 12 while
dealing with the problem of stability.
The complex power leaving the receiving-end and entering the sending-
end of the transmission line can be expressed as (on per phase basis)

Receiving- and sending-end currents can, however, be expressed in

terms of receiving- and sending-end voltages [see Eq. (5.1)1 as

Let A, B, D, the transmission line constants, be written as

21
Therefore, we can write

In the above equations SR and Ss are per phase complex voltamperes,

while VR and Vs are expressed in per phase volts. If VR and Vs are
expressed in kV line, then the three-phase receiving-end complex power
is given by

This indeed is the same as Eq. (5.58). The same result holds for Ss. Thus,
we see that Eqs. (5.58) and (5.59) give the three-phase MVA
if Vs and VR are expressed in kV line.
If Eq. (5.58) is expressed in real and imaginary parts, we can write the real
and reactive powers at the receiving-end as

Similarly, the real and reactive powers at sending-end are

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It is easy to see from Eq. (5.61) that the received power PR will be
maximum at

Thus, the load must draw this much leading MVAR in order to receive the
maximum real power.
Consider now the special case of a short line with a series impedance Z.
Now

Substituting these in Eqs. (5.61) to (5.64), we get the simplified results for
the short line as

for the receiving-end and for the sending-end

The above short line equation will also apply for a long line when the line
is replaced by its equivalent- π (or nominal- π) and the shunt admittances

23
 are lumped with the receiving-end load and sending-end generation. In
fact, this technique is always used in the load flow problem to be treated
in the next chapter.
From Eq.(5.66), the maximum receiving-end power is received, when δ=θ

Normally the resistance of a transmission line is small compared to its

reactance (since it is necessary to maintain a high efficiency of
transmission), so that θ= tan-1 X/R 90′; where Z = R + jX. The receiving-
end Eqs. (5.66) and (5.67) can then be approximated as

Equation (5.72) can be further simplified by assuming cos δ≈1, since δ is

normally small*. Thus

Let |VS|-|VR|=|ΔV|, the magnitude of voltage drop across the transmission

line.

Several important conclusions that easily follow from Eqs. (5.71) to (5.74)
are enumerated below:
• For R≈0 (which is a valid approximation for a transmission line) the real
power transferred to the receiving-end is proportional to sin δ(≈δ for
small values of δ ), while the reactive power is proportional to the
magnitude of the voltage drop across the line.

24
• The real power received is maximum for δ = 90° and has a value
|Vs||VR|/X. Of course, δ is restricted to values well below 90° from
considerations of stability to be discussed in Chapter 12.
• Maximum real power transferred for. a given line (fixed X) can be
increased by raising its voltage level. It is from this consideration that
voltage levels are being progressively pushed up to transmit larger
chunks of power over longer distances warranted by large size
generating
• For very long lines voltage level cannot be raised beyond the limits
placed by present-day high voltage technology. To increase power
transmitted in such cases, the only choice is to reduce the
line reactance. This is accomplished by adding series capacitors in the
line. This idea will be pursued further in Chapter 12. Series capacitors
would of course increase the severity of line over voltages under
switching conditions.
• As said in 1 above, the VARs (lagging reactive power) delivered by a
line is proportional to the line voltage drop and is independent of
δ. Therefore, in a transmission system if the VARs demand of the load
is large, the voltage profile at that point tends to sag rather sharply. To
maintain a desired voltage profile, the VARs demand of the load must
be met locally by employing positive VAR generators (condensers).
A somewhat more accurate yet approximate result expressing line
voltage drop in terms of active and reactive powers can be written directly
from

This result reduces to that of Eq. (5.74) if R = 0.

25
RESULTS:
For a 300km Transmission line,

26
For a 500km Transmission line,

27
For a 1000km Transmission line,

28
CONCLUSION:
This project explains development of laboratory model of transmission line
using MATLAB Simulink and also steps involved in design, fabrication and
testing of transmission line. The reactive power exchange cannot see
because of the limitations of the metering facilities. However, the effect can
be seen by measuring the voltage at the receiving end. The developed
laboratory model of transmission line is used for performing the
experiments related to transmission line for undergraduate and
postgraduate students. Further, the same model will be used to develop the
laboratory setup for demonstration of different series and shunt FACTS
devices.

BIBLIOGRAPHY:

[1] Narain.G.Hingorani, Laszio Gyugi, “Understanding FACTS Concepts

and Technology of Flexible A transmission system,” IEEE Press, 2001.
[2] R.Jayabharati, M .R Sindhu, N. Devarajan, T. N. P.Nambiar,
“Development of Laboratory model of Hybrid Static Var compensator” [
[3] N.G. Hingorani, “High power electronics and flexible AC transmission
system”, IEEE Power Engineering Review, Vol.8, No.7, pp.3-4, July 1988.
[4] L. Gyugyi, "Dynamic compensation of ac transmission lines by solid-
state synchronous voltage sources," IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 9, no. 2,
pp. 904-911, Apr. 1994.

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