aaa SAMEEP SAKAL Table/of Contents LINEAR EQUATIONS IN LINEAR ALGEBRA 1.1 Systems of Linear Equations. 1.2. Row Reduction and Echelon Forms .. Q Exercise 1.1.. 1.3 Vector Equations ...... 14 The Matrix equation Ax = b....., a Exercise 1.2... a Exercise 1.3 ...... 1.5. Applications of Linear System ... 1.6 Linear Independence... Exercise 14. TRANSFORMATIONS 2.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations ... 22 The Matrix of a Linear ‘Transformations... 23 Linear Models in Business, Science and Engineering --. 45 a Exercise 2... Scanned with CamScanner3.5 3.6 37 38 39 41 42 4.3 { ‘ MATRIX ALGEBRA Introduction... Matrix Operations The Inverse of a Matrix... Characterizations of Invertible Matrices. Exercise 3.1 Partitioned Matrices... Exercise 3.2 Matrix Factorizations... Bi cc The Leontief Input Output Model... sey Applications of Matrix Algebra to Computer Graphics... Subspaces of Rn... . seven TB Dimension and Rank... Exercise 3.3 DETERMINANTS Introduction to Determinants. Exercise 4.1 Properties of Determinants.... Exercise 4.2 Cramer’s Rule, Volume and Linear Transformations. Scanned with CamScannerChange of Basis. SAMEEP DAHAL VECTOR SPACES Vector Space and Subspace. Exercise 5.1....... Null Space and Column Space, and Linear Transformation Exercise 5. Linearly Independent Sets, Bases... Exercise 5.3.. Coordinate System... Exercise 5.4... 120 VECTOR SPACES CONTINUED The Dimension of a Vector Space... Exercise 6.1 .... Rank. Exercise 6.2... Applications to Difference Equations... Application of Markov chains... Exercise 6.3..... Scanned with CamScanneroy 7 ig es OR O03 NI in of; 0 81 8.2 83 © Exercise 6.3. EIGENVALUES AND EIGENVECTORS Introduction. Eigen Value and Eigen Vectors cancers Exercise 7.1 The Characteristic Equation Exercise 7. Diagonalization... Exercise 7.3. Figenvectors and Linear Transformation... Exercise 7.4.. Complex Eigenvalues... Exercise 7.5... Discrete Dynamical Systems.. .. 166 169 Exercise 7.6 Inner Product, Length and Orthogonality Exercise 8.1 Orthogonal Sets 179 Exercise 6.2 185 Orthogonal Projections... Scanned with CamScannerSas R SEE MEP 84 — The Gram Schmidt Process ’ { Sesenmeremeneeeee 195 DER rCISO BA oe ccecsssesesterese wiltinmessenPecea sessetnscnneess 19B BS) ‘Less Squats Probleme: cnncnisaynencpmcuoenmumnctumsnianeuuan dD O Exercise 85... 202 86 Applications to Linear Models . anaes 204 a Exercise 8.6 207 87 Inner Product Space...... .-- 208 O Exercise 8.7... GROUP AND SUBGROUPS 9.1 Sets and Set Operations... 9.2 Mappings. 93 Group. QD Exercise 9.1... 94 Subgroups. Exercise 9.2 RING AND FIELD 101 Ring and Basic Properties. 102 Properties of Ring .. 103° Field. Q Exercise - 10... 246 Q Bibliography... m8 Q Model Question ... 249 9 TU Examination .... = al Scanned with CamScannerLINEAR EQUATIONS IN LINEAR ALGEBRA’ Systems of linear-equations lie atthe ‘heart of linear algebra, and this chapter uses them to introduce some of the-central-concepts-of linear-algebra-in'a simple-and-concrete'setting. Sections 1.1 and 1.2-present a systematic method for solving systems of ‘linear equations. ‘This algorithm will be used for computations throughout the text.”Sections 1.3-and 1.4 show-how-a systemof linear-equations is equivalent toa vector equation and to'a'matrix-equation, LEARNING OUTCOMES |) Altersstudying this chapter you'should'be:able to: Systems :of Linear Equations Row Reduction and Echelon Forms Vector Equations The Matrix equation Ax = b ‘Applications of Linear System eee Kw Linear Independence Scanned with CamScanner2 MATHEMATICS - IT 1.1 Systems of Linear Equations Definition (Linear Equation with Real or Complex coer) : A linear equation in the variables m, %2,. . nis an equation in the form am tags +... tagtn=b where the coefficients ai, a», «ag and the value b are real or complex numbers. Definition (System of Linear Equations) i ; / A collection of one or more linear equations, is a system of linear equations or a lina, system, Example 1: The systems, () +5m=7 (b) 2-4x5=8 2y +7 = 5, 2 - 3x2 + 24 =1 5xy ~ 8x2 + 7x5 = 1, . are examples of linear system, Definition (Solution of the System of Linear Equations) A solution of the system is a list of values (X1,x2,.. Xa) of numbers that satisfies the given system. : For an example, the linear system m+5m=7 2x, +723 =5 'S satisfied by a list (x1 s2) = (-8, 3.So, (8, 3) is the solution of the system. Note that the solution of a linear system does not necessarily exist. This means, may not have solution. And, sometimes the system has exactly one solution system has infinitely many solutions. some linear system and sometimes the Definition (Consistent and Inconsistent System) a A system of linear equations is called consistent if t has solution (that may be one solution or infinitely many solutions) and called inconsistent if it has no solution. Graphical Representation of Consistency of Linear Equations Geometrically, linear equation represents a straight line. A system of linear equations is set of solution. This means, ifthe lines of the system intersect each other at a Point (at least one point) then the system is consistent and if they all are not intersected at common point then the system is inconsistent. For instance, (“The equation of lines hy, I» and J; in figure (a) is consistent and has exactly one solution because the lines are intersect at a point. (ii) The equations of lines hand lz are parallel. So, the system of equations of I, and [2 is inconsistent, in figure (b). Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra # CHAPTER 1 3 (ji) The line h is overlap to l, This means the lines have infinitely many points of jptersect So; the system of equations of line ; and I; has infinitely many solutions and ‘consistence, in figure (c). Y ¥ y h h h 1 - oO a oI x x h is h @ © © Example 2: Consider a system m= 2n=-1 x fa, m-3n=-3 Fax Lines satisfy by the point (3, 2). So, the system is consistent and has exactly one solution because the lines intersect each other only at a point. < x Example 3: Consider a system mt2n= i 2 wt 2n=2 This shows that lines represent by the , . . system, are parallel. So, the system has no solution, The graphical representation of > * the system shows the lines are parallel. So, 4 the system is inconsistent. : oe i a h . 7 m1 oo Example 4: Consider a system f wna =1 3m + 3m=-3 This system has the overlapping lines. So, the system has infinite solutions and is consistence. Example 5: Why the system x1 - 3% = 4, “3m + 9x2 = 8 is inconsistent? Give graphical ~ representation. Solution: Given system is, actaes Scanned with CamScanner4 = MATHEMATICS ~ I ~3x1 + 9x ~ Gil) Clearly the line (i) passes through the points (4, 0) and (0, 4/3) and the line (ii) passes through the points (-8/3, 0) and (0, 8/9). (i Then graph of the system is, + iby Here, the lines are parallel. So, the system has no solution. Therefore, the system is inconsistent. Definition (Matrix Notation of the S A matrix form of coefficients and the constant values of a linear system is known as matix notation of the system. If the matrix notation involves only the coefficients of variables then the matrix is called coefficient matrix. And, if the matrix notation involves the coefficients of linear system as (| as constant value then the matrix is called augmented matrix of the system. Example 6; Consider a linear system wt 4 =-5 ‘1 + 3x2 + Sxy = -2 3x1 + 7x2 + 7x3 =6 ‘Then, the matrix notation with coefficients each variables in the form, 014 1-3) 5 3.7 7. is the coefficient matrix. And, the matrix notation of the system O14: 4 25524 379 7 :"6 is the augmented matrix. Elementary Row Operations = 1. Replacement) Replace one row by the sum of itself and a multiple of another row.? 2 (Interchange) Interchange two rows. : aie: Example 7: Solve the systems of linear equation by elementary row operation. 1-315 =8 2442+ 9x =7 2453 2. Solution: Given system is, 21-35 =8 2x1 + 2x. + x3=7 324 5xs=-2, Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra # Caavres | ‘The matrix notation of the system is, 10 8 8 2209 7 O15 2 Apply Ro ~ Ry -2R) then the above matrix reduces to ro 8 ~|2.2 9 7 O15 : 2 Apply Ry-?2Rs -Ro then the above matrix re ces to 10 3: 8 ~]9 2 15: -9Jis triangular form. 90 5: 5] The equation form of the matrix notation is, m-3y=8 el) 2x + 15x) = -9 + (il) -Sry=5 (ii) From (ii), we get x5 = -1. Substituting the value x3 = ~1 in (ii) then it gives, 2x - 15 =-9, - = ns3. And, substituting the value x3 = ~1 in (i) then it gives, m143=8, => m5. Thus, the solution of the given linear system is (x1, 42,3) = (5,3/-1). 2 Row Reduct mn and Echelon Forms Definition (Echelon Form or Row Echelon Form) 3 A rectangular matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) if it has the following three Properties: | 1. Allnonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros. 2 Each Jeading entry of a row is in a column to the right of the leading entry of the row ___ above it. 3. Allentries in a column below a leading entry are zeros, __ If a matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional conditions, then it is In reduced echelon form (or reduced row echelon form): The leading entry in each nonzero row is 1, ; Each leading 1 is the only nonzero entry in its column. | ‘The following matrices are in echelon form: 2.302 21 10 0 29 o 1 -4 8], jo 1 0 6 oo o 52] loo 1 3 In which the second matrix is in reduced echelon form. (Echelon Matrix and Row Reduced Mattlx) form is called echelon matrix, Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra @ Cuseren) — & ‘The matrix notation of the system is, 10 3 8 229 7 015 “ Apply Re Rs -2R, then the above matrix reduces to 10 3: 8 ~|2.29 7 915: ~ Apply Rs-92Rs -Rz then the above matrix reduces to 10 3: 8 ~|0 2 15 ~9 |is triangular form. 5 0 0 -5 ‘The equation form of the matrix notation is, a-3u 2x + 15x; n= From (iii), we get x3 = Substituting the value x5 = -1 in (i) then it gives, 2y-15=-9, = = 1253. ‘And, substituting the value x3 = -1 in (i) then it gives, +358. >on Thus, the solution of the given linear system is (x1, x2 2:) = (6,3/-1). 1.2 Row Reduction and Echelon Forms Definition (Echelon Form or Row Echelon Form) A rectangular matrix is in echelon form (or row echelon form) te heaving in | properties: 1. Allnonzero rows are above any rows of all zeros. 2 Fach leading entry of a row is in a column to the ett of th tend cy cae above it. Alll entries in a column below a leading entry are zeros. Ifa matrix in echelon form satisfies the following additional conditions, then it is in " reduced echelon form (or reduced row echelon form): ‘The leading entry in each nonzero row isl, ‘Lis the only nonzero entry in its column. The following matrices are in echelon form: 23 2 1 10 0 29 o 1 -4 8], [0 1 0 6 oo o 5/2) loo 1 3 In which ihe second matrix is in reduced echelon form. oni i (Echelon Matrix and Row Reduced Matrix) ix in echelon form is called echelon matrix, Scanned with CamScanner6 — MATHEMATICS - Il The following matrices are in echelon form. The leading entries (##) may have any nonzero valu starred entries (*) may have any value (including zero). ones ona oy wumies) |e oom cae sel jo 0 0 0 8 oo 4 96 9 OF Th 8 8 oo pete % oo 00 on. “The following matrices are in reduced echelon form because the leading entries are 1's, and the O's below and above each leading 1. o PERE C00 oe Ore Peewee 00010084 4 0 # 0 Saree 0000104 4 08 oo 6 OF lg o 0 OO 1 ee OF 0 0 0 0 000000 00 1 * Note: (1) Different sequences (operations or formulae) of row operation gives different echelon matrix of any non-zero matrix. This means, a matrix may have more than one echelon matrix as the operated row operations. (2) Remember that a non-zero matrix have a unique (ie. one and only one or exactly one) reduced echelon matrix. This note leads the concept of following theorem. Here, row reduce the matrix A below to echelon form, and locate the pivot columns of A. 0-3-6 4 9 “1-2-1301 2-3 0 3-1 1 4 5-9-7 The top of the leftmost nonzero column is the first pivot position. A nonzero entry, or pivot, must be placed in this position. A good choice is to interchange rows 1 and 4 (because the mental computations in the next step will not involve fractions). a Pivot ita 5-9 -7 elia2—le 3 1 2-300 3-1 0-3-6 4 9 te. Pivoe column Create zeros below the pivot, 1, by adding multiples of the first row to the rows below, and obtain. matrix (1) “The pivot position in the second row must be as far left as possible—namely, in the second column. Choose the 2 in this position as the next pivot. A= p— Pivot 1 5-9 -7 0 2° 4 -6 ~6 0 5 W -I5 -15 0-3 -6 4 9 (1) t 4 ext pivot column Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra CuarTeR1 7 mes row 2 to row 3, and add 3/2 times row 2 to row 4. Add 5/2 1 4 5-9-7 0 2 4-6 -6 0 0 0 0 0 (2) 0 0 0-5 0 row 1 or 2 because doing S0 “There is no way to create a leading entry in column 3! (We can’t use Fi if we would destroy the echelon arrangement of the leading entries already produced.) However, interchange rows 3 and 4, we can produce a leading entry in column 4 Pivot 14 5 -9|-7 aoe oe ee 02 8 =SFE) Gonastiom {6 9 5 8 F 00000 oo O88. ‘ —t— pivot columns ‘The matrix is in echelon form and thus reveals that columns 1, 2, and 4 of A are pivot columns. —— Pivot positions -@) tot tf pivot columns A pivot, as in above, is a nonzero number in a pivot position that is-used as needed to create zeros via row operations. The pivots as above were 1, 2, and -5. Notice that these numbers are not the same as the actual elements of A in the highlighted pivot positions shown in (3). Definition (Pivot Position) A pivot position in a matrix A is a location in A that corresponds to a leading 1 in the reduced echelon form of A. A pivot column is a column of A that contains a pivot position. “Row Reduction Algorithm The algorithm helps to obtain a matrix in echelon form and in reduced echelon form. The process of the algorithm is as follows: (1) Begin with the leftmost nonzero column. This is a pivot column. The pivot position is at the top. 3 (2) Select a nonzero entry in the pivot column as a pivot. If necessary, interchange rows to move this entry into the pivot position. “ | (3) Use row replacement operations to create zeros in all positions below the pivot, (Cover (or ignore) the row containing the pivot position and cover all rows, if any, above it Apply steps 1-8 to the sub matrix that'remains. Repeat the process until there are no more nonzero rows to modify: ; ‘ Beginning with the rightmost pivot and working upward and to the left, create zeros above each pivot. Ifa pivot is not 1, make it 1 by a scaling operation. ees Scanned with CamScanner| $8 MATHEMATICS - 1 Example 8: Reduce the augmented matrix of the system in reduced echelon form 01 0 3 3 1030 2 0-23 2 1 30 07 4 Solution. Interchanging Ry and R; to make non-zero pivot then, 1 -Di, Be Oe 2 010-3 3 “Jo 23 2 1 3007 +4 Apply Rs —> Ri-3R; then the above matrix reduces to 10 3 0 2 ‘ o1 03 3 “lo 2 3 2 1 00° -9 7 «1 Apply Rs~> Rs + 2Re then the above matrix reduces to ~ 10 320 2 010 3 3 00 3 4 7 00 9 7 «41 Apply Rs—> Rs + 3Rs then the above matrix reduces to 103 0 2 010-3 3 ‘ “loo 3 4 7 isa echelon form : 900-5 1 ‘Now, for reduced echelon form R Apply Ro» 3¢and Rok then the above matrix reduces to, O42 3 m3: 4/3 7/3 1-2 3 ‘Apply Ra Re SRe and Ry + Ry + FR then the above matrix reduces to eons CHow a 30 2 OO a og Apply Ri > Ri -3Rs then the matrix reduces to, 1.0 0 0 -yy ay 00.3 00-1 0°: 5%6 OF0 0 1. “9 is a reduced echelon form. ecHo Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra @cuavran 1 0 3 -6 6 3-7) 8-5 Example 9: Given the matrix 3 —9 12-9 Pivot column packward phase of the row reduction algorithm, 4-57 k 9 6 15], dtncunw the forward phare and Solution 0 3 -6 6 4 -5] 13-7 8-5 B 9 3-9 12-9 6 Is + pivot column Interchange rows 1 and 3, (We could have interchanged rows ‘1 andl 2 instead.) Pivot abo 12-9 6 15] ~|3 -7 8-5 8 9 0 3-6 6 4 -s] Pivot pass 12-9 6 15] ~|o 2 -4 4 2 -6 [0 3 -6 6 4 -5] Pivot [ 3:9) uw =9 6 15 0 24-4 4 2-6 ~[0 3 -6 6 4-5 {New pivot column 12-99 6 15] -4 4 2-6 oo 1 4] 12 =9 6 15) 4 4 2 -6 0 0 144] L Pivot [ 3-9 12 -9 0 -9] ~]0 2-4 4 0 -I4 [to 0 0 o 1 4] 3-9 12 -9. 0 -9 7/0 1-2 2 0-7 lo 0 0 0 1 4 a Scanned with CamScannera 10 MATHEMATICS - I 30-6 9 0 -72 ~“}0 1-2 2 0 -7 0 0 0 0 1 4: 1 0-2 3 0 ~24 “JO 1-2 2 0 -~7 0 0 0 o 1 4 This is the reduced echelon form of The combination of stey which produces the uni the original matrix. pS 1-4 is called the forward phase of the row reduction algorithm. Step 5, ique reduced echelon form, is called the backward phase. Solution of Linear System a Bi s The row reduction algorithm leads to the solution set of a linear system when the algorithm is applied to the augmented matrix of the system. Suppose; for example, that the au equivalent reduced echelon form ! 0-5 ] omi4 0 000 There are three variables because the augmented matrix has four columns. Here, 1* and 24 column are pivot column, So the variables x; and x2 in the matrix are basic variables and the 3" column is rot a pivot column so xs is the free variable. The associated system of equations is m-5x21 mtd o=0 Hence general solution is igmented matrix of a linear system has been changed into the Example 10: Find the general solution of th: ¢ linear system whose augmented matrix has been reduced to 2300 4 220 7 oom 4 Solution Here, has 6 column, so havi ing 5 variables. Among them, x, and x; are free variables because column Ist, 2nd and Sth pivot in 3rd and 4th column. ‘The associated system is, x2 and xs are basic variables and x are pivot column and there has n0 1 ~2xy + Bq 24 ¥2~ 2x3 + 2x4 = -7 x54. Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra @ Cunrrent AL From above system we have, 3) 7-24 + 2xy - 3x Xp = -7 + 2ry = Qe. xs free, x4 free. xs =4 (fixed). This is required general solution. Existence and Uniqueness Questions In our study of linear system, we observed that sometimes, the linear system consists free variable (or free variables) and sometimes there is no one such free variable exist. If, the system has free variable then the system will satisfied by many different solutions (as different value of the free ‘yariable). This means the solution have infinitely many solutions. On the other hand, if a system has no one free variable then the solution will unique. The following theorem leads the concept: (2 (Existence and Uniqueness Theorem) f ae A linear system is consistent if and only ifthe rightmost column of the augmented matrix is | not a pivot column. (That is, a linear system has solution if and only if an echelon form of the augmented matrix has no row of the form [0 0... 0b] with b = 0). If the system is consistent then the solution set contains either unique solution when there is no free variable or at solutions when there is at least one free variable. Example 11: Illustrate by an example that a system of linear equation has either no solution or exactly one solution. Solution. Consider linear equations x+y =5andx+y=3. which shows system is inconsistence (because last row is a form of [0 0b], where b #0) so has no solution. Consider the linear equations xty=3 x-y=1 Augmented matrix is E 13 1411 -} 13 0 2 Which shows system is consistence (because last row is not a form of [0 0 bl, where b # 0) and x: and x; are basic variable but there has no free variables so has exactly one solution. a Scanned with CamScanner12 MATHEMATICS - II Example 12: Solve the following system of linear equations, if consistent. 2x-3y +7255 3x+y-32=13 2x + 19y - 472 = 32 Solution: The augmented matrix of given system is, 2-3 7 5 3.1 3 #] 2 19: -47 32 Applying Re > R-3R and Ry Ry-Ri then a 0 11/2 -27/2 1/2 o 2 Bb D7 237 5 on -7 ll 0 2 -54 27. Applying Rs — Ry -2Ra then Applying R: + 2Re then Bae ou 27 in oo 0 5 “Applying R; + Ri/2 and Ry R,/11 then 1 3/2 7/2. 5/2 oO 1 zm 1 0 0 0 5 3 Applying Ri > Ri +3 Re then 10 B/l 4 01 -27n 1], oo 0 5 Here, the last row is in form of [0 0 0 bJ,b#0. so, system is inconsistent. Example 13: Determine the value of h and k so that system of linear equation xi+3u=2 and 3u + hk: =k has infinite many solution. Solution: The Augmented matrix of given system is, Be ZT 3h. k Applying R:—+ Ro -3R; 1. 3 2a. 0 h-9 - 3-2] iSechelon form. For infinite solution in above echelon form must has at least one free variable, soh-9 = 0 and 3k-2=0 ie, h=9andk =2/3 ie katt J Scanned with CamScanneryxample 14: If one row in an echelon form of an augmented matri Linear Equations in Linear Algebra’@ CHAPTER 1 associated linear system is inconsistent. Solution: Given that an augmented matrix has a row of the form [0 0. 0.5]. So, the associated equation to the row is, Ox + O.x2 + O25 =5. => 0+0+055. => 055, 13 is [0 0 0 5] then the This is not possible. This means, the system has no solution. So, the linear system is inconsistent. 1. Determine the values of h such that the matrix is the augmented matrix of a consistent linear system of é 4] of y 3 2. Find the value of h and k so that the system has (a) () many solutions for the system of equation. @) mthe=2 4x +8n=k (i) 1 +3x2=2 3x + hxr=k 3, Find the general solutions of the systems whose augmented matrices are: [i 3 4 ® G 97 6 4. Solve the following systems: @) 2+3y +42=20 B+ dy +52.=26 Bx +5y + 62=31 of 37 Gi) m-3%5=8 Day + 22 + 9x3 = 7 x2 + 5x9 = -2. 5. Determine if the system is consistent. @ 1 4+3x5=2 2-314 =3 2x2 + 3x5 + 2xy=1 3x +74 = 5 1 () h=7/2(i)hz-6 2 (i) @h=2Zandkz8 (i) (@)h=9,k26 = 25-3x, 3 @ fe is free mes. @@y,2)= 2,3) 5. () Consistent (i) 2-8x=8 2y - 3x2 + 25-1 Bx - 8x2 + 7x3 = 1 (Qe) h#2 () hed +55 x ji) x25 + 6x3 mer i) 63,1) (i) Consistent (©) h=2andk=8 (©) h=9andk=6 m= 4/3.x2 -2/3 x5 (ii) 4 2s free xs is free Scanned with CamScanner no solution (b) a unique solution and14 MATHEMATICS - I 1.3 Vector Equations = In the study of linear system, the position of notation plays a vital role, Sometimes the position notation may able to affect the solution. The vector is strict in the sense to determination Of position of variables and notation. This means the idea of vector is useful in the study of linear system, Vectors in R? Definition (Column and Row Vectors) ‘A matrix with only one column is called a column vector and a matrix with only one row is called arow vector. » a satus Examples 15: ou-G] ave] a wen 2 Here (j) and (fi) are column vectors and (iii) is a row vector.” Definition (Equal Vectors)” ‘Two vectors in R? are equal if and only if their correspon. the vectors are notequal. 7 — @y u-[2'] ana v=[%'], (i) u-[3] anav=[3].- Here in (i), u= vif u, = vi and u2= v2. are equal, Otherwise, But in (ii), u and v are not equal because 3 2 however 2 = 2. Sum of two vectors . The addition of two vectors in R? means the sum of corresponding entries of the vectors. For an instance if v=[e aay -[] then sum of u and v is defined as, 2f"], [or] fart ve oeve[o))-fare: 3 Example 17:16 =[3] andv=[3]. Then Els 3al*Ls sm fT ec *, If u’=[,, |in R? and c be a scalar then the' multiplication of u by c is denoted by cu and is defined as _f™] [eur cwmefta] [Eu]. ut Scalar multiple of a vector: Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra @ Cuarren1 15 3 sample ttu=[] "and e=11 then -n|[3] [23 w=n[y] -[2. Geometric descriptions of R? and R= ‘onsider a rectangular coordinate system in a plane, Since each point in the plane is determined by an Zuni pairs of numbers. This means the-vector RE in R? is a point in R2. Since the vector representation is arbitrary in B®, This means the vector in R?is a set ofall points in the plane. Likewise, the vector R’ is the set of all points in space because R® contains vector with three ‘ay entries |). c. ‘As similar, the vector R® is the set of all points in n-dimensional space where each vector represented as w w us Un, Algebraic properties of R" Forall u, v and w in Rand all scalars c and d, @ utveveu (i) c(utv)=cutev (i) (atvytweut(vtw) (vy) (+duscutdu () ut0=0+u=u (vi) ¢(du) = d(cu) = (¢d)u (vi) u+(-u)=u-u=0 (viii) Lu=u1=u Definition (Linear. Combinations) we Given vectors ur, Uo, . . ., Un in R* and given scalars ci, ¢,. ... Cy and if the vector yi defined by yeh tau +... Cate then y is called a linear combination of uy, uz, ... Un With cy @ « scalars ct, Cx. Cy-are called weights for the combination: Note: A vector y € R® is linear combination of vectors ws, ux, Us, - . . Un in RY, if linear system with augmented matrix [u; uz ... Us yl] represents consistence system ie. equation xu1 + xou2 +... +Xaun = y is consistence. | Definition (Subset of R" Spanned by Vectors) z z ft, uy, .... ua are in R” then the set of all linear combinations of the vectors i denote fur u, .:., un} and is called subset of Rn spanned (or generated) by vectors: te Un ‘Thus, the span {t, to,” ., un} can be written with weights Gn ch sits Forti +. + nll ‘A vector b is in span {uy uw - caas 2 sah | Us) if Linear system with augmented matrix [ur uz... un b] represent the consistence system. Notes 6) a Viva... val contain each v, i=1, 2, ....n because = Ov; + Ov2+ vi +.-. Om Note: Scanned with CamScannera? 16 MATHEMATICS = Ut QW spanty We... Val comtain ser VeRteT also, ROWS ORO FORE OY Example 18: tew-[3] anctv=[ 7], snow arf }istnesqan in VEER ARE ant Solution: Given, z nN af] anto{t] The augmentedt mateix (KOE FANE DIS wes Ltd “ls a a [applying Bo 2h) NT 1 nea +s arabvans YR “fit abtal Mappbing ga gyal b= 2/2] 1 cuaichenibheoai —it nae apphying BRAY This shows that the solution of the augmentect MAH eXists fae all vaio ad A aia 6. is Span ta wh Note: If the augmented matrix form of tinear combination is treansisteart thar the verte bro ne span the given vectors Geometric Description of Span {v} and Span {u, v] iW RY Let v bea non-zero vector in R* then Span (vis the set af all veetous itn the fOr ow oe with ¢ isa scalar, ; Clearly the form (i) is linear and has one dimension ¥. 80. it repteseNts @ Ling Araugh ag ‘Therefore, the geometrical representation of Span (yi tigen Re containing ongin similar, if u, v are non-zero vectors in RA then: SPAN VERO a set af al weotora fa the fun qutey ssi) the form (i) fs two dimensional, Therefore, the equation (i) rmpresents @ WO’ containing the otigin. Example 20: Let a, -[3} a 3] and b {i} For what vatue af h ts btu the plane aganned dy & anda? Solution: We have if xa) +238 = b has solution, then b ia tn the plane spanned by avantay Let bis in the plane spanned by ay ancl ax $0, the equation, Are b has solution for A= [aya] Scanned with CamScanner17 Linear Equations in Linear Algehra ® CHAPTER 1 Here the augmented matrix of Ax = bis, 1-2 4 4°31 2 7h Apply Rr Rz-4R: and Rs -> Rs + 2R; then, . 1-2 4 - [2 5-15 —~ 0 3) has. ‘Again apply R: -> Ro/5 and Ra -> Rs/3. Then 1-2 4 [a 1 43 | 0 1 (a+8)/3, Again apply Rs > Ry-Re then 1-2 04 01. 3 0 0 jn. Glearly, the matrix gives solution only if hei7_ 720. => he-17, ‘Thus, for h = -17, the vector bis in the plane spanned by a, and a2. 1.4 The Matrix equation Ax = b Example 21: Rewrite the following system of linear equation.as the form Ax = b. xX +2n-xy 84 5x, + 3x = 1. be Solution: Given system of linear equations be Ht In-med 5x2 + 3x3 = 1. This can be written as, - 4 (3 silt) => Areb. - 4 vowel 5 3] aft] oe o-Li) : ‘concept of the example leads by the following theorem. a Scanned with CamScanneri) 18 = MATHEMATICS «11 Theorem 3: If A is an mxn matrix with colimns Ay, .., an and b is in R™, the matrix equi Ar=b has the same solution set as the vector equation. May + a+... + Xan =D ation which in turn, has the same solution set as the system of linear equations whose augment matrix is far a2... an bh Importance of the Theorem: The theorem pointed that a problem can be represented in three ways (i) as a matrix equ ator (ii) as a vector equation and (ji) as a system of linear equation. This means we can switch fron, one formulation of a problem to another whenever it is convenient. Existence of Solutions ‘The equation Ax = b has a solution if and only if b is a linear combination of the columns of A, Note that if the augmented matrix in echelon form have a row as the form [0 0 O 1) then the system i inconsistent being the last most column is an pivot column. Theorem 4: Let A be an mn matrix’ Then the followirig statements are equivalent. (@) Foreach b in R, the equation Ax = b has a solution. (b) Each b in Reis a linear combination of the columns of A. (©) The columns of A span R". (d) A has a pivot position in every row. Note: The theorem (d) means only for coefficient matrix A but not forthe augment matrix of Ax= b. 13 0 3 Example 22: Leta =|} 7 ts 2003 4 (i) Does the equation Ax = b has a solution for each b ¢ RY, Gi) Does column of A span r‘. (iil) Can each b € Rtis linear combination of column of A. Solution. Al above equations answer will give by knowing A has pivot position in every row or not? Here, T 3 3 i - 0-4 8 200 5 By elementary row operation, we reduced it into echolon form 1 3 0 3 a 0 A 2 3 a4 Cr ) o 00 Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra @ CHAPTER 1 19 So having pivot in 1st, 2nd and 4th row, but not in 3rd row. Thus {) Ax=bhas no solution for each b ¢ Rt Column of A doesn't span R', )) Each b e R¢ can't be the linear combination of column of A. | Theorem 5: If A is an mn matrix, u/and v are vector in Rand © alscalany |W) AWty)=AutAv. (i) Au) =c(Aw. 13 + 0 4 Bxample 23:LetA=|-3 2 6 |, v,=|-3],v2=|-1| andc=5, Show that: 5-1-8 8 5 @) Attw)= (i) Alen) = (Avy). Solution: Here, 1-3 -4)707] fo+9-32) [23 Av=|-3 2 6 |}-3] =|0-6+48| =| 42 |. 5 -1 -8jL8J Lo+3-64] |-61, vi + Ave. and, 1 3 474 443-20] [-13 Ava=|-3 2 6'|/-1] =|-12-2+30] =| 16 5 a ils} La+1-40) Lay, Also, . 07 747 74 vitve=|-3]+]-1] =| -4]- 8) Ls} Lis, Then, 1 3 174] [4412-52] [36 Awitv)=|-3 2 6 ||-4]=|-12-8+78]=| 58 5 -1 -8}l13} [20+4-104] |-80 Now, (i) 23) [-13] [-36 Avi + Av2=| 42 [+] 16 |=] 58 |= A(vi + v2) -1} L-19} [-80. i) : 23] fi (Avi) =5] 42 | =| 210 |. 5 61} [-305. and 1 3 47/70 ' Afen)=|-3 2.6 1(93 : 5 -1 - 8 1-3 -4]7 07] fo+45-160) p-115 =|-3 2 6||-15| =|0-30+240/=| 210 5 -1 -8|L40}» Lo+15-320. a Scanned with CamScannerMATHEMATICS ~ I ‘Compute (u + v) and (3u - 2v) when 6 3 1 ls 0 o-[3] [2], (i) a-[ 3] mee 2 s Determine if b is a linear combination of ay, a2 and as. 1 0 5 2 0 9/3] ft} nef 3} 0-[4] 0 2 8 6 1 0 2 5 co {3 [5]. nef] 0]. 2 5 8 -7. Determine if b is a linear combination of the vectors formed the columns of the matrix A. 1 4 2 3 6 a-[2 3 5} [3] 2 8 4 -3. 1 2 6 Tt i) A=|0 3. 7] p=] -s]. 12 5 9 Find the value of h so that vector b is in span (u, v). 1 2 4 @ [fF i) -2 7, h. 7 5 * i) u=|1],v=|3|o=]1 -6. 0. e [33] bisa linear combination of ay, az and a5. bis nota linear combination of ay, a and ay, (bis nota linear combination of columns of A. (ii) bisa linear combination of columns of A. @ bisSpaniy,v)whenh=-17, i) bisSpantu, v] when ==! b does not lies on Span {u, v} 6. inconsistent for every b Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra @ CHAPTER 1 21 Definition (Homogeneous Linear Syste linear systems is called homoresnnny geneous if it can be written in the form Ax = 0 where A is mxn matrixand Obe a null matrix ofordermx1. ne Definition (Trivial and nonchivi Let Ax = 0 be a homogeneous linear systems. ‘The equations Ax = 0 always has one’ solution x= O.where 0 is zero vector (null vector), such solution is called trivial solution. And, the non-zero solution of the equation Ax = 0 is called non-trivial solution. 3 Note that, the equation will have such a non-trivial solution if and only if the equation has at least one free variable. Example 24: Determine if the system has a trivial solution x1- 3% +7 =0 ~2a, +m ~ 45 =0 M1 + 22 +945 =0, Solution: Given system of linear equations be 1-32 +715 =0 2x1 + 2-day =0 1 + 2x2 + 9x5 = 0, The augmented matrix of the linear system is 13 70 2 1 40 12 9 0 13 7 ~°0 R2R2 + 2R, ~]0 -5 10 0} tapplying [ 5 2 4 PNB Ro RRs 7 10 Peal <|0 O| [apply Rs Rs + Ry] 00 Mo. 4 ‘The pivot are in Ist, 2nd and 3rd column. So, x1, x2 and x are basic variables and having no free variables. Thus the system has trivial solution. Example 25: Determine if the system has a non-trivial solution. 2x; - 5m + 8x3 =0 2x - Trt =0 4x, + 2x: + 703 = 0, Solution: The augmented matrix of given system of linear equation is, 2580 2-710 F x 4 27 0 Fee oii RoR +R ~|0 12 9 A [Apply p> Rs-2R: o 12 -9 0 ' Scanned with CamScanner— Bewielisees”" 22 © MATHEMATICS ~"l 5 8 0 129 ‘ [Apply Rs Rs + Ral 0 0 O. 2 0 0 2 6 8 0 0 4 3. | [Apply Re R:/3] 0 0 0 0. 2-5 8 0 0 1 -3/4 ‘ [Apply Rr Re/-4) 00 0 °@ 0 17/4 0 Jo @ -3/4 0} [Apply Ri Bi + SR) 00 0 0. st and 2nd, so basic variable are xi and xz and x) is @ free variable. So, Here, pivot column are 1 c the given system Ax = 0 has non-trivial solution ‘The last matrix gives, 7 meZneo 2 naZn. 3 3 e-pyr0 | mT 4gH. 0-0 = x= free. ‘Thus, the system has the general solution of Ax = in the form xi] [1710/8 -17/8)° x=|n[=| 31/4 | =x] 3/4 J=xv. x x a Hence, the given system has non-trivial solution x = 3 v. Note: In this case, the solution is set is Span {v). If the equation has only one free variable, then the solution set is a line through origin. If the equation has two free variables then the solution is a plane containing origin. Likewise the solution has different geometry as the number of free variables involve in the equation. Also, if the equation ‘Ax = 0 has only 0as its solution then the solution set is Span (0} and it is a point origin. Parametric vector equation: In above example, we observe the solution of the linear system is in x = x3v (for x3 is free) then the form x = tv (for teR) is called parametric vector equation and vector notation of this solution is called parametric vector form, If the linear systems has non-trivial solution as x = x2u + xav (when two variables x2 and xs are free) “then the parametric equation is x = su + tv (for s, teR). Solutions of non-homogeneous systems A tae systems of the fi Ax = b is a non-homogeneous linear systems. The solution of such non-homogeneous systems can be written in parametric vector for ing] us @ vector form that satisfy the corresponding Meseensocs system, aes Scanned with CamScannerPe 3 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra @ CHAPTER 1 2 26; Determine the solution in parametric vector form of the following linear systems: wy t3x2ta5 21 Hx, = 9x2 + 25 = 1 3 -3x, ~ 6x3 = -3. sgaition: Te augmented matrix form ofthe given linear system is, 13°11 4-9 2 -1 03 4 4 13 104 ~}0 3 6 3] [Apply R:>R+4Ri] pxample 0 3 6 ~ 13 17 ~|0 3 6 3 Appl + [a a ia 4] apply RoR, Ri] 3.11 fi 2 i So system is a consistent 0000 Here, Istand 2nd column have a pivot so% and x are basic and x: is a free variable. 10 5 4 ~{O 1 2 1 000 0 This gives, w-5 wat 2n= xjisa free ‘Therefore, the general solution of the system has the form x =2 + 5x3 -2) 5 x=] m| =| 1-2 |=] 1 |+x|-2]. Xs. x 0 1 => xeptnv ForteR, x=ptiv be parametric equation of solution of given system. Note that, the vector x = p is the particular solution of the linear system and x = tv be solution of homogeneous part of given linear system. In above example, we observe that the system Ax = 0 has solution x = tv arid the system Ax = b has solution x = p + tv. This means if the equation has effect b then the solution x = tv translated by p to x = p + ty. ‘ Thus, the relation between the solution of Ax = band Ax = is the translation. The following theorem gives the precise statement. ‘Ag = Bi Consistent for some given biand let p ofall vectors of the form w =p + vx where: Pag Note: Ifthe equation Ax = b has no solution then the solution set is empty. This means there will not be any translated value. > Scanned with CamScannerMATHEMATICS - I possible. 1 6x+4y=2 2 xtytz=6 3. xty-259 3x —5y =-34 x-y+z=5 By +62 =-6 Br+y+z=8 2x + dy -62=40 4, dy ¥32=8 5. 7x-4y-22=-6 6. 2 t+5x2+ 60 =13 dx-2=2 16x + 2y +2=3, 3x +x2-4x3=0 3x+2y=5 3173x283 = -10, Determine, if the following homogeneous system has a non-trivial solution. @ 3x14 5x2-45=0 = 3847 xa + 4x0 = 0 6x1 +x2-Bx5 = 0 (i) x1 +3-5x=0 X1 + doe- Bxs = 0 ~ 3 - 7x2 + 9x3 = 0 1. x=-3,y=5 Inconsistence, no solution, 5. 1 neasten-3-tor0emx-] 8]en] 0. 1 4/3 “4 @ sa | (ii) «=»{3] I 1 Scanned with CamScannerYr 5 ciulil curr = -25 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra @ 1.5 Applications of Lincar System el sectors, and the 27; Suppose an economy consists of the Coal, Electric (power), and Ste ‘ peample e Coal ic (power), A ei entries itpatof each sector is distributed among the various sectors as shown in table, faa column represent the fractional parts of a sector's total output. «second column of Table, for instance, says that the total output of the Electric sector is Jivided 28 follows: 40% to Coal, 50% to Steel, and the remaining 10% to Electric. Since all output siyst be taken into account, the decimal fractions in each column must sum to 1. penote the prices (i, dollar values) of the total annual outputs of the Coal, sectors by Pc Pe and Ps respectively. If possible, find equilibrium prices that income match its expenditures. Electric, and Steel make each sector's Asimple economy Distribution of Output from Coal Electric Steel Purchased by 0.0 os 06 Coal 06 o1 02 Electric o4 05 02 Steel Solution ‘A sector looks down a column to see where its output goes, and it looks across.a row to see what it needs as inputs. For instance, the first row of Table says that Coal receives (and pays for) 40% of the Flectric output and 60% of the Steel output. Since the respective values of the total outputs are pe and ps Coal must spend .4pe dollars for its share of Electric's output and .6ps for its share of Steel's ulput. Thus Coal's total expenses are 4pe + .6ps. To make Coal's income, pc, equal to its expenses, we want pe* dpe +.6ps (1) Finally, the third row of the exichange table leads to the final requirement: ps=4pc+.5pe+2ps (2) ‘To solve the system of equations (1), (2), and (3), move all the unknowns to the left sides of the equations and combine like terms. Pe- Ape 6ps = 0 ~ 6pc + Spe -.2ps=0 - 4pe-.5pe+ 8ps=0 Row reduction is next. For simplicity here, decimals are rounded to two places. 1 -4 -6 0) fi -4 -6 0) [1 -4 -6 O 9 -2 0|-/0 66 -56 0|~|0 66 -56 0 -5 8 0} lo -« 56 oJ lo 0 0 © 1-4 -6 0) [1 0 -98 0 ~|0 1 -85 O|~/0 1 -85 0 oo 0 of loo oO ©. The general solution is pe = 0.94p. pe = 0.85ps, and ps is free. The equilibrium price vector for the economy has the form a Scanned with CamScanner26 = MATHEMATICS - II ‘The general solution is pe =.94ps, pe =.85ps, and ps in free. The equilibrium price vector for the economy ‘has the form. re 94 ps 94 =| pe | =| -85ps | = ps] 85 ps Ps ' ‘Any (rionnegative) choice for ps results in a choice of equilibrium prices. For instance, if we take p, be 100 (or $100 million), then pe = 94 and pr = 85. The incomes and expenditures of each sector wil be equal if the output of Coal is priced at $94 million, that of Electric at $85 million, and that of Sic at $100 million, Balancing Chemical Equations Chemical equations describe the quantities’ of substances consumed and produced by chemical reactions. For instance, when propane gas burns, the propane (C:He) combines with oxygen (0}) to form carbon dioxide (CO;) and water (F120), according to an equation of the form (a) Hs + (:)O2 > (xe)CO2 + (eJFLO (4) To 'balance' this equation, a chemist must find whose numbers x1, ...., Xs such that the total numbers of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (0) atoms on the left match the corresponding numbers of atoms on the right (because atoms are neither destroyed nor created in the reaction). A systematic method for balancing chemical equations is to set up a vector equation that describes the numbers of atoms of each type present in a reaction, Since equation (4) involves three types of atoms (carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen), construct a véctor in R® for each re reactant and product in (4) that lists the numbers of "atoms per molecule" as follows: x 0 1 0] < Carbon CsHe:| 8}, Ox:| 0), COx| 0 |, H,0:| 2] — Hydrogen 0. 2 + Oxygen To balance equation (4), the coefficients xa, ...., x must satisfy HG -Ell To solve, move all the terms to the left (changing the signs in the third and fourth vectors); Ell -E)-E}e] Row reduction of the augmented matrix for this equation leads to the general solution wig samba X1= 94 3 7X4 X= Fy With x free, Since the coefficients in a chemical equation must be integers, take x= 4, in which case »1 = x2=5, and x3 = 3. The balanced equation is GsHy + 502 - 3CO; + 4H,0. ‘The equation would also be balanced if, for example, each coefficient were doubled. For most Purposes, however, chemists prefer to use a balanced equati 5 mallest possible whole numbers. inced equation whose coefficients are the s — Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra ® CxaereR 1-27 Je 28: The Network in figure shows the traffic flow (in vehicles per hour) over several one- ‘Examp! . teay streets in downtown Baltimore during a typical early afternoon. Determine the general flow pattern for the network. aven $e South. Lombant st. [by Figure: Baltimore streets. Solution Write equations that describe the flow, and then find the general solution of the system. Label the street intersections (junctions) and the unknown flows in the branches, as shown in figure. At each intersection, set the flow in equal to the flow out. Intersection_| Flow in Flow out, A 300 + 500 = x tx B xox = 300 + x5 & 100 + 400 = xy tXS D xitxs = 600 ‘Also, the total flow into the network (600 + 300 + 100 * 400) equals the total flow out of the network (300 + xs + 600), which simplifies to x5 = 400. Combine this equation with a rearrangement of the first four equations to obtain the following system of equations: xa x2™ 800 X2-%3 + X4= 300 xa +x5 = 500 x1 + x5 = 600 x3 = 400 Row reduction of the associated augmented matrix leads to x + x5 = 600 xa-%5 = 200 x= 400 xat x5 = 500 ‘The general flow pattern for the network is described by xy = 600 Xs 2 = 20045 y= 400 jx = 500 — 35 sis free A negative flow in a network branch corresponds to flow in the direction opposite to that shown on the model. Since the streets in this problem are one-way, none of the variables here can be negative. This fact leads to certain limitations on the possible values of the variables. For instance, xs < 500 use x4 cannot be negative. Scanned with CamScanner28 MATHEMATICS - Il 1.6 Linear Independence An equation of the form Ax = 0 may have different type of solutions. The Vector form 5 ‘Ax = O gives either trivial or non-trivial solution forthe linear system Ax = 0. If the solution yy trivial then the set of vectors of v is linear independent.and v is dependent ifthe solution =, non-trivial. . | Definition (Linearly independent and dependent) The set of vectors (vi, ... Vo] in Ris called linearly independent if the vector equation XV + X22... + XaVn FO implies x1 = 0= x2=...= Xy The set of vectors (v1, «., Va) in Ris called linearly dependent if the vector equation Xavi + xQV2 +. AXA =O” implies not all » are zero forj =1,...,n. How to check the given set of vectors are linearly independent and linearly dependent? | * Tocheck set of vectors (vi, vz... V4} linearly independent or linearly dependent. () Write the vector equation xvi + xav2 +... + xvi = 0, where x; are scalar. (i) Write the augumented matrix [vi v2 va... vi] (ili) Change the augumented matrix to echelon form * I there has atleast one free variable [vector equation having non-trivial solution) then se of vector are linearly dependent. * Ifthere has no free variable [vector equation having trivial solution) then set of vectors a linearly independent. 5 ‘ T 4 z Example 29: Let v: =| 2), v.=|5], vs=|1 3. 6. 0. (@) Determine the set vs, vz vs} is linearly dependent or independent. (b) If the vectors are dependent, find the relation between them, Solution: (@) The augmented matrix form of the vector equation of given vectors is, 1420 2510 3 60 0, 14 . lp Se 4 [Applying 8 Re- 28 0 <6 Seo "8 Ry Ry-3R: [ 4200 ~|9 -3 -3 01 [Applying Rs Ry-2R, 00 0 | [Applying Rs —> Rs - 2Ry [: 420 ’ -}0 1100 Appl o000 [Apply Rz — R2/(-3) [ 020 ~|0 1 1 0 Awe RS 0° O°"o [Applying Ri > R-4R, —d Scanned with CamScannerLinear Equations in Linear Algebra ® CHAPTER 29) Here, 0 is free variable, so having non-trival solution. Hence, given set of vectors are linearly dependent. (}) Forrelation between them m-2950 > =2x5 mtn=0) sna 0-0 Saye ree, This shows that the given vectors are linearly dependent being x5 is free. Asa particular, for x3 = 1, then we get x2 = 1 and 11 = 2. ‘Then, the relation between vi, v2, Vs is 2vi-vatvs=0. Example 30: Determine if the vectors v1, v2, vs are linearly independent? AE) Solution: The augment matrix form of the vector equation of (v1, Vi, va} is, 57 9 «0 0240 0 6 8 0, 5 0 mi F 4 {Apply Rs - Rs + 3Ra] 0 0. 5 0 Rs Rs/4 -[: | Apply Ra» Ra/2 0 4 [Apply Ro—> Ro - 2Rs} 0 0) [Apply Ri > Ri-7Ra] 0 9 | [Apply Ri > Ri - 9B} CHo oFo oFo ofS oF Onn Roo Hoo How How BNO BRO 0 4 [Apply R: > Ri/5] Here has no free variables, This implies x1 = 0, x2 = 0, x3 = 0. This means the system has only the trivial solution and the set of vectors are linearly independent. Scanned with CamScanner30 = MATHEMATICS - II Linearly Independence of Matrix Column Let A= [ar az .. ag] be a matrix. Then the equation Ax = 0 can be written as Mart mart...+xpan=0. From this, we observe that each column of A corresponds to a non-trivial solution of Ax ay whenever the columns determine linear dependence relation to the column. Fact: The columns of a matrix A are linearly independent if and only if the equation Ax = 0 has oy trivial solution. That i, the columns of a matrix A are linearly independent if and only i yy echelon form of A has no free variables. Example 31: Determine if the columns of the matrix 01 4 A=|1 2 = 8 0 are linearly independent. Solution: The augmented matrix of Ax = 0 be, ‘ or 4 o 12-10 5 8 0 0. 12 40 [i 1 4 ‘| [interchanging Ist and 2nd row and then apply Rs-> Rs 58] [: 2-10 ~10 M 4 0 hh 00 fo. [Apply Rs > Rs + 2R] Here, x1, xsand x3 are basic variable and has no free variabl ivi i meant chun fA ed hs 0 free variable So there exist trivial solution. This Characterization of Linearly Dependent Sets {a) A set of a vector {vi} is i if i i pac adertier! tv rt linearly dependent if vi = 0. This means, the set {vi} is linearly © thecines nar Oe 2 Ss linearly dependent ifat least one of the vectors isa multiple o of the other: arly independent if and only if neither of the vectors is a multiple (©) A set of vectors {v1, ..., va} of tive is lis A set ects ry “a is 2 linea nore ects is linearly dependent if and only if atleast a linear combinatic necessarily should have linearly combinetnay Meet But note that, not all vector Theorem 7: If a set contains) more vectors linearly dependent. That is, a set of vectors (v, aes fie dependent. : Ge 3 Proof: Let A= [vi,...» vo) with vi R". Then A is men matrix and ; 5 scale {0 Lt, Ten there sa 8 oopodig tn echelon augmented matrix into echelon form. This means there must be a free ' wriable (at least cone free variables), so, Ax = 0 has a nontrivial soliition, Therefore, the cohitins of A are linearly dependent. * Scanned with CamScanneri 1 Linear Equations in Linear Algebra @ Cuarrer 1 is linearly dependent. in RP contains the zero vector then the set Proof Let = (Vi Yo it R" contains the zero vector, $0 let vi ‘assume that x; = 0 for all i= 2,... ....m with xi #0 then avi # Ova ts ve + On = 0 ‘This means the set is has non-trival solution, so the set of vectors s is linearly dependent. Example 32: Determine if the given sets are linearly dependent 1] £2] [3] [4 AL 2) [0] pr of LEFE | | -[25] o/3]fof]2 Ss} Lol 15118 ao] Las. on he Solution: (a) Here, vs, vz Vs, vs € R®. Since there are 4 vectors but 3 integers ie. 4> 3. Given set of vectors are linearly dependent. (&) Let 2 3 4 6 w=] g | andve=|_9 10. 15. Here, 2] £37 [0 - o snvmed t]95]=] 2 Jeo iol L415] Leo. viand v, are linearly independent. (Let, 207 A=|3 01 5 0 8. Since the set of vectors A contains a zero vector (second column is zero vector). So A is linearly dependent. 1. Are the following sets of vectors linearly dependent? If yes, find the relation between them. RE te EE 1) 2) [2 17 2) fo 27-5] pa wee) = EIR BENE] 81 Ls} Ls. a 2415 —_ Scanned with CamScannerON 2. Determine ifthe columns of the matrix form a linearly independent set. Justty each 7 aNswey, > 14 30 os ie ww [2 7 5 1 7 eo 457 5, 3. Determine for what value of , is {v1, vz, vs) linearly dependent? vGlefdof] a ofi}s]efy ol El 32 MATHEMATICS - II 1. ()_Linearly independent (i) _Linearly independent (iii) Linearly independent (iv) Linearly dependent (¥) Linearly dependent (vi) Linearly independent 2 (i Linearly independent (i) Linearly dependent 3. @ Anyvalue ofh (i) h=6 (ii) Any value of h. nae _d Scanned with CamScannerLEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter you should be able to: 3. Introduction to Linear Transformations 7° The Matrix of a Linear Transformations 7% Linear Models in Business, Science and Engineering Scanned with CamScanner34 MATHEMATICS - II 2.1 Introduction to Linear Transformations — —— — We have already studied about the equation Ax = b. This shows that every value of Ldn ASSocia, with A that gives the value b of particular Ax. Such association is a transformation. | This concept generalizes the following definition. Definition (Transformation or Funciion or Mapping) A transformation T from R* to R™ (noted as T: R* > Ro) is a rule that assigns each y in R* toa vector T(x) in R™, In such condition, R" is domain of T and R" is co-domain ector of T, Definition (Domain, Co-domain, Image and Range of a Transformation) Let T: R" > Reis a transformation. Then the set R* is domain and R™ is co-domain off, And, for xis R*, the value T(x) in R= is called image of x under the transformation T. The se of all such images of x under T (ie. T(x)) is called the range of T. 2 Example 1: Let A =[5 J be the given matrix and define T: R? -> R? by T(x) = Ax. Find the images under T of u -[3] andv= [2] . 2 0 Solution: Let A= [o 1] and the transformation T: R? -> R? defined by T(x) = Ax. Also, let w-[3] aaive[2]. Then ro-au-[s SlLa)-[3) and 7 toear-[5 Sl2)-[]- Thus, the images of u and v under Tare[ 2] and [i] # Matrix transformation In above example T is a transformation that transforms a matrix u(or v) to T(x) (or T(v)) which is again a matrix. This concept develops the idea of matrix transformation, nition (Matrix Transformation): For éach x RX, TG) is compited ag Ax € Re) where A myn matrix behaves as transformation operator. 1 4 2 3 3 Heample Zeta A'= |. Slime IE },%=]2], ¢=]2| ama define a transformation % 25) SLs. T: R?> R? by T(x) = Axsso that (a) find T(u). (b) Find x in R? whose image under Tis b. (c) Is there more than one x whose image under T is b? (d) Determine if c is in the range of T. —_ Scanned with CamScanner‘Transformations @ CxarTER2 35 1 < w a 2 3 5),u=|3|,b=| 2 =|2], [3 ] [5] [:]ow i - Given that the transformation T : R? + R3 by T(x) = Ax. Now, 1 3 243 S Zz nwAx=b -2 3]t-(] . Solution: Let ‘The augmented matrix of Ax= bis, 13 3 [: 5 | 17 5 ‘lj ws Ri R2-3Ri 0 2 TAPPIY R-+ Ry + Ri 3 as] [Apply R: > R2/14 2 1 af 0 1 [a 0 1 [ 0 This implies x1 = 1.5 and x; 3 43] [Apply Rs > Ry-4R2 0 15 0: | [Apply Ri > Ri -3Re SHOoH bee ee 05 Thus, x -(43] in R? whose image under T is b. (©) In above solution (b), x has no free variable, so the solution x is unique. This means there is exactly one x in R. whose image under T is b. (4) From (0), there is exactly one range b of T. So, c is not a range of T. Note: For (d) we can proceed as in (b) with replacing value of b by c. Then we will get an inconsistent augmented matrix of Ax = ¢. This implies c is not 2 range of T. Atacand Te) frsom sa Then Tiled oan | when 0. 1. 3 Scanned with CamScanner36 = MATHEMATICS - 11 A transform x Ax has the properties. A(u+v) = Au + Avand A(cu) = cA(u) for any u, v in R® and for any scalar c, This concept leads the idea of linearity. Definition (linearity of transformations) “A transformation (or mapping) T is linear if T(u + v) = T(u) +T(v) for any u, vin domain of T, (cu) = cT(u) for any u in domain of T and for any scalar c. ‘The single equivalent condition for linearity of T is for all «, f € F, u,v domain of T, is Tiau + By) = aT(u) + Bt(v). Note: If T: Rt» Reis a linear then T(0) = 0, if T(0) # 0 then T is not linear. ‘Theorem 1: Let’) R®S R* be a linear transformation. Then there exists a unique matrix A such that T(2) = Ax for all x in R°. In fact, A is m*n matrix whose j* column is the vector T(e) where g is the j* column of the identity matrix in R%: A =[T(e) ~-. T(@)]- Proof: Let 1 0 0 x 0 1 0 xe] fama] ft] f+... txe 0. 0. 1, mer torent... + ayy Let Tis linear. So, TQ) = T(xies + mee +... + xnen) =n Ties) + x2 Tle) +... +9 T(e) a =[Te) Te) ... Tle} =Ax Where 1 A hal ban ++ T(es)] is called standard matrix for linéar transformation T. possible suppose that A is not unique, F : - % PI ‘unique. Then there is a matrix B such that T(x) = Br forall it Therefore, Ar=Br ¥xeR® => (A-B)x=0 ¥xeR Let A - B= C be mxn matrix $o,Cx=0 ¥xeR Scanned with CamScannerTransformations @ CHAPTER2 = 37 Let we choose, x = e1 = Then Cx=0 or C= 0 cre. en PT cc. || 0 me . me Fis: cm m2» emdLol Lo, = cn=0 Similarly, c= 0 ¥ i=1,2,...,nandj=1,2, 2 C0 A-B=0 = A=B This means the matrix A is unique, Example 3: Prove that contraction map is linear transformation. Proof: We know that map T : R? > R® defined by T(x) = rx, where 0 < r < 1 is called contraction map. Letu, v ¢ Rtand cand d are scalar. Then T(cu + dy) = r(cu + dv) =reutrdv = c(ru) + d(ev) T(u) + aT(v) . Tis linear. Example 4: Show that the transformation T defined by They x2) = (2x1 ~ Sz, x1 +4, Sus) is not linear. Solution: Let T is a transformation, defined by T(x, x2) = (2e1 - 3a, x1 + 4, 5x2). Now, T+ v) = T(u + vz ta + v2) = (2(u + v1) - 3(u2 + v2), (un + v1) + 4, 5(u2 + v2) = (2uy + 21 ~ Surg — Svat + vi + 4, Sua + 52) and, ‘T(u) + T(v) = T(us, ws) + T(vi, va) (Quy ~ 3uz, ui + 4, Suz) + (2v1 - Sve, vi + 4, Sva) = (Qu; + 2vi ~ 3u2 ~3va, ti + vi + 8, 5uz + 52) aT). This implies that T is not a linear transformation. Alternatively — ‘Scanned with CamScanner$8 MATHEMATICS ~11 For this transformation Tin) = Qn - Stn th 5) TWH=G 4) [email protected],0 = TW=0 Tis not linear. Tix) =Ax forallxinR" where A is m*n. Clearly Ais unique. Then, A=[Te) Te) ... Ted] matrix for T. Definition (Standard Matix forthe Linear Transformation) ‘Let T: R® > R= bea linear transformation defined by” Example 5: Find the standard matrix A for linear transformation T(x) = 2x for x in R’. Solution: Let T(2) =2r. INR’, Te) =2e1= 3| {J wlll = month Now, the standard matrix A for T(x) = 2x is, Ae Me) Te) Te] =|0 2 of. o 0 Alternatively Given T(x) = 2x ie. T(x, x2 23) = 2x1, 2x2, 2s) a) fx or, Te] =| 2a a1 + Oxz + Ons) =| Oxt + 2x2 + Oxy, a + Ox2 +: 0 x 2/0 2 Ol) o 0 ') re=Aanena-[2 2 8) sein aie o 0 5 _—_—d Scanned with CamScanner where gis the column of the identity matrix in Re Then the matrix A is called the standag |Geometric linear transformations of R? ‘The geometric linear transforntation of R? is a plane that is rotated as the identity. Being the transformation is linear, the geometry are determined completely by what they do to the columns. The images of e: ‘and e7 shows the transformation gives a unit square. Other Transformations of R? is Shown in Following Table. Table 1 Reflections Transformation Reflection through the xraxis Reflection through the xraxis Reflection through the fine x2=x1 Reflection through the line x2=—x1 Reflection through the origin Image of the Unit Square y & 4 4 0 a ‘Transformations @ CHAPTER 2 ‘Standard Matrix Scanned with CamScanner 3940 = MATHEMATICS - II Table 2 Contractions and Expansions Transformation Image of the Unit Square Standard Matrix: —, Horizontal“ k 0 ty contraction 04 and expansion , % 4 0 | Ca No : Y/ 4, rs Ey qi Ol Vertical ‘1 0 contraction [0 & and expansion - pl! x1 * ti Oo ad Scanned with CamScanner‘Transformations @ Cuarren 2 a ‘Table 4 Projections Transformation Tmage of the Unit Square ‘Standard Matrix * ‘1 0" Projection onto [ the x-axis | | 00 = x 1 fl’ Ol Projection onto % o ee [ 1 x Tis one-to-one Tis onto but and onto not one-to-one Proof: Let T: R* > R™is linear transformation. Suppose that T is one-to-one. Then for any xin R*, TG) =0=T0) => x50 [- being T is one-to-one] This means the equation T(x) = 0 has only the trivial solution. Conversely, suppose that the equation T(x) = 0 has only the trivial solution. And, we wish to show T is one-to-one. Scanned with CamScanner42 = MATHEMATICS - II T(u)=T(v)forsomeu, vin Re => Tu)-TWv)=0. = Tu-v)=0, being Tis linear. Since T(x) = 0 has only trivial solution. So, we should have, Take, Tu-v)=0 >u-v=0. suey. Thus, T(u) = T(v) > u=v. ‘This means T is one-to-one. ‘Theorem 3: Let T: R®—> R® be a linear transformation and let A be the standard Matix for, Then, (a) Tmaps R* onto R® if and only if the columns of A span R™, (t)_ Tis one-to-one if and only if the columns of A are linearly independent. Proof: Let T: R"> R" bea linear transformation and let A be the standard matrix for T. (@) Let Tis onto < for each b ¢ R™ 3x € RP such that T(x) = b © foreach b ¢ R™ Ax~=b has solution, where A is mn matrix, 2 column of A span R™. (©) Let Tis one to one <> equation T(x) = 0 has only the trivial solution. 2 Equation Ax = 0 has only trivial solution <2 Column of A are linearly independent. Example 6: Let T(x, x2) = (3x1 + xy 5x1 + 7x2, x1 + 3x2). (i) Show that T is a one-to-one linear transformation, (ii) Does T map: R? onto R°? Solution: Let T (eu x2) = Grr + xy Stn + 7m 31 + 3m). Then 3x tx T(x) =| Sx + 7x2 x1 + 3x, [ 3.61 Zs [5 7][]= arte, 2 3{- (ay). Since we have (by theorem 3), T is one-to-one linear transformation if and only if the columns of A are linearly independent. Here, A is 32 matrix in which one column is not a multiple of another. This means tht columns of A are linearly independent. Therefore Tis one-to-one linear transformation. Since we have (by theorem 3) Tis onto if and only ifthe columns of A span RO. Clearly A has only 2 columns. So, it has at most two pivot positions. This means A does span R®, Therefore, Tis not onto. @ (i) — Scanned with CamScannerTransformations CHAPTER2 — 43 in Business, Science and Engineering Example 7: If possible, ; soy flour, and whey to provide the exact amounts of protein, carbohydrate, and fat supplied by the diet in one day. ‘Amounts (g) Supplied per 100 g of Ingredient ‘Amounts (g) Supplied by Nutrient | Nonfat milk | Soy flour ‘Whey Cambridge Diet in One Day Protein 36 51 13 33 Carbohydrate 52 u 74 45 Fat 0 7 1 3 Solution Let x, x2 and x), respectively, denote the number of units (100 g) of these foodstuffs. 36x + 5x2 + 13x = 33 52x + Sr + 7Axs = 43. Oxi + 7x2 + Lx =3 Row reduction of the augmented matrix for the corresponding system of equations shows that 36 51 13 33 10 0 2 52 4 74 45 -|0 1 0 392 00 1 233. 07 1 3 To three significant digits, the diet requires .277 units of nonfat milk, 392 units of soy flour, and .233 units of whey in order to provide the desired amounts of protein, carbohydrate, and fat. Kirchhoff's Voltage Law The algebraic sum of the RI voltage drops in one direction around a loop equals the algebraic sum of the voltage sources in the same direction around the loop. Example 8: Determine the loop currents in the network in Figure. Solution: In loop 1: Current I; and I; flows and voltage is 30V. Total RI voltage drop is 4, + 3h, + 4h, - 3h = 11h - 3k: (Here in loop 1, le flows opposite to Ih along BA) ‘Thus by Kirchoff voltage law Mh-3h=30 4) (nt Scanned with CamScanner44 = MATHEMATICS - II In loop 2: Current ky, Iz and b flows and voltage is 5V. Total RI voltage drop is -3h+h+h+h+3h-b=-3h+6h-b (Here in loop 2, 1 flows opposite to I; along AB, and Is flows opposite to I: along DC) Thus by Kirchoff voltage law -3h+6h-b=5 ) In loop 3: Current lz and I; flows and voltage is - 5 -20 = - 25 Total RI voltage drops is “h+h+h+h=-h+3h (Here in loop 3, I: flows opposite to Is along CD) Thus by Kirchoff voltage law -h+3h=-25 (ii) Hence, loop currents hy, I, Isare found by solving system (i), (ii) and (iii), which are 11h - 3k + 0 =30 == -3h + 6b-L=5 Oh-h+3h=-25 Augmented matrix is [3 BO. 2 2] 364: 5 043: Echelon form is [ 2.13 -5/3 o4 & “2 ] 0 0 169/3 : -1320/3, From third row, b= 781 amp From second row, -h+3b=-25 -h+3*781=-25 Hence I; = 1.57 amp. From Equation (i) 1th -3h = 30 1-3 * 1.57 =30 Th = 34.71 h=3.15amp 1, =3.15 amp, lp = 1.57 amp and ly =-781 amp. — | Scanned with CamScanner: ie me at a-[} Sana define T: Rt R? by T(x) = Ax. Find the image under T ofu-[-p] and “(i 05 0 0 1 a 2 wa-[2 05 2 for[ ante =|] cane a oan o o o5f [4 c 10 ~ 1 | 3 LetA=[-2 1 6 |,b=| 7 | Define T by T(x) = Ax. Find a vector x whose image under Tis 302 55 3 ; b. a we a=[ 7 Z]-b=[23]} Define Thy Te) = Ax Find a vector x whose image under Tis b. 5, Find all x ¢ R¢ that are mapped in to zero vector by the transformation x->Ax for the given matrix 147 & A-|0 +1 40 3] tine Findx ReforAx=0] > 26 6 4 oe 147 6 Letb=|1JandA=|0 1 4 3). tsb inthe range of linear transformation x->Ax? Why or 0. 246 6 +4 why not? 7. Prove the following transformation T are linear also find the matrix that implements the mapping. (Toe x8, x4) = (0,21 2 +, 9 +3) GH) Tess, xa, x5) = (1 Ba + Axa, Xo - 6X3) 8, Assume that T is a linear transformation. Find the standard matrix of T. () T:RORs, Te) = (3, 1,3, 1) and T(e:) = (-5, 2, 0,.0) where ex = (1, 0) and e2 = (0, 1). (i) T: RORY, Tie) = (1, 3), Ties) = (4, -7) and T(es) = (-5, 4) where ey, ex, ey are columns of 3x3 identity matrix. 9. Let T: R-4R?be a linear transformation such that T(t, x2) = (x1 +22, 4x1 + 5x3): Find x such that Tix) = @, 8). 10. Let T be a linear transformation whose standard matrix is given. Describe if T is a one-to-one mapping. Justify your answer. 5 1-5 4 7 5 4 9 8347 ~, [10 6 16 -4 Ol, 5 5 3 @) ja 8 2 7] 325 4 8 6 2 5 Scanned with CamScanner46 u, 12. 18. wu. 15. nu. aN MATHEMATICS ~ I Let T: R’— R® be a linear transformation whose standard matrix is given. Describe ifTis, mapping. Justify your answer. . Ong 47°53 7 55 7135 6 6 8 5 12 8 “i 7 6 4 @|7 10 8 -9 4 @) |-8 -9 2 5 -9 3 5 4 2 +6 5-6 8 9 8 S$ 6 6 7 3 13-14 15 2 11, If linear transformation T: R!~» R‘ defined by T(r, x2, 2, x4) = (0, x1 + xa x2 + Xs, 29 + Xi). Check itis () one to one (ii) onto. If linear transformation T; R? + R? defined by ‘T(Xi, Xa, x3) = (x1 = 5x2 + dx, x2 ~ 6x3). Check it is (i) one to one (ii) onto. Write a matrix equation that determine the loop currents. Solve the system for the loop currents in a adjoining figure. tt A dietician is planning a mean that supplies certain quantities of vitamin C, calcium, and magnesium, Three foods will be used, their quantities measured in appropriate units. The nutrients supplied by these foods and the dietary requirements are given here. Milligrams (mg) of Nutrients per unit of food Total Nutrients ‘Nutrient Food 1 Food 2 Food 3, Required (mg) Vitamin C 10 20 20 100 Calcium 50 40 10 300 Magnesium 30. 10 40 200 Write a matrix equation for this problem. State what the variables represent, and then solve the equation. Bo TY < B B 4 3 X=x1 11+ 6. Yes, because system Tepresented by [A b] is consistent ol La 000 0 36-5 sft 10 0) 11 5 4 |1 2 pas fo 1 1 of lo 1 + & @l3 oO}, @ [3 7 4 0011 10 7 : : 2 10. (i) Not i) Not (@) Not (i) Not. 12 Notonetoone,notonto 13. Not one to one, but onto aa — | Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER MATRIX ALGEBRA LEARNING OUTCOMES After studying this chapter you should be able to: Matrix Operations ‘The Inverse of a Matrix Characterizations of Invertible Matrices Partitioned Matrices Matrix Factorizations The Leontief Input Output Model Applications of Matrix Algebra to Computer Graphics , Subspaces of R" Dimension and Rank Ye eee ee Scanned with CamScanner48 = MATHEMATICS - II If A is mxn matrix in which A has m rows and n-columns. For instance, be written as, 21 6 a-[ 2 a The entry ay be the (;)* entry ofthe matrix. IFA is mysn matrix then we write it in matrix form, the mai column Thus the above matrix can be written as, A=[a a... ak We already mentioned that ay be any entry of A. The entries aj with i =j is called leading dsgonl entries of A. Sums and Scalar Multiples If A and B are two matrices of same size (same size means they have same number of rows2t! columns). Then the sum of these matrices be the sum of corresponding entries of the matrices. If A bea matrix and r be any scalar, Then the multiple rA is the multiple of each entries ofA Example 1: Let, aE é jeE oi Then, 7 . ale ore ral-B 2 3 Also, let r = 2. Then, nls é a-[e 8 al Note that the subtraction of matrices A and B be redefined as, A-B=A+ (-1)B. theorem shows the The following operations of matrices and scalars, Scanned with CamScannerMatrix Algebra # Cuarren S ° Matrix Multiplication ' If Ais mn and B is np matrix. Let the columns of B are, by, by... by- Then the product AB is matrix of order mxp whose columns are Ab;, Aby,..., Ab, that is, AB=Alb: br... byl =[Ab, Abo... Abyl. Note that: For the multiplication, the number of columns of first matrix and the number of rows of second matrix, should be equal. 3 6 2 8 sample 2: Compute AB where A=[7 2 eadti {t 34. Solution: Here, the columns of B are, w[i] &=[4] ana 6 -[S]. Then, abeEE SEL Gul-()- amet S513 Sella): , Abs [i 4] [3] - Leectaes! -5] . Now, AB= Albi bbs) =[Abi Ab Abs] / -E 2 3. = Another method: 2 3774 3 6 Ber Gi 4] [i 2 3 Deh + 3x1 2634-2) 2K6 +33 1 = Lad (-5)x1 1x3 + (-5)™(-2) 16 + (-5)3. Example 3: uta=[3 : 1|- Compute AT. 25 6 Aig 4 4d: 2S Then, fi 4). 6 1, Solution: Here, Scanned with CamScanner| 50 MATHEMATICS - 11 Theorem 2: Let A be an m*n matrix, and let B and C have sizes for which the indicateq i and products are defined. * @) ABC) = (AB)C (associative law of multiplication) (0): A(B+C)=AB+AC (left distributive law) © (B+QA=BA+CA (right distributive law) (4) r(AB)=(A)B=A(rB) for any scalar law ©) InA= (identity for matrix multiplication) Proof: Let A be an mxn matrix and B and C have sizes for which the indicated sums and Produc, are defined. (@) Let the matrix C can be written with its columns i, &, .., Cp: as, Cla @ cl Then by multiplication of matrices, BC=[Be, Ber... Bey} and, A(BQ) =[A(Ba) A(Be:)_....A(Be;)] Since by definition A(Bx) =(AB)x_—_ forall x. So, (i) becomes, A(BC) = [(AB)cr (AB)c2... (AB) cp] <(AB)[cr @ 2 oy = (AB)C. ‘ (©) Let the thatrix Band C can be written with its columns as in the form, B=[b by... byl and = C=[ey cz... eh Then, B+C=[b bw. bt @ ... el bite, bete2... Dateal) So AB+Q=[Aita) Arta) -.. A(bn + cy)] FIAb+ Ac, Ab+ Ac)... Ab, + Acyl Slab, Ab: ... Abs) + [Ar Ac... Acq] SAlb be... b+ Ala co al) =AB+AC. (© Similar as (b). (4) Let the matrix B can be written with its columns as in the form, Be[bi by... bal Then by multiplication of matrices, AB=[Ab, Abz ... Abyl. Letr be a scalar such that 1B=[rby bp... rbd. and (AB) =[rAby rAby ... rb, =[Arb, Arby Arby]. =Alrb, by rby]. =ACIb by bal). = AGB). Similarly, r(AB) = (cA)B. Thus, 1(AB) = (rA)B = A(rB). Scanned with CamScannerMatric Algebra @ CuspTeR3 551 {(@) Letthe columns of matrix A are Asla a. add Let Im be an identity matrix. Then Ix = x for xin R™. Now, ToA =Imfa a2 «++ anh [nar Indes. Inole sla oa... ak =A Similarly Al, =Aler e2 =[Aer Aer sla a =A. Thus, ae nA = A= Ale. Noter If A and B are square matrix of same size then AB and BA are possible. But AB may not equal to BA. Example 4: Verify AB¥BAwhenA=[3 9] Solution: Here, . as-(3 a] 3) 4] = wf IG Jl 2 ‘dénote matrices whose Sizes are appropriate for the following stims, and ‘Thus, AB¥ BA. cece © (ater +BC Proof: Let A= (ay)men (@) The (i j)!" element of A = (, i)" elements of AT = (i,j)element of (AT) (yea Now, (AE = (@)aom)™ = (idan = A. ©) Let, A = (ai)man and B= (bj)na are two matrices of same order. So, A + B is defined. Therefore (A+B)" is of order nxm. Again, AT=(aj)um and BT = (by)axa- Scanned with CamScanner