Updated Curriculum

A Practical Approach FORM

to

Geography 1

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Kafikira Wiseman Ncube Nkosilomusa Ntshingila Sithabisiwe

 A Practical Approach
to

Geography

Form 1

Kafikira Wiseman Ncube Nkosilomusa Ntshingila Sithabisiwe

 CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Weather and Climate........................................................................................ 1

Unit 1.1 Weather elements and instruments.................................................................................... 1
Unit 1.2 The weather station................................................................................................................... 8
Unit 1.3 Weather data................................................................................................................................ 10
Unit 1.4 Precipitation................................................................................................................................. 14
Unit 1.5 Weather forecasting.................................................................................................................. 17
Chapter 2: Landform and Landscape Processes............................................................... 22
Unit 2.1 Landforms..................................................................................................................................... 22
Chapter 3: Ecosystems........................................................................................................ 32
Unit 3.1 Components of an ecosystem............................................................................................... 32
Unit 3.2 Micro ecosystems....................................................................................................................... 34
Unit 3.3 Interdependence in ecosystems........................................................................................... 35
Chapter 4: Natural Resources............................................................................................ 41
Unit 4.1 Renewable and renewable resources................................................................................. 41
Unit 4.2 Sustanaible use of resources in local areas....................................................................... 43
Examination I Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 52
Examination I Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 5: Energy and Power............................................................................................. 56
Unit 5.1 Types and sources of energy.................................................................................................. 56
Unit 5.2 Siting of power plants............................................................................................................... 62
Unit 5.3 Power generation....................................................................................................................... 65
Unit 5.4 The environmental impact from generation and use of energy............................... 66
Chapter 6: Map Work and Geographical Information Systems....................................... 71
Unit 6.1 Characteristics of a map........................................................................................................... 71
Unit 6.2 Types of maps.............................................................................................................................. 74
Unit 6.3 Location on maps....................................................................................................................... 77
Unit 6.4 Scale................................................................................................................................................ 80
Unit 6.5 Universal map symbols............................................................................................................ 81
Unit 6.6 Direction on maps...................................................................................................................... 84
Unit 6.7 Distance......................................................................................................................................... 86
Unit 6.8 Area of a map............................................................................................................................... 88
Chapter 7: Minerals and Mining......................................................................................... 92
Unit 7.1 Distribution of minerals and mines in Zimbabwe.......................................................... 92
Unit 7.2 Ores and mineral groups......................................................................................................... 94
Unit 7.3 Use and importance of minerals........................................................................................... 99
Chapter 8: Environmental Management........................................................................... 103
Unit 8.1 Aspects of the environment................................................................................................... 103
Unit 8.2 State of the environment......................................................................................................... 107
Unit 8.3 Environmental management................................................................................................. 108

Examination II Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 115

Examination II Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 117

Chapter 9: Agriculture and Land reform........................................................................... 119

Unit 9.1 Factors influencing agriculture.............................................................................................. 119
Unit 9.2 Farming as a system.................................................................................................................. 125
Unit 9.3 Land use zoning.......................................................................................................................... 128

Chapter 10: lndustry............................................................................................................. 133

Unit 10.1 Types of industry ....................................................................................................................... 133
Unit 10.2 Importance of industries to Zimbabwe............................................................................. 135
Unit 10.3 Nature and distribution of industries in Zimbabwe...................................................... 137

Chapter 11: Settlement and Population.............................................................................. 144

Unit 11.1 Types of settlements................................................................................................................. 144
Unit 11.2 Site and situation factors......................................................................................................... 147
Unit 11.3 Rural settlements patterns...................................................................................................... 150
Unit 11.4 Rural and urban land use planning legislation................................................................ 153

Chapter 12: Transport and Trade......................................................................................... 158

Unit 12.1 Modes of transport.................................................................................................................... 158
Unit 12.2 Advantages and disadvantages of transport modes.................................................... 161
Unit 12.3 Transport networks.................................................................................................................... 163
Unit 12.4 Transport challenges and solutions..................................................................................... 167

Examination III Paper 1.......................................................................................................................... 171

Examination III Paper 2.......................................................................................................................... 173

Index ............................................................................................................................ 177

 Chapter
WEATHER AND CLIMATE
1
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• define terms used in weather studies.
•• distinguish between weather and climate.
•• describe how the different weather instruments are used in the recording of different weather
elements.
•• interpret the different weather symbols used on maps.
•• describe the formation of different types of rainfall.
•• describe the use of weather forecasting using indigenous knowledge systems.

Introduction
Every day we wake up in the morning and take a bath as we prepare to come to school, we look outside
the window and check how hot or cold it is. On a cloudy day we put on as many clothes as we can and on
a hot day we look for light clothing. Everyone has an interest in the weather from the ice cream man, to
the young man who sells newspapers by the corner, miners, farmers, even our mothers when they want to
wash their laundry. Everyone needs to know something about weather.

UNIT 1. 1 WEATHER ELEMENTS AND INSTRUMENTS

Meteorologists use a wide range of instruments to measure weather conditions. Thermometers, measure
temperature in degrees celsius and Fahrenheit. Other instruments measure aspects of weather like
rainfall, atmospheric pressure, humidity and wind speed. These instruments and measurements allow
meteorologists to make predictions on weather conditions in the near future.
Differences between weather and climate
Weather can be defined as the daily condition of the atmosphere at a specific place at any given time
while climate is the average atmospheric condition of a specific place measured over a long period of time,
which is usually 30 years and above. If we measure and observe these elements of weather over a specified
time frame, say, we would obtain the “regular weather” or the climate of a particular region.
Climate, therefore, is the accumulation of daily and seasonal weather events over a long period of time.
Some of the factors affecting the climate of a location include the latitude, terrain and altitude, as well as
nearby water bodies and their currents.

1
Climatology is therefore the study of climate done at a weather station. People who study the climate are
called climatologists.
The main difference between weather and climate is the duration. Weather is the condition of the
atmosphere over a short period of time such as throughout the day, at night or at any particular point
during the day. Whereas, climate is how the atmosphere reacts over a relatively longer periods of time such
as across spans of 30 years or more for a particular location.
Weather changes dramatically in each and every area from day to day for instance one place can be cold
and rainy today and be hot the following day. Whilst climate generally changes less quickly.
Weather elements
The elements of weather are used to observe the weather and climate of an area. Some of the elements
are described below.

Table 1.1 Elements of weather

Weather elements Instruments
1 Cloud cover Observation
2 Humidity Hygrometer/ wet and dry bulb thermometer
3 pressure Barometer
4 Rainfall Rain gauge
5 Sunshine Sunshine recorder
6 Temperature Six’s thermometer/minimum and maximum
thermometer.
7 Wind speed Cup anemometer
8 Wind direction Wind vane

(a) Temperature
Temperature is defined as the level of hotness or coldness of a place from day to day. Increased temperature
is determined by the angle of the sun hence temperature may change repeatedly within a day, however,
temperature is a very important element of weather, because it influences other elements of the weather,
such as wind, humidity, precipitation, atmospheric pressure and cloudiness. It is measured using a
thermometer, and there are different types of thermometers namely maximum thermometer which
measures the highest temperature, the minimum thermometer which measures the minimum temperature
and the six’s thermometer which measures both maximum and minimum temperature at the same time.
Temperature readings are taken at 8:00 am daily.
Maximum thermometer Iron index
It is used to measure the highest temperature.
The most common maximum thermometer is
the mercury thermometer. Mercury is used in a Mercury Maximum
maximum thermometer because it is the only
liquid with a high capacity to expand. The slightest
increase in temperature is notable when used in a
thermometer. It has a boiling point of 250 degrees. Alcohol Iron index Minimum
When temperature rises, the mercury will expand
and push the metal index through the bulb. Fig. 1.1 Maximum and minimum thermometer

2
When temperature falls after reaching the maximum value the mercury in the bulb contracts but the metal
index cannot fall back to the bulb due to the constriction. The metal index remains at the highest point
reached during the day. Readings are then taken by looking at the side of the bulb that is closest to the
mercury.
Minimum thermometer
It is used to measure the minimum temperature of the day. It contains alcohol since it has a low freezing
point which can go below -70 degrees. When temperature falls and the alcohol contracts, the index will be
dragged or pulled towards the bulb by the surface of the alcohol meniscus. When temperature rises again,
the alcohol will flow over the index which remains stationary. Consequently, the end of the index nearest
to the meniscus indicates the lowest temperature reached since the last reset. In practice, the minimum
thermometer rests horizontally inside a Stevenson’s screen with the bulb on left side.
Six’s thermometer
A six’s thermometer is able to record both the Minimum Maximum
maximum and minimum temperatures at the
same time. It is used to record the extremes of Vacuum
temperature at any location. It is also commonly
known as a maximum and minimum thermometer. C C
-25 40
Before each reading, the thermometer must be -20 35
-15 30
reset with metal indexes being moved back into -10 Alcohol 25
position at each end of mercury section with the -5 20
0 15
aid of a magnet or the pressing of a button in Metal indices 10
5
modern thermometers. The minimum temperature 10 5
is recorded from the left column of the tube while 15 0
maximum temperature is recorded from the right 20 5
25 10
column. It contains both mercury and alcohol.
30 Mercury 15
35 20
As the temperatures increase the mercury is pushed
40 25
up the glass tube towards the right hand side by the
expansion of the mercury. When this happens the
metal index is also pushed upwards and left at the Fig. 1.2 A six’s thermometer
point with the highest temperature for the day.
When the temperatures drop the metal index is left at the point with the highest temperature. And the
minimum temperature is recorded. The alcohol in the left hand side contracts as temperature falls and
the mercury is pulled back into the right hand limb of the thermometer. The alcohol pulls up the metal
index in the left hand tube.
(b) Cloud cover
Cloud cover refers to a mass of cloud covering parts or all of the sky. Clouds are visible masses of tiny
water droplets. Cloudiness is the state of clouds in the atmosphere at a given time over an area. Clouds are
minute water droplets which are very light and therefore cannot fall to the ground as rain.
They become visible after condensation has taken place. Different types of clouds means different weather
conditions, for example, lighter clouds indicate little or no precipitation, while dark heavy cloud show that
there will be heavy rains or thunderstorms. Lines drawn on maps showing places with the same cloudiness
are called isonephs.
From the diagram below we will notice that there are three types of clouds.

3
This then cools the bulb therefore lowering the temperature on the bulb. If there is a lot of water vapour in
the air it means the muslin cloth will not lose any moisture hence there is little to none evaporation from
the bulb, therefore the will be a little or no difference in the bulbs.
(d) Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the “weight” of the air in
the atmosphere which is applied on to the ground. Vacuum
Changes in atmospheric pressure are mostly caused Mercury
by the rise of warm air and the descent of cold air, Column
and hence atmospheric pressure occurs mostly in
regions near water bodies. The unit of measurement

Air pressure

Air pressure
is in millibars. The most commonly used barometers

H
are the mercury barometer and the aneroid
barometer. The lines drawn on a map showing
places with the same pressure are called isobars. In
most circumstances atmospheric pressure is caused Mercury in dish
by the heaviness of the air above the measurement
point.
Fig. 1.6 Mercury barometer
As altitude increases, there is less overlying
atmospheric mass, so that atmospheric pressure decreases with increasing height. The air pressure pushes
down the surface of the mercury, making some of it to rise into the tube. The greater the air pressure the
higher the mercury rises.
(e) Rainfall
Precipitation refers to any form of water, either liquid 5
or solid (rain or snow), that falls from clouds and
reaches the ground. This falls after cloud has been
12
formed in the sky. Various forms of precipitation
Copper cylinder
include rain, snow, fog, mist, hail, sleet and drizzle. 10
20
10
20

As an element of weather, precipitation determines

30 30
40 40
50 50
60

whether outdoor activities are suitable and it can

60
70 70
80 80
Glass 70

easily be predicted by observing the signs in sky. bottle

80
90
0

Rainfall is generally measured in millimetres Calibrated tape

measure
or inches. The standard rain gauge instrument Rain guage Ordinary measuring cylinder

generally consists of a funnel connecting to a Fig. 1.7 Rain gauge

graduated cylinder which is marked in millimetres.
Symbol Meaning Symbol Meaning
It has an outer cylinder which is 20 cm in diameter
and 50 cm tall. Rain water is collected in the glass Moderate turbulence Rain shower

tube. When the rainwater overflows, the large outer Severe turbulence

cylinder holds it. The amount of water in the outer Snow shower
Moderate icing
cylinder and the inner glass tube are taken for
Thunderstorm
rainfall measurement. Severe icing
Freezing rain
Rain gauges should be placed in an open area Rain
Tropical storms
where there are no obstacles like buildings or trees Snow
to block the rain. This is also to prevent the water Drizzle
Hurricane (Typhoon)
collected on the roofs of buildings or the leaves of
Fig. 1.8 Weather symbols
trees from dripping into the rain gauge after a rain,

6
resulting in inaccurate readings.
(f) Sunshine
A sunshine recorder is a device that records the
amount of sunshine at a given location or region at
any time. The results provide information about the
weather patterns as well as climatic patterns.
A sunshine recorder consists of a glass sphere which
is mounted in a spherical bowl and a metallic groove
which holds a record card as shown in the diagram
besides.
The sun’s rays are deflected and focused sharply on Fig. 1.9 Sunshine Recorder
the record card beneath the glass sphere, leaving
burnt marks on the card. As the sun traverses,
continuous burnt marks will appear on the card.
Observers can measure the sunshine duration
based on the length of the burnt marks.
(g) Wind
Refers to the horizontal movement of air from areas
of high air pressure to those of low pressure, the
speed of the wind is determined by the difference
between the high and low-pressure wind and
it occurs due to rising hot air or sinking cold air. Fig. 1.10 A cup anemometer
Wind can be felt only when it is in motion; as the
speed of the wind increases, the air tends to move
more quickly and therefore diminish warm air thus
making it seem colder than the actual temperature.
The wind speed refers to the rate at which the air is
moving.
Wind speed is normally measured by a cup
anemometer consisting of three or four cups, conical
in shape, mounted symmetrically on a vertical
spindle as shown in the diagram besides. The wind
blowing into the cups causes the spindle to rotate.
Fig. 1.11 A wind vane
In standard instruments the design of the cups is
such that the rate of rotation is proportional to the
Speed Speed
speed of the wind to a suitably close calculation. (knots) Symbol (knots) Symbol
Wind direction is reported by the direction from less than 1 33-37
which it originates. 1-2 38--42
For example, a southerly wind blows from the south 3-7 43-47
to the north. Wind direction is usually reported 8-12 48-52
using cardinal points. Wind direction is measured 13-17 53-57
in degrees clockwise from due north and so a wind 18-22 58-62
coming from the north has a wind direction of 0 23-27 98-102
degrees; one from the east is 90 degrees; one from 28-32 103-107
the south has a wind direction of 180 degrees.
Fig. 1.12 Weather symbols

7
 Activity 1.1 Recording and drawing weather patterns
1. Keep a daily record of the weather pattern for a month.
(a) Make your own weather information.
(b) Using symbols draw the daily weather patterns.

Activity 1.2 Group work

In groups, write down the following. Let one presenter from each group present your answers in front of the
class.
(a) What determines the names given to winds?
(b) What do we use a cup anemometer for?

Exercise 1.1
1. Name 3 different thermometers.
2. Differentiate between weather and climate.
3. What do we use weather elements for?
4. List any 5 weather elements and the instruments that are used to measure them.
5. Identify the types of clouds.

UNIT 1.2 THE WEATHER STATION

A weather station is a place where data concerning
the environment is collected. Weather stations
have devices which include a thermometer to take
temperature readings, a wind vane, wind rose, a
barometer and all the other instruments which
will be discussed below. In the weather station
there is the Stevenson screen which is used to
house all the thermometers. Instruments found in a
Stevenson screen are the maximum and minimum
thermometer, hygrometer, six’s thermometer and
the barometer.
Location of a weather station Fig. 1.13 Weather station

When siting a weather station care has to be taken so as to avoid recording wrong information. It has to be
in an open area away from trees to avoid shade from trees blocking the sun and also alterations of the wind
speed and direction. It also has to be away from buildings to protect the thermometers from recording
reflected heat. The grass should always be cut short to avoid water from splashing into the rain into the
rain gauge. A fence has to be put for security reasons.

8
The Stevenson screen
A Stevenson screen is a simple enclosure to protect
weather instruments against the different weather
elements. These include rainfall, temperature Maximum
Dry bulb temperature
extremes from outside sources, while still allowing thermometer thermometer
air to circulate freely around them.
Characteristics of a Stevenson screen Wet Bulb
Minimum thermometer
A Stevenson screen is one of the most important temperature
thermometer
structures on weather stations. It has characteristics
that distinguish itself from other features in the
weather stations. These are the characteristics of a
Stevenson screen;
•• It is used to house weather instruments such Fig. 1.14 A Stevenson screen
as hygrometer and six’s thermometer.
•• The unit is either supported by four treated wooden legs or a wooden post to avoid attacks by
termites.
•• The top of the screen has two wooden roofs made with an air space between them.
•• The whole screen is painted with several coats of white to reflect sunlight.
•• The siting of the screen is very important to avoid data distortion. It should be away from buildings
and trees.
•• In the northern hemisphere, the door of the screen should always face north so as to prevent direct
sunlight on the thermometers. In the Polar regions where there is twenty-four hours of sunlight,
during some seasons the observer must take care to protect the thermometers from the sun.
•• It should be 1,2m above the ground to avoid recording ground temperatures.
•• It is made of wood to reduce excess heat.
Functions of the Stevenson screen
•• To keep all the thermometers safe.
•• To have one central point of collection of weather information.
•• It is also meant to provide a standardised environment in which to measure temperature, humidity,
dew point and atmospheric pressure.

Activity 1.3 Practical work

In pairs, design your Stevenson screen. Using cardboard boxes and glue make your own Stevenson screen.

Exercise 1.2
1. What is a weather station?
2. Identify 3 instruments found at a weather station.
3. Draw a well labelled diagram of a weather station.
4. Give two reasons why a rain gauge is placed 30cm above the ground.
5. Identify any 3 characteristics of a Stevenson screen.
6. What are the functions of a thermometer?

9
 UNIT 1.3 WEATHER DATA

To predict weather, one has to measure weather. Therefore, weather data includes numbers or facts about
the state of the atmosphere and these include temperature, wind speed, rain, humidity and pressure.
Nowadays, due to technological advancements, data is collected accurately in many amazing ways.
Therefore, weather data is said to be the numbers and information derived from the condition of the
weather for a particular place and time.
Weather tables and graphs
Weather tables and graphs are used to illustrate the average temperature and rainfall experienced at a
particular place over the course of a year. They are used to represent data and produce a quick summary
that gives visual trends of the weather data being presented. Tables and graphs allow us to easily identify
and compare data as the result of a study. There are two common types of graphs and these are bar graphs
and line graphs.
Bar graphs use vertical or horizontal rectangles (bars) to represent a specified quantity whilst a line graph
uses points to identify values and then connect each point with a line that shows the variations in the data.
Weather information is collected daily at a weather station. This information is then used to make
calculations. Once information is collected it is recorded on tables and charts and that information is used
to draw up temperature graphs. Let us look at the following example.
Example 1
The table below is showing temperature data recorded for a week at a station in Bulawayo.

Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday

Max temp °C 23 24 24 25 23 22 20

Min temp °C 18 18 19 19 17 17 15

A temperature graph is then drawn up from the data above. A line or a bar graph can be used to show the
above rainfall and temperature data as shown.
Rainfall
Temperature (degrees celcius)

35 Temperature
35
30 30
Rainfall/mm

25 25
20 20
15
15 10
10 5
5 0
0
Thursday
Wednesday

Friday
Saturday
Tuesday
Monday
Sunday
Saturday
Thursday
Monday

Wednesday

Friday
Sunday

Tuesday

Max temp Min temp

Fig. 1.15 Bar graphDays of the week Fig. 1.16 Line graph

10
 Line graph
Temperature readings for a town in Bulawayo.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp°C 23 22 24 23 20 19 17 19 21 24 25 24
The mean annual Temperature is the Sum of mean monthly temperatures divided by 12. In this case in
order to get our mean annual temperature we add all the figures given and divided by 12.
Rainfall
Rainfall readings are taken more frequently than temperature because rainfall is subject to evaporation.
Rainfall readings for a town in Bulawayo.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rainfall (mm) 200 115 85 80 0 0 0 0 0 50 210 240

From the above table we can calculate the annual rainfall total which is the sum of monthly rainfall totals
for 12 months. A bar graph is then used to show the rainfall patterns for the year. Temperature degrees celcius
Temperature
30 50
25 40
Max and Min

20 30
15
20
10
10
5
0
0
Wednesday

Monday
Thursdayy

Thursday
Wednesday

Friday
Saturday
Tuesday
Sunday
Saturday
Monday

Tuesday

Sunday
Friday

Max temp Min temp Max temp Min temp

Fig. 1.17 Bar graph Fig. 1.18 Line graph

Synoptic charts and symbols

When weather data is collected at weather stations it is recorded on synoptic charts. This is done so as
to allow easy observation and interpretation of recorded data. Synoptic charts are maps that summarise
atmospheric conditions such as temperature, precipitation, wind speed and direction, atmospheric
pressure and cloud cover, using symbols. The same symbols are used all over the world so as to allow for
uniformity. The table below shows the different weather symbols as used in weather studies.

11
 Activity 1.4 Group work
Work in pairs. Copy the table below and answer the questions below.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 21 24 23 22 20 17 18 19 25 26 24 23
Rainfall
100 80 32 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 88 102
(mm)
Plot the weather graph using the recordings in the table above.

Activity 1.5 Individual work

The weather symbols given below are for a weather Current weather
a station in Bulawayo. Study the diagram and draw Wind speed
your own chart using the following information. Current Wind direction
(a) Temperature - 25°C temperature17 Current
(b) Cloud cover - 4 oktas pressure 988
Current
(c) Wind speed - 25 knots weather 8 Weather at
(d) Wind direction - South west Dew point last reading

Activity 1.6 Calculations

The table below shows the weather statistics for a station in Zimbabwe.

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Temp °C 23 22 24 24 15 15 16 15 18 20 22 23
Rainfall (mm) 200 115 85 80 0 0 0 0 0 50 210 240

(a) Which months has the highest and lowest temperature?

(b) State the month with the highest rainfall.
(c) Calculate the temperature range.
(d) Calculate the mean annual temperature.

Exercise 1.3
1. Explain weather data in your own words.
2. Differentiate between weather tables and graphs.
Day Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Max temp °C 25 28 24 26 23 22 20
Min temp °C 20 20 21 21 18 18 16
3. A temperature graph is then drawn up from the data above. A line or a bar graph can be used to show
the above temperature data. Draw a line and a bar graph showing the above data.
4. Explain how to calculate mean daily temperature.

13
Interesting facts
1. It was designed by Thomas Stevenson in the year 1818. Stevenson’s development of his small
thermometer screen with double louvered walls on all sides and no floor was first reported in 1864.
2. Plants shedding leaves indicated a long period of drought. While the flowering of certain plants
indicated the onset of rainfall. The stock bird is a migratory bird which indicated the beginning of the
rainy season.
Summary of the chapter

•• Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere while climate is conditions of the atmosphere
calculated over a long period of time.
•• The elements of weather include cloud cover, temperature, rainfall, humidity, sunshine, atmospheric
pressure and wind.
•• Different symbols are used to show weather characteristics.
•• A Stevenson screen is a simple enclosure to shield weather instruments against the different
weather elements.
•• There are three types of rainfall namely convectional, frontal and relief rainfall.
•• Relief rainfall is also called orographic rainfall.
•• Three conditions necessary for rainfall to occur are the air rises, expands and condenses.
•• There are three main types of rain fall, namely relief, convectional and frontal rain fall.
•• Precipitation refers to any form of water, either liquid or solid (rain or snow), that falls from clouds
and reaches the ground.
•• A sixes thermometer is used to measure both the maximum and minimum temperature at the
same time.
•• Cloud cover is measured using observation and estimation.
•• A weather station should be away from trees and buildings to avoid disturbances and the recording
of inaccurate information.
•• Indigenous knowledge systems were used long ago to forecast the weather patterns.

Glossary of terms

Altitude – is the height above sea level.

Condensation – is the change of water from a gas to a liquid in the upper atmosphere.
Evaporation – is the changing of a liquid to a gas.
Isobars – is the lines joining places with the same pressure.
Louvered – is the slanted openings of a window.
Oktas – is the unit used to measure the amount of cloud cover.
Saturated – is the maximum amount of water vapour that the air can hold.
Weather forecasting – is predicting how the weather would be like at a particular time.
Wind – is air in motion.

18
Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. The direct formation of clouds is caused by __________.
A. evaporation B. precipitation
C. condensation D. saturation
2. Which instrument is used to measure the relative humidity of the air?
A. Wet and dry bulb thermometer. B. Rain gauge.
C. Mercury barometer. D. Maximum and minimum thermometer.
3. A student went to read the maximum and minimum thermometer at a school weather station and
found it as shown in the diagram.

What is the mean (average) temperature for the station?

A. 5˚C B. 10˚C
C. 27,5˚C D. 30˚C

4. Name the instrument shown.

A. Weather station. B. Louvered sides.

C. Stevenson screen. D. Maximum and minimum thermometer.
5. The daily state of the atmosphere is called _______.
A. climate B. saturation
C. weather D. temperature
6. The prevailing wind is the wind which ________.
A. blows all the time B. blows less times
C. blows frequently D. blows from south to north

19
 (b) Fill in the table below.
Weather element Instrument
Temperature ----------------------
Sunshine ----------------------
Pressure ----------------------
humidity ---------------------- [4]
(c) What factors would you consider when setting up a weather station at your school? [6]
2. (a) Using well labelled diagrams of types of rainfall, describe how each rainfall type is formed. [9]
(b) State the three conditions necessary for rainfall to occur. [3]
(c) Explain the following forms of precipitation.
(i) Hail [2]
(ii) Snow [2]
(iii) Hail [2]
3. (a) (i) State the meaning of weather forecasting. [3]
(ii) Identify three benefits and two problems of weather forecasting. [5]

(b) Name the activity shown above. Describe how the activity affects weather. [6]
(c) Suggest human activities that affect the weather patterns. [4]
(d) As a member of your local agricultural community suggest how the government can re-introduce
the use of indigenous knowledge systems to improve agricultural output and state the challenges
that can be faced by the government in trying to reintroduce indigenous knowledge systems. [7]

21
 Chapter LANDFORMS AND

2 LANDSCAPE PROCESSES

Chapter objectives
By the end of the chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify landforms.
•• describe the landforms.
•• explain the benefits of landforms.
•• differentiate between landforms and landscape.

Introduction
The types of landforms we have today are a result of different surface processes that operated over a long
period of time. Landform evolution is very important and involves complicated interaction between the
physical processes and environmental factors, such as underlying rock structures, tectonics, rock types,
climatic changes, and human activities, all occurring over a large area. We study landforms so as to gather
as much information of the earth’s landforms.

UNIT 2.1 LANDFORMS

Landforms are the natural features found on the earth’s surface. Different landforms possess different
physical characteristics. Together, landforms form a specific terrain and their physical arrangement in the
landscape forms what is known as topography. Examples of landforms include mountains, hills, plateaus,
plains, canyons, valleys, buttes and basins.
Difference between landscape and landforms
Landscapes are made up of several landforms such as hills and valleys. A landform is a natural geographic
feature that appears on the earth’s surface. Landforms are created by natural forces such as tectonic
movement and erosion, while natural landscapes are made up of a variety of landforms.
Landforms of Africa and the world
We are now going to take a look at the different landforms found in Africa and in the whole world. Africa
has a wide range of landforms and all the different countries have wonderful landforms. These countries
have a lot of landforms which include; rift valleys, lakes, river basins, mountains, valleys, tors/kopjes/castle
kopjes, plateaus, glaciers, hills, plains, desert, waterfalls and rivers.

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1. Rift valleys and lakes
The continent’s most distinctive landforms are in
East Africa. As the continental plates pulled apart
over millions of years, huge cracks appeared in the
earth. The land then sank to form long, thin valleys
called rift valleys. Lake Tanganyika, is the longest
freshwater lake in the world, it stretches about 420
miles and reaches a depth of more than 4,700 feet.
Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa. It is part
of the Nile river system. It is a fresh water lake
approximately 150 miles by 250 miles (240 by 400
km), with an area of about 26,800 square miles.
Other notable African lakes include Lake Mutirikwi,
Lake Chad and Lake Tanganyika. However, Africa’s
second largest lake, Lake Mutirikwi sits in a shallow
basin between two rift valleys. It is the world’s
second largest freshwater lake but is only 270 feet Fig. 2.1 Lake Mutirikwi
deep.
2. River basins
Africa’s rivers contain many waterfalls, rapids, and
gorges. These features make the rivers less useful
for transportation than shorter rivers on other
continents. The 2,900-mile-long Congo River forms
the continent’s largest network of waterways. But
a series of 32 cataracts, or waterfalls, makes large
portions of that river impassable.
Furthermore, meandering courses also make
Africa’s rivers difficult to use for transportation. For
example, the Niger River begins in West Africa and
flows north toward the Sahara, where it forms an
interior delta and turns to the southeast. It then cuts Fig. 2.2 River basin
through Nigeria and forms another huge delta as it
empties into the Gulf of Guinea.
3. Mountains
A mountain pass is also called a gap, saddle, or col it
is a passage over a mountain range. It is the lowest
point on a mountain ridge between two peaks. They
typically occur in valleys between mountain ridges,
in low points along mountain watersheds or just
the lowest point on a mountain ridge between two
peaks. They are generally unsuitable as mountain
passes, but are occasionally crossed by mule tracks
or climbers’ routes.
Fig. 2.3 Mount Everest

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Environmental Management Agency Act
The Environmental Management Agency (EMA) is a statutory body established under the Environmental
Management Act (CAP20:27). The Agency is responsible for ensuring the sustainable utilization of natural
resources and the protection of the environment. It is a parastatal in the Ministry of Environment, Water
and Climate. The mandate of EMA is to provide for the sustainable management of natural resources
and protection of the environment.
Land Use Act
An Act to provide for the acquisition of state land and the disposal of state land, to provide for the
control of the subdivision and leasing of land for farming and or other purposes. It is to provide for
limiting of the number of pieces of land that may be owned by any person and the sizes of such land.
Endangered animals in Zimbabwe
A black rhino
The black rhinoceros is listed as critically endangered.
It is threatened by poaching, as its horn is valued in
Asia and the Middle East. Unlawful poaching caused
black rhino numbers to decrease all in pursuit of
their horns, which are used for the production of
both daggers and medicine. Most rhinos are now
protected and monitored in fenced sanctuaries.

Pangolin Fig. 8.5 A black rhino

Pangolins are also on the list of endangered

creatures in Zimbabwe. They are mainly found in
Africa and Asia. They live in hollow trees. In Africa
it is needed for its meat and scales. Pangolins are
also protected under the Parks and Wildlife Act in
Zimbabwe.
Advantages of wildlife management
•• Creation of employment, for example,
hunters. Fig. 8.6 Pangolin
•• Countries get revenue from hunting,
photographing and fishing.
•• Food from plants and animals for example,
meat.
•• Raw materials for example, hides for making
shoes.
•• Recreational purposes for example,
elephant riding.
•• Clean the environment from harmful.
creatures such as hyenas and vultures.
The African elephant
The African elephant have been hunted for their
tusks. The tusks are used for trophies, art ivory Fig. 8.7 African elephant

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carving and jewellery making. The tusks of the elephants are most treasured and desired by the global
ivory market.

Activity 8.5 Group work

1. Give three reasons why we should manage our plants as part of our environmental.
2. Explain how environmental management can prevent the elephants from becoming extinct.
3. Suggest three ways in which you can protect the endangered plant species in Zimbabwe.

Activity 8.6 ICT

In your school computer laboratory, use the internet to search how an environmental management plan is
developed and develop one of your own following the guidelines you will get on the internet.

Exercise 8.3
1. Explain environmental management.
2. Describe the indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) in environmental management.
3. Explain the functions of ZINWA and EMA.
4. Explain wildlife conservation and management.
5. Identify endangered animals in Zimbabwe.

Interesting facts
Pangolins live in hollow trees, therefore, when there is deforestation they are left unsheltered.
Summary of the chapter
•• Environmental management involves preserving and maintaining the environment in a sustainable
manner.
•• Aspects of the environment are land, water and air.
•• Degraded environment is when natural habitats are destroyed.
•• Pristine state is a landscape where air and water bodies remain in a pure state.
•• Indigenous knowledge systems are developed by indigenous people in their local environment.
•• The government of Zimbabwe has put in place a number of policies or laws (legislation) to protect
the environment.
•• The Water Act is responsible for protecting the water resources.
•• The Forest Act is responsible for protecting the forested areas.
•• The environmental management Act protects, conserves and manages the environment and safari
areas and recreational parks.
Glossary of terms
Resource –  is anything that can be used by man for his or her advantage.
Resources can be either be renewable or non-renewable.
Conservation – an act of preserving or protecting resources.
Legislation – laws or a set of laws made by government.
Environmental management – 
are organized attempts to control the human impact on the
environment to preserve natural resources.
Global warming – an increase in the average temperature of the earth, attributed
largely to the burning of fossil fuels.

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10. A system of farming that involves the rotation of fields rather than crops is called _________.
A. plantation agriculture B. shifting cultivation
C. crop rotation D. monoculture practice
11. The reason for the decline in the dairy herd in Zimbabwe is _______.
A. stock theft and veld fires B. tsetse fly and foot and mouth
C. drought D. huge demand of dairy products
12. A measure that can be put in place to control desertification is ________.
A. reforestation B. deforestation
C. overstocking D. over cultivation
13. Which energy source is non-renewable?
A. Solar B. Water
C. Nuclear D. Geo thermal
14. Which type of farming is most suitable for the area where there is plenty of land, poor soil fertility, low
rainfall and effective disease control?
A. Plantation agriculture B. Gardening
C. Shifting cultivation D. Commercial ranching
15. Market gardening is done mainly near urban centres because of the availability of ___________.
A. a large market B. a farming area
C. a large labour force D. a high volume of water

Structured Questions
1. (a) Explain the term, environmental degradation. [2]
(b) Explain three aspects of the environment. [6]
(c) Describe how human activities cause environmental degradation. [7]
(d) Explain five advantages of wildlife management. [10]
2. (a) Define the term, pristine environment. [2]
(b) State three advantages and three disadvantages of wildlife management. [6]
(c) State any four environmental management laws in Zimbabwe. [4]
(d) Explain any three indigenous knowledge systems used to protect wildlife and resources. [8]
3. (a) Explain the term sustainable use of resources. [3]
(b) Outline five ways you can use to protect the endangered plant and animal species in Zimbabwe. [5]
(c) What are the benefits of developing an environmental management plan? [5]

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EXAMINATION II
MAP WORK - Questions 1-12 refer to the 1: 50 000 map of Masvingo Zimbabwe.
1. Which of the following is not found in grid square 3790007931000?
A. School B. Settlement
C. Spot height D. Dam
2. The direction of Masvingo Township from Victoria Ranch is _________.
A. East B. West
C. South east D. North west
3. The length of Mashaba River from Easting 30 and 32 is _________.
A. 3.2km B. 4km
C. 1km D. 4.5km
4. Spot height 1173 is found at grid reference point _______.
A. 3751007933600 B. 7933600375100
C. 3761007933000 D. 793100375100
5. The main drainage pattern on the map is _________.
A. Radial B. Trellis
C. Dendritic D. Pararell
6. What is the name of the largest hill on the map?
A. Domboshawa B. Makuru Usina Vudzi
C. Mashaba D. Chamafaune
7. In which grid square is footbridge?
A. 3710007929000 B. 3726007930700
C. 7930700371000 D. 7931500372600
8. The feature named Lake Mutirikwi is a ______.
A. hill B. lake
C. plateau D. waterfall
9. Which human activity is prominent in the area?
A. Settlement B. Cultivation
C. Mining D. Quarrying
10. The direction of flow of Vuvume River on the map is _____________.
A. South to North B. North
C. North to South D. West
11. The 13 figure grid reference for trigonometrical station 654/s is ________.
A. 370000327000 B. 371300792800
C. 792800371400 D. 79290037300
12. The common settlement pattern on the map is __________.
A. linear B. haphazard
C. circular D. scattered
13. Which of the following farming systems rotates the land?
A. Fallowing B. Shifting cultivation
C. Nomadic herding D. Dairy farming

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PAPER 2: STRUCTURED QUESTIONS
Answer any four (4) questions in this section.
Section A
1. (a) State five characteristics of shifting cultivation. [5]
(b) What are the disadvantages associated with this farming system? [4]
(c) What challenges have been faced by nomadic pastoralists? [5]
(d) What steps can be taken by governments where pastoralism is practiced to solve the problems
faced by these farmers? [5]
(e) Outline six benefits of Agriculture the economy of Zimbabwe. [6]
2. (a) Outline the role of the Environmental Management Agency (EMA) in the management of
Zimbabwe’s environment. [4]
(b) Discuss five major challenges faced by Environmental Management Agency in carrying its duties.
[5]
(c) Describe five indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) that are used in the sustainable use of the
environment. [5]
(d) Give three pieces of legislation used in the conservation of the environment. [3]
(e) As an Environmental Advisor of the government. Suggest how various causes of land degradation
in your area could be reduced. [8]
Section B
3. Platinum is a precious mineral.
(a) Name the other two precious minerals metals that are mined in Zimbabwe. [2]
(b) Platinum is used in the production of cell phones circuits. Describe five other uses of platinum as a
precious metal. [5]
(c) Explain the term precious metal. [2]
(d) S tate four minerals that are mined in the geological structure called the Great Dyke of Zimbabwe.
[4]
(e) Explain how one would identify minerals using the five step process. [5]
(f ) Explain the importance of mining to the economy of Zimbabwe. [8]
4. (a) Explain what you consider to be the main five main characteristics of a good map. [10]
(b) Assess the view that indigenous people did not use maps. [5]
(c) Calculate the scale needed for each of these map sizes as a representative fraction.
(i) A line 6 cm long, representing 60 metres on the actual ground. [3]
(ii) A line 12 cm long, representing 24 metres on the actual ground. [2]

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Section C
5. (a) Outline the risks associated with mining. [7]
(b) Fig 7.1 show some of the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) activities before the exploitation
of minerals.
Predict how environmental
aspects are affected
Assess potential impact –
positive or negative
Should/should not proceed
Measures to be taken to
minimize impact/enhance
impact
Identify aspects of the
environment likely to be
affected
(i) Rearrange the activities above in the correct sequence. [5]
(ii) List four aspects of environmental that are affected by mining. [4]
(iii) State one measure each to minimize or enhance the impact on any one of the aspects in b (ii). [2]
(c) Suggest the social and economic benefits of a mining venture. [7]
6. (a) The photograph below shows a degraded environment in Zimbabwe.

(i) Identify forms of environmental degradation shown. [5]

(ii) Outline the causes of environmental degradation shown. [6]
(b) Name three mines and minerals they mine here in Zimbabwe. [6]

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 Chapter
AGRICULTURE AND LAND

9 REFORM

Chapter objectives
By the end of the chapter, you shall be able to:
•• explain agriculture.
•• identify types of agriculture.
•• explain factors influencing agriculture.
•• name elements of a farm.
•• classify inputs into physical, human and economic.
•• identify elements of a communal farm.
•• demonstrate land use zones in a community.
•• justify the need for zoning.

Introduction
Agriculture means the growing of crops and the rearing of animals. Agriculture or farming is a primary
industry. Farmers may grow only one crop such as maize or beans, or they may keep a herd of cattle
for beef or do both (mixed farming). The reason why people practice agriculture is to feed and clothe
themselves. The economy of Zimbabwe is agro-based meaning that it is based on agriculture. If there
is a poor agricultural season, which might mostly be attributed to drought, the other sectors of the
economy perform poorly.

UNIT 9.1 FACTORS INFLUENCING AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the growing of crops and rearing of
animals to maintain and sustain human life. The
plants grown include maize, tobacco, wheat and
cotton. The animals reared include cattle, poultry,
sheep and goats. Other farmers may have crops
and livestock; this is called mixed farming.
Types of agriculture
Agriculture is the primary industry which human
beings have developed to ensure food security
such as that they have food whenever they need it.
Humans are now able to produce the food they
need using improved crops and plant varieties
using different types of farming methods. Fig. 9.1 Poultry farm in Zimbabwe

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Communal farming
The most common type of farming in Zimbabwe is
‘communal farming’, practiced by the largest part of
the population which lives in the communal lands.
Farmers in this system are more subsistence than
commercial.
Subsistence farming is concerned with producing
enough food for a farming family. There is no extra
or surplus for sale after a farming season. However in
times of good rainfall, a bigger harvest is produced
and there is surplus which is sold to Grain Marketing
Board (GMB). Fig. 9.2 A communal farm

Commercial farming
Commercial farms in Zimbabwe can be large or
small. The farmers grow crops specifically to sell to
others, the farming is conducted for profit through
the sale of the outputs. Small scale farmers usually
grow cotton as a ‘cash crop’ in addition to their food
crops.
Large scale commercial farmers can be divided
into dairying, market gardening, plantations or
estates, cattle ranching and mixed farming.
Most commercial farms are located in the
climatically favourable areas in the high veld and
in regions where farming is made possible by the Fig. 9.3 A commercial farm
availability of water for irrigation.
Shifting cultivation
This type of cultivation is practiced in any African country where there is woodland and where the
population lives in small groups. The farmers clear an area of woodland. They burn the wood to make ash,
which is a good fertilizer. They then dig mixing ash and soil after planting vegetables and other crops.
After three to five years the farm yields smaller amounts of food, so the farmers clear another patch of
woodland. This type of farming is on the decline due to its unsustainability.
Nomadic pastoralism
It is the movement of farmers with their livestock from one place to another on a seasonal basis in search
of water and pastures for their animals. It is done in areas of low, unreliable rainfall mainly in semi-arid and
arid regions.
Case study
Masai of Kenya – nomadic pastoralism
The Masai people are found in East Africa, in Southern Kenya and in Northern Tanzania, along the Great Rift
Valley on semi-arid and arid lands. The Masai occupy a total of 160 000km 2. The Masai are semi-nomadic
people who live under a communal land management system.

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The movement of livestock is based on seasonal rotation, which is influenced by the movement of the
ITCZ. They keep livestock such as cattle, goats and sheep. Livestock is traded for other livestock, cash or
livestock products such as milk. Masai believe that utilizing the land for crop farming is against nature,
however due to pressure on land, some of them are now involved in crop production .They produce crops
like wheat, maize, beans, potatoes and peas.
Problems
•• Conflicts with settled farmers when their livestock eat their crops.
•• Droughts.
•• Animal theft.
•• Conflicts with governments of Kenya and Tanzania, which are trying to change their way of life
because it is difficult to improve the health of the nomads.
•• Pastoralists have limited access to natural resources, knowledge and markets. Sometimes their
livestock is attacked by wild animals such as lions and hyenas.
Solutions
•• Provision of veterinary services.
•• Educating the Masai on good farming practices.
•• Sedentarisation.
•• Introduction of crop production by some pastoralists.

Commercial farming types

Commercial farming is a type of farming in which crops are grown for commercial use only. It is a
modernised method of farming that is undertaken on a large scale. In this type of farming the large
land, labour and machines are used.
(a) Dairying
This is the rearing of cattle for milk. The milk produced is
sold directly or indirectly to consumers or is processed
into a variety of milk by-products such as cheese. Dairy
herds often form part of a large farm. In most cases, it is
likely to be a side-line of crop production. Dairy cattle
graze in open fields and are also fed special type of
feed which helps them to give better milk. This includes
Lucerne, molasses from sugarcane and cattle cake. Dairy
breeds include Jersey, Friesland-Holstein, Guernsey and
Ayrshires. Fig. 9.4 Market garden
(b) Market gardening
Vegetables are grown in and around many cities to meet
the demand of the people who live there. The plots are
called market gardens and they have to be close to their
markets since vegetables are perishable. The farms are
usually small.
(c) Plantations
This farming system requires vast inputs on a large
scale. It deals with one type of crop on the same piece of
land for a number of years (monoculture). The farming
system is land-intensive (making use of vast tracts of
land for crop farming). The crops grown include wheat, Fig. 9.5 
Sugarcane plantation in Hippo Valley
cotton, coffee, sugarcane, bananas and timber. Estates, Chiredzi

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(d) Cattle ranching
This is a farming system where large herds of cattle
are kept for beef production. Cattle ranching occurs
in all farming regions of Zimbabwe except in the
Zambezi Valley and in the extreme south east around
the Gonarezhou National Park. In these areas tsetse
flies kill the cattle. The farmer needs large sums of
money to buy land and cattle since this farming
type is capital intensive and land intensive.
(e) Mixed farming
This is the growing of crops and rearing of animals
on the same piece of land. Cultivated land and Fig. 9.6 Cattle ranching in Zimbabwe
pasture can be rotated to give the land a change
and rest.
The animals can often eat the waste material from crops that is the husks from maize or grain. This type
of farming enables the farmer to practice many farming activities on the same piece of land.

Factors influencing agriculture

Agricultural practices do not operate in a vacuum. They are situated within physical, socio-economic,
political and economic environments that influence the way in which they operate. Therefore, if agricultural
systems are to be successful and sustainable, it is crucial to understand how they are influenced by the
prevailing environments.
Physical factors
Agriculture depends to a great extent on the
physical factors of natural environment. The main
physical factors that influence agriculture include;
temperature, precipitation, wind, pest and diseases
and soil.
(a) Temperature
The growth of different plants requires certain
temperatures for germination, photosynthesis and
ripening of crops. Optimum temperatures are the
best for agriculture. For instance, hot, wet tropical
areas favour rice, while cooler, drier areas favour Fig. 9.7 A greenhouse
wheat.
Very low temperatures results in slow growth hindering photosynthesis and causes frost bite in winter
season in Zimbabwe. Smudge pots and greenhouses are effective measures to curb the problems. High
temperatures are associated with low soil moisture which causes wilting of crops.
(b) Precipitation
It is the prime source of water for plants to grow naturally. The annual rainfall totals determines the types of
crops, trees, grass or cereals and animals kept for agricultural purposes. Excessive rains cause floods which
destroys crops in areas with little rainfall drought is common leading to crop failure. Coffee, for example,
must have a period of drought before and during harvest whilst maize would benefit from heavy rain in

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the same period. A farmer is, therefore, looking for rainfall reliability so that he or she can select the most
appropriate crop for the area.
Rain is the most crucial ingredient in plant growth. Chipinge is a prime coffee – growing region in
Zimbabwe’s southern Eastern Highlands on the south eastern border of the country in the province
of Manicaland near Mozambique. The region has high altitudes, wet climate and cool weather which
produces high coffee yields.
(c) Wind
Wind has severe impact on agriculture. Moderate winds promote pollination but very strong winds such as
hurricanes and cyclones destroys crops and cause high rates of transpiration. Less severe but also harmful
are the winds that dry soils so reducing moisture and increasing the potential for soil erosion.
(d) Pests and diseases
Pests and diseases have an effect on crops, human beings and animals. Examples include malaria, anthrax
and army worm. Less risk and less prone areas are good for production and productivity. Insects such as
termites and ants attack plant roots. Tsetse flies also cause diseases such as nagana in animals and makes
cattle ranching difficult in areas prone to tsetse flies. For example, the Zambezi valley is well known for
being tsetse manifested making it difficult for livestock production. The fly is the source of both animal and
human Trypanosomiasis-nagana in cattle, sleeping sickness in humans.
(e) Soil
Farming depends on soil depth, water holding capacity, aeration, structure and texture. Soils with poor
structure are easily leached and fast have rates of soil moisture evaporation. Sandy soils lack nutrients, holds
moisture for a short period of time. Clay soils are heavy to work with under very wet conditions, are poorly
drained which might cause water logging. Sandy soils are good for tobacco growing, loam for maize and
potatoes. For example, the range Chivhu and Buhera the soils are rich in potassium since they are derived
from granite rocks. These soils are the best for tobacco and maize production. The orthoferralitic soils are
mainly found in areas where rainfall is greater than 90 mm per annum especially in the Eastern highlands,
Bikita, Ndanga, Mvurwi, Marondera and Headlands. The soils are more strongly leached especially in the
Eastern Highlands and have considerable organic matter.
Activity 9.1 Experiment
Aim: Testing for soil properties
Apparatus | Materials: Sheet of newspaper, 3 test tubes, transparent glass/plastic bottle (Same size), test
tube holder, plastic spoon, 3 soil samples, water dropper and container of water.
Procedure
Work in teams of two (however, each student will turn in their own results, analysis and conclusion)
1. Put a sheet of newspaper on the desk.
2. Place 3 test-tubes/transparent bottles (same size) on a holder.
3. Put several spoonful of each soil on newspaper.
4. Put each soil sample in a test tube/bottle halfway and label them A, B and C.
5. Adjust soil levels so that all test tubes are equal.
6. Fill water dropper.
7. One learner looks at the clock (second hand) while another learners empties one full dropper of water
into the test tubes.
8. Time how long it takes the water to reach the bottom of each of the test tubes/bottles.
9. Record time on data table.

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Expected results

Soil Type Time of water to drain through soil (seconds)

A (clay) 60 seconds
B (loam) 30 seconds
C (sand) 10 seconds

Social-economic factors
The type of farming practiced in an area reflects the physical factors as well as the culture of the farmers
involved. Even the type of crop grown reflects the culture of the people.
In some communities, food production is solely the responsibility of women and children. Culturally
some crops are considered either grown by males or females for example, in Zimbabwe groundnuts and
vegetables are traditionally considered women’s crops. For example in Nyanga, Hwesa, Katerere areas and
most parts of Manyika area groundnuts and round nuts are regarded as female crops.
The keeping of large herds of cattle also lends a lot of prestige to African farmers. Cattle are also used to
pay for lobola in certain cultures. Religious beliefs, for example, the Hindu community do not practice
commercial cattle rearing because they treat the cow as a sacred animal. Muslims do not rear pigs because
it is forbidden in holy book.
Tradition can influence the kind of crops grown or the animals kept and the scale of farming. The types
of crops grown in most parts of Zimbabwe depend on the traditional foods of the various communities.
Some communities may concentrate on growing finger millet, for example those found in areas that
receive little amounts of rainfall like those found in region 4 and 5 because it is their staple food while
others grow maize or bananas because it is their main food crop.
Land ownership/inheritance can affect the type of farming and crops grown. Large-scale farming may not
be possible where a land-owner is required by tradition to subdivide the land among the children or where
the land is subdivided into smaller plots during inheritance.
Economic factors
The study of the allocation, distribution and utilisation of the resources used, along with the commodities
produced by farming is very important. In general one can say that when a country’s population largely
depends on agriculture for its livelihood, average incomes are low. Some of the economic factors include:
(a) Transport – it determines the time taken to transport inputs and outputs to and from the market.
Some outputs are perishables and needs fast and quick delivery mode to market.
(b) Market – size of population, needs and religious beliefs determines the farming system. Low prices on
a market discourages the continued practice of farming for example, cotton and tobacco farming in
Zimbabwe.
(c) Capital – more economically developed countries have capitalised their robust banking systems from
private investments and government investment through subsidies which encourage capital intensive
farming systems like poultry farming KwaGono and Luna chickens in waterfalls.
Political factors
The state intervention and government policy have negative and positive effects on agriculture.
Governments help through subsidies for guaranteeing farmers products and production. Governments
provide inputs through presidential input schemes, education through extension officers and vet officers,
machinery provision and mechanisation in irrigation infrastructure.

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For example, The Agricultural Investment Plan, the ZAIP, which places a major emphasis on a greatly
expanded role for contract farming. The expansion of Contract Farming in Zimbabwe since 2009 opened
opportunities for smallholders to participate in contract farming which is increasing as private finance to
agriculture is increasingly being channeled through contract farming companies. For example contract
farming on small holders in Shamva and Hwedza boosted their agricultural production. The number
of private registered tobacco contractors rose from 3 in 2003 to 15 in 2014 according to the Tobacco
Markerting board, similarly, the number of private cotton contractors increased to 13 in 2011. Today,
the bulky of the national tobacco and cotton crop is being sold by small – scale farmers to private – led
contract farming companies and other private traders.

Activity 9.2 Discussion

Divide yourself into two groups, and discuss on the five types of commercial farming and the difference between
capital intensive and land intensive. Write your answers on paper and choose one presenter to read out all your
answers to the class.

Activity 9.3 Observation

Carry out some reading on any dairy farm in Zimbabwe and write on the following:
(i) Its name and location.
(ii) Factors that have influenced the location of the dairy farm.
(iii) How the milk is processed and what it is used for.
(iv) Is it marketed locally and or externally?

Activity 9.4 Practical Exercise

Compare the growth rate of a maize crop grown on sandy soil, clay soil and loam soil. Come up with suitable
physical conditions that are needed for the growth of that maize crop.

Exercise 9.1
1. Define agriculture.
2. State two physical factors influencing agriculture.
3. Identify different types of agriculture.
4. Explain market gardening and dairying. On which type of farming do they fall in?
5. Describe cattle ranching.

UNIT 9.2 FARMING AS A SYSTEM

There is a close relationship between the factors already outlined and a farm’s operations as a system. The
key elements of the system are inputs, processes and outputs.
Each type of farm has different elements, but the various inputs and processes are all geared at producing
food for human consumption. Inputs are items needed in order to produce things. Processes means using
these inputs to produce things. Outputs are the items produced.
Elements of a farm

Inputs Processes Outputs

Labour Spraying Money
Capital Rearing Meat products

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Capital
Availability of sources of loans for farmers encourages agriculture. The profit a farmer makes affects the
amount that can be invested in machinery, fertilizers, and seed and how the farmer can afford to pay as
wages for the workers.
Transport
Availability of a good transport network encourages agriculture as produce can easily be transported to
the market. Transport cost is also an important consideration where there is low use of machinery.
Labour
Certain types of farming still need large numbers of seasonal workers, for example, cotton farming. Farming
remains more labour intensive in less developed countries.
Technology
Modern improvements in technology like the introduction of tractors and refrigerated trucks have
improved farming and increased agricultural output. Marginal areas have been turned into productive
lands through the use of irrigation, fertilizers, herbicides and insecticides.
Elements on a communal farm
The communal lands make up 50% of the area of Zimbabwe, there is a mixture of subsistence and
commercial farming. Many communal lands lie in areas of low, unreliable rainfall. The low rainfall is best
suited to cattle rearing, growing crops is a risk. In some years there is enough rain for a fair harvest, but
in most years the rainfall is too low. In a communal farm there is low investment in machinery and seeds.
No land in communal areas is owned by individuals. A whole family may cultivate a small area of land from
two hectares in size. They can graze their cattle on the land which is shared by others in the village. A case
study of a single farm in the communal lands can help us to explain this type of farming and its elements.
Case study
A farm in the communal lands
Mr S.D Dodzo’s farm is 20 km from Nyanga town, near Mutare. It is four hectares in size.The arable land
is one large block, which is better than having two, or more, smaller areas separated from each other by
some distance. One difficulty is that the arable land is almost one kilometre from where the family lives;
this means a lot of walking and cycling back and forth. The lands are fenced and gated so that cattle cannot
get into the fields and destroy the crops.
Mr Dodzo was an agricultural extension officer years ago, and he still plays an active role in the community.
He lives with his two wives and seven children in a large, square house which has three thatched cottages
nearby. From their home, they have a fine view of grazing lands and the Makondora dam.
Maize and potatoes are grown as cash crops. Cabbages, groundnuts and sweet potatoes are grown for
family’s consumption. There is a fowl run near the house, and several goats are kept for meat and ritual
purposes. The family has a few head of cattle, which graze in the communal grazing lands.
Yields of maize vary from 900 - 1059 kegs per hectare on this farm, which is quite high and indicates good
cultivation. Potatoes are sprayed regularly using a light-weight spray. The spray has largely replaced the
knapsack spray which was heavy and caused many farmers to stop growing potatoes.
Mr Dodzo owns a plough, harrow and a scotch cart. All of the family work on the farm, and they are helped
at harvest time by casual labour. The farmers of the district appreciate the advantages of collective buying

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Justification for the need for zoning A
outgrower
C
COMMUNAL GRAZING outgrower

households (homesteads)
fields FARM outgrower

About five million people live in the communal fields

store grinding mill FARM FARM
factory
lands, and were neglected by the settler fields
church
clinic
stream offices
ESTATE
government. However, since 1980, the new
borehole outgrower
outgrower
primary school
FARM FARM
fields

Zimbabwe government has taken steps to provide

a better way of life for the people in these areas. B D

One of doing this the government purchased

RANCH
homesteads RANCH
homestead
clinic school

unused farmland for resettlement by people who CO-OPERATIVE

FARM

have no land or who are crowded on small pieces RANCH

of land. Roads, schools and health clinics are being individual plots

built.
Fig. 9.8 Resettlement models and their land use zones
Land use legislation
Land use suitability is the fitness of a given type of land for a defined use. The land may be considered in
its present condition or after improvements.
The process of land suitability classification is the appraisal and grouping of specific areas of land in terms
of their suitability for defined uses. There may be certain parts of the area considered, for which particular
kinds of use are not relevant. Irrigated agriculture may be placed beyond a limit of water availability. Land
may be classified as not suitable for a given use for a number of reasons. It may be that the proposed use
is technically impracticable, such the cultivation of steep slopes as they may cause severe environmental
degradation.
The Town and Country planning Act (Chapter 29:12), the communal Land Act (Chapter 20.04) and the
Traditional Leaders Act (Chapter 29:17) are the pieces of legislation that are used to govern the rural areas
of Zimbabwe. These pieces of legislature recognise the role of the traditional leaders, the members of the
local community and central government in planning and controlling land use in different areas.
Activity 9.5 Project-based learning
Your class has decided to come up with a gum tree plantation and rear some chickens as part of an Education
with Production project.
(a) Name the type of agriculture your project fall into.
(b) Draw an INPUTS ----PROCESSES ----- OUTPUTS diagram to show how your project operates as a system.
(c) What problems are you likely to face in this project? How should they be solved?

Activity 9.6 Group work

In groups, create a table with inputs, processes and outputs for communal farm. Classify the inputs into
physical, human and economic.

Exercise 9.2
1. Identify elements of a cattle ranching.
2. How are the inputs classified?
3. What is land use zoning?
4. Why is zoning important?
5. How is the land zoned?

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4. A plantation is ____________.
A. an estate where export crops only are grown
B. an estate under foreign management
C. a place where several plants are grown for sale
D. a large estate which needs much capital and labour
5. Which of the following groups is made up of human inputs only?
A. Sunshine, training, warmth. B. Animals, seed, money.
C. Rainfall, knowledge, relief. D. Training, money, knowledge.
6. Cattle ranching is __________.
A. a farming system where large herds of cattle are kept for beef production.
B. an estate under foreign management.
C. a place where several plants are grown for sale.
D. a large scale estate which needs much capital and labour.
7. Which of the following is a cause of soil erosion in communal lands of Zimbabwe?
A. Terracing slopes B. Overgrazing
C. Planting trees D. Setting up ward committees
8. Abstraction of sand from rivers results in __________.
A. erosion B. siltation
C. deforestation D. having larger volumes of water
9. Which of the following are all inputs for a farming system?
A. Ploughing, milking and manure B. Fertilizer, seed and rainfall
C. Tradition, capital and profit D. Market, transport and harvesting
10. Which of the following activities is associated with a high rural population density?
A. Exhaustion of a mineral B. Lack of electricity
C. Flooding of the mine D. Death of the mine owner
11. A system of farming that involves the rotation of fields rather than crops is called _________.
A. shifting cultivation B. crop rotation
C. monoculture D. plantation agriculture
12. Land fragmentation means _______.
A. the division of tasks between men and women in a village
B. the division of land into small pieces
C. the division of land into paddocks on a cattle ranches
D. the breaking up of the soil by ploughing
13. Intercropping involves __________.
A. the growing of different crops at different seasons
B. the growing of one crop between rows of another
C. the use of a fallow area of land
D. the growing of crops for market
14. A careful land tenure system becomes important when _______.
A. a crop is to be grown by plantation methods
B. water for irrigation purposes is available
C. there are only a few people to cultivate the soil
D. populations increases and land becomes more scarce
15. Market gardening is done mainly near urban centres because of the availability of __________.
A. a large market B. a farming area
C. a large labour force D. high volume of water

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Structured Questions
1. (a) Define the following terms:
(i) Subsistence farming.
(ii) Shifting cultivation.
(iii) Mixed farming. [6]
(b) Outline six factors affecting agriculture. [6]
(c) (i) What is monoculture? [2]
(ii) What are the advantages and disadvantages of monoculture? [8]
(d) State three inputs of communal farming. [3]

2. (a) What is shifting cultivation? [2]

(b) 
State five characteristics of shifting cultivation. [5]
(c) What are the advantages and disadvantages of this type of farming? [8]
(d) Define nomadic pastoralism. [2]
(e) Explain four problems faced by nomads. [7]
3. (a) 
Outline six characteristics of plantation agriculture. [6]
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of plantation agriculture? [6]
(c) Explain four factors which affect agriculture. [4]
(d) Describe five environmental impacts of agriculture in Zimbabwe. [5]
(e) What are the measures taken by local authorities to reduce problems of land pollution? [4]
4. (a) Define the term sustainable use of resources. [2]
(b) Explain the terms arable land and grazing land. [4]
(c) Study the photograph below showing part of a farming plot.

(i) Describe the scene in the photograph. [5]

(ii) What are the challenges faced by small-scale cash crop producers? [7]
(d) What is the role of government in promoting agriculture in Zimbabwe? [8]

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 Chapter
INDUSTRY
10
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• describe industries.
•• identify types of industry.
•• explain the importance of industry.
•• describe the distribution of industries in Zimbabwe.

Introduction
Our lives hover around the provision of goods and services. Almost every parent is involved in some
industry in order to produce goods or services. Some are at a primary level, others at a secondary level
and the rest at tertiary. Therefore, this chapter looks at the nature, types and products of the primary,
secondary and tertiary industries.

UNIT 10.1 TYPES OF INDUSTRY

An industry is a group of companies that are related based on their primary business activities. It is also
referred to as the production of goods or services to meet the demands of the economy. It can be divided
into three main categories which are primary, secondary (sometimes referred to as manufacturing
industry) and tertiary industries (sometimes referred to as service industry).
Primary industry
A primary industry deals with the extraction of
raw materials which are processed to produce
goods under the secondary industry. The goods
are then sold or marketed under the tertiary
industry. Examples are farming, mining, and timber
extraction. In agriculture plants or crops and
livestock are produced, for example, tobacco, maize,
rice, beans, sugar, poultry, piggery and ranching
and beekeeping.
Mining leads to the extraction of the copper ore,
gold, diamond, iron, platinum, asbestos and other
minerals. Timber milling deals with the cutting
of trees for timber like Mahogany, teak and other
Fig. 10.1 Mining in Zimbabwe
hardwoods.

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Secondary industry
These deal with the processing of primary products into finished or semi-finished products. The
manufacturing industry sector known as secondary sector, sometimes known as the production sector,
includes all branches of human activities that transform raw materials into products or goods. The secondary
sector includes secondary processing of raw materials, food manufacturing, textile manufacturing and
industry.
In the secondary industry, iron ore is processed into iron bars and steel, maize is winnowed and processed
into mealie-meal, cattle are slaughtered to produce beef, honey is processed into various products and
timber is processed into railway sleepers, planks for roofing, chairs, bed bases and many other usable
products.
Both in the primary and secondary production, there is use of machinery which needs technical know-
how. Secondary industry includes iron smelting, gold processing, copper processing, timber processing,
beef slaughtering, and production of soya milk from beans, cotton processing, clothing manufacture,
leather tanning and many others.
Tertiary industry
This industry deals with the marketing of goods
and services. It provides services to people and
assists the primary and secondary industries. There
is no production but there is the distribution of both
primary and secondary products. The services of
marketing, banking, insurance, transport, teaching
and training, nursing, law enforcing, election
observation and recording, business management,
hotel catering, accommodation, recreation are all
under the tertiary industries. In other words, the
tertiary bracket includes aids to trade and social, Fig. 10.2 Tourist attraction in Zimbabwe
legal and all other services.

Activity 10.1 Educational Tour

Plan a day’s tour to nearby farm or mine or gold panning area or to a processing industry.
(a) Observe the inputs being used and record them as well as the outputs.
(b) How beneficial is the industry to the local community and to the country at large?
(c) Is it a small scale or large scale marketing?
(d) Is it labour intensive?
(e) What are the disadvantages of the industry’s location?

Exercise 10.1
1. The type of industry that deals with extraction of raw materials is called ____________ industry.
A. secondary B. tertiary
C. quaternary D. primary
2. What type of industry is ZISCO Steel classified under?
A. Primary industry B. Secondary industry
C. Tertiary industry D. Cottage industry

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3. How best can you describe the tourism industry?
A. It is a service industry B. It is a technical industry
C. It is a secondary industry D. It is not an industry
4. What needs technical know-how in the heavy industries?
A. Sophisticated machines B. Physical labour
C. Taking records D. Filing
5. What do we mean by flora and fauna?
A. Plants and animals B. Green trees
C. Resistant animals D. Flowering plants
6. Classify the following industries into their types: farming, mining, gold processing, bread baking,
retailing, insurance, printing, timber extraction.
7. Sugar production is important in Zimbabwe.
(a) Name one place where sugarcane farming takes place in Zimbabwe.
(b) List three uses of sugar.
(c) Name one benefit of sugarcane farming to the economy of Zimbabwe.
8. Study the following picture of a very big animal found in Zimbabwe.

(a) Name the animal.

(b) What are the uses of its skin, ivory and flesh economically and socially?
(c) What danger faces such an animal in Zimbabwe? Why?

UNIT 10.2 IMPORTANCE OF INDUSTRIES TO ZIMBABWE

Zimbabwe needs industry in order to sustain her population. Without industry, the economy is
jeopardised. Before the 2000s, Zimbabwe had a thriving industry. Industries used to produce goods
for export to other countries and the country benefitted foreign currency. Local goods were affordable.
Nowadays we import many goods and they are expensive to us. We have thriving cottage industries all
over the country but the normal small scale and large scale industries are no longer functional. They
need resuscitation soon.
Importance of primary industry
•• It provides raw materials to other sectors.
•• It provides raw materials to the secondary industries.
•• It also provides food for the people to consume through fruit farming. A citrus plantation will
produce oranges for consumption and for the secondary industries that do fruit processing. The
keeping of milking cows produces milk which is consumable right away, and some is further
processed into cream, lacto and other milk products.
•• It also provides food for the people to consume.
•• Making use of natural resources can be a way for an economy to gain income and export revenue.
The sale of oil, gas and other natural resources have enriched many developing economies
enabling them to gain capital to invest in public services within the economy.

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Importance of secondary industry
Secondary sector is the firm that manufactures and processes products from natural resources. The
importance of secondary sector are:
•• Manufacturing firms assist people to create products that cannot be made by hand.
•• Manufactured products such as tobacco are sold internally and externally to earn foreign currency.
•• It generates more employment in the economy and helps in improving the standard of living
and raises per capita income of the people rapidly. So, secondary sector is most important for the
growth of the economy.
Importance of tertiary industry
Since tertiary industries provides services to other sectors, this result in a great development to a nation.
Tertiary industries are crucial because they give the following services to the people:
•• Industries provides with services to the people. Tourism is a good example of a service industry.
This industry leads to the employment of many people in various areas of its operation. Some are
employed as tour guides drivers, cashiers and guards.
•• Enables communication effectiveness in the nation.
•• Banks provides with essential financial services which smoothen the living standards of the people.
•• Hospitals provide with medical care and facilities to the people.
•• Promotes high quality education to the people.

Activity 10.2 Project based learning

Choose an industry you know, be it farming, mining or forestry.
(a) Name the location.
(b) List the services that developed because of the industry.
(c) What in your view are the benefits of a mine to the community?

Exercise 10.2
1. Primary industries are important for ____________.
A. providing raw materials, food and money B. dealing with business goods
C. processing raw materials into finished items D. enabling communication
2. Secondary industries result in new products and enable large scale employment because __________.
A. they are in demand B. they are labour-intensive
C. they require little human labour D. they are only in urban areas
3. Which industry concentrates mostly in the urban areas?
A. Tertiary B. Primary
C. Barter exchange D. Farming
4. Banks, insurance and transport are important for ________.
A. provision of services B. barter exchange
C. primary production D. iron processing
5. The use of machines nowadays is a disadvantage because ________.
A. it increases labour demand
B. it reduces human labour demand thus causing unemployment
C. it enables fast production
D. it prevents substandard goods

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The tertiary industry depends on primary and secondary industries. It contributes over 50% Gross
Domestic Product (GDP) in Zimbabwe and employs about 10% of the labour force. The success of the
primary and secondary industries enables those in the tertiary sector to succeed as well. For example,
if mining brings in foreign currency in Zimbabwe, the country can be able to employ many doctors and
nurses in hospitals and purchase medical facilities and improve the medical services for the people.
Tourism industry is another service industry that is sustainable. People come from different nations to
view the national parks and historical ruins in Zimbabwe. Tourism creates many jobs.
Activity 10.3 Group work
See the map below.

1. Describe the distribution of industries in Zimbabwe.

2. Explain the distribution patterns you see.
3. What are the factors that affect the location of an industry in a place?

Exercise 10.3
1. Most of the agro-based industries are found in __________ because of the farming advantage.
A. Mutare B. Bulawyo
C. Hwage D. Chisumbanje
2. Because of the advantage of cotton production nearby, the clothing and textile industries are based
in ____________.
A. Kadoma and Chegutu B. Bulawayo
C. Harare D. Hwange
3. The ZISCO Steel was closed in 2009 because of the following reasons.
A. Good markets, high value of the dollar and vibrant economy.
B. Poor markets internally.
C. Poor external markets, corruption, political instability and the economic melt-down.
D. Government policy.

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4. Tourism and mining are expected to be the best and highest in earning ________.
A. foreign currency B. local currency
C. barter exchange D. development
5. In Matopos the major tourist attraction is the _________.
A. balancing rocks, spectacular caves, and game B. crafts
C. rivers D. rural villages
6. (a) With reference to a tourism site nearest to your home, name two features of attraction.
(b) Describe the benefits of the tourism to your local community.
7. (a) Poaching has been a headache for Zimbabwe. If you were in charge of the tourism sector, what laws
would make to prevent poaching?
(b) What penalties would you give to offenders who kill an elephant and or a rhino?
(c) What security measures would you put to protect the elephants and rhinos?
8. Decentralising industries to rural areas and growth points have benefits.
(a) What do you consider to be advantages of relocating?
(b) Mention two challenges of such relocations.

Interesting facts
1. One industry influences another.
2. In a Sugarcane Estate, the services of accommodation, banking, shopping, education, post, and
transport all develop as they attract one another.
3. A mining concern also attracts many services, for example, Chiadzwa Diamonds, How Mine, Redcliff
and other mines.
Summary of the chapter
In this chapter you have learned about the following:
•• Identification of types of industries that cover primary, secondary and tertiary with descriptions of
their characteristics and examples.
•• Explaining the importance of industry to Zimbabwe which included the earning of foreign currency,
contribution to the GNP and GDP, provision of employment and infrastructure.
•• Describing the various benefits of the tourism industry as a service industry in Zimbabwe.
•• Describing factors that influence the location of industry and noting the actual distribution country
wide by means of a map.
•• In rural settlements, people engage in primary industry such as agriculture, mining and lumber.
•• In urban settlements, people engage in secondary industry.
Glossary of terms
Raw materials – goods from the extraction or primary production, for example,
iron ore, timber, tea, cattle and chickens.
Semi-finished goods – goods produced from the primary industry which are used
to produce finished items, for example, processed copper,
processed cotton, steel bars, and timber planks.
Service industry – industry that provides services.
Processing – working on primary goods to produce secondary goods.
Market – customers/people who purchase goods produced.
Exports – goods sold in bulk to other countries.

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Imports – are goods or services ordered in from outside the country.
Agglomeration – various industries attracting each other because of the industry.
Labour intensive – employs a lot of labour.
Gross National Product [GNP] – total value goods exported.
Gross Domestic Product [GDP] – total value goods sold within the country.
Tourists – visitors from other countries.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Primary industries deal with the following except _________.
A. processing goods into finished items B. extraction of raw materials
C. farming D. mining
2. Which of the following is not a secondary industry?
A. Milling B. Mining
C. Beef canning D. Furniture Manufacture
3. Which list embraces service industries?
A. Tourism, transport, banking, marketing
B. Mining, selling, car manufacture
C. Iron smelting, beef canning, farming
D. Clothing manufacture, leather farming, sewage treatment
4. What are the products of mining?
A. Minerals B. Timber
C. Cloth D. Books
5. Well-developed industries have the following benefits except ___________.
A. high foreign currency income
B. high employment rate
C. well-developed infrastructure
D. low employment rates and high unemployment figures
6. Zimbabwe’s economy suffers because of ______________.
A. the closure of industries causing no exports B. there is no rain
C. poor roads infrastructure D. high rates of electricity
7. All these problems compound Zimbabwe’s economy except _______ .
A. corruption B. having no local currency
C. having no exports D. different languages in the country
8. The tourism industry thrives because of our _______________.
A. natural scenery, heritage and game B. accommodation
C. river features D. low prices
9. What are the major attractions at Victoria Falls?
A. The gorge, the falls and the bridge B. Monkeys, casino and roads
C. The boarder, roads and craft D. Craft, casinos and animals
10. Which city in Zimbabwe has the most influential secondary and tertiary industries?
A. Bulawayo B. Harare
C. Masvingo D. Mutare

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11. One of the greatest benefits of industry to the communities is _______.
A. employment B. noise
C. getting products at a low price D. road development
12. Which of these industries is needed by the house construction industry?
A. Timber processing only
B. Brick moulding, cement production, and timber processing and others
C. Nails industry and tiles industry only
D. The brick industry only
13. In an Iron smelting industry heat is provided by _______.
A. coke from coal B. fire from wood
C. electricity from Kariba D. biogas
14. What is the meaning of ‘going green’ as a solution to pollution from fossil fuels?
A. It means using substitutes that do not produce greenhouse gases
B. It means using green vegetables
C. It means using green cars
D. It means painting roads with a green colour
15. The known Textile Industry hub in Zimbabwe is __________.
A. Gweru B. Bulawayo
C. Masvingo D. Kadoma

Structured Questions
1. Fill in the following gaps about industries.
Activity Type of industry Product
Farming Primary Cattle, crops
i. _________ Primary Copper ore
Timber processing ii. ________ iii. _________
Tourism iv. ________ Accommodation, recreation
v. _______ Secondary Shirts, shorts, ties [5]
(b) (i) List three benefits of tourism to the communities where it is practiced, for instance, in Victoria
Falls. [3]
(ii) How has tourism influenced the socio-economic development of Victoria Falls? [10]
(c) What disadvantages would such communities also face because of tourism? [2]
2. (a) Gold panning is very rife in most of our country.
(i) List four benefits of gold panning to rural communities. [4]
(ii) List five places you know of where gold panning is taking place. [5].
(b) What disadvantages to the environment go with gold panning? [5]
(c) How does a miner benefit from the following services:
(i) transport? [2]
(ii) Banking? [2]
(iii) Insurance? [2]
3. (a) Describe two problems of having no functional industries in a country. [4]
(b) Why is it important to have more exports than imports? [4]

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 (c) In your own words, how would you define primary, secondary and tertiary industry? [6]
(d) How do industries benefit us? [6]
4. (a) Why do you think Harare has the greatest business in the country? [5]
(b) What problems affect the city due to fewer industries that are operational now? [5]
(c) Explain two factors of your choice that affect the location of an industry. [4]
(d) Why would a vegetable garden be placed next to the city as compared to a maize field? [2]
(e) How has the Land Reform Scheme (Fast Track) benefitted Zimbabweans in agriculture? [4]

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 Chapter SETTLEMENT AND

11 POPULATION

Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• identify different types of settlements.
•• describe the characteristics features of different settlement types.
•• distinguish site and situation of a settlement.
•• outline general site factors of settlements.
•• identify site factors that influenced location of their local settlement.
•• explain the importance of situation in growth of settlement.
•• identify rural settlement patterns.
•• describe rural settlement patterns.
•• explain conditions under which each pattern is likely to develop.
•• list laws governing rural and urban land use in Zimbabwe.

Introduction

One of the basic needs of man is shelter. Where man prepares to stay, live and sleep is his residence.
Residence start from a small hut and stretch to a house, home, compound, village, growth point centre,
town, city, large city, conurbation and megalopolis. These are called settlements. This topic will look at
why and how people settle in certain places.

UNIT 11.1 TYPES OF SETTLEMENTS

A settlement is a place where people live. In other words, it provides shelter for the people to live in. It
may be as small as a single house in remote area or as a large as a mega city. It comes in different sizes. A
settlement may be permanent or temporary. An example of a temporary settlement would be a refugee
camp. However, a temporary settlement may become permanent over time. This happen to many refugees
camps that have been built in conflict zones. Actual piece of land upon which a settlement is built is known
as the settlement site.
Settlements usually develop in a particular pattern (but not always) and shape. They are classified
according to whether they are rural or urban settlements, shape or pattern of the settlement, the situation
(the location of a settlement relative to other settlements) and the site (the nature of the place where the
settlement is).
Different types of settlements
There are two types of settlements which are urban and rural.

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The characteristics which define a settlement of urban or rural include the size, density of the population
and activities being under taken in these two types of settlement.
Rural settlement
Rural settlement refers to how the people of a community live in relation to the land. Most people in rural
areas engage in agricultural activities (primary industry). A rural settlement means a settlement found
in rural areas. Most of us, though we live in town, have a rural background which means we have a rural
district of origin. Some of the rural settlements are found in large commercial farms.
Where in Zimbabwe do we find rural settlements?
Around Bulawayo rural settlements may include
Nkayi, Tsholotsho, Lupane, Gwanda and Maphisa,
Kezi, just to name a few. We may name Gutu in
Masvingo, and Nemwama, while around Harare we
may name Buhera, Domboshawa, Marondera and
many others.
Most people in rural areas engage in agricultural
activities (primary industry). They grow maize,
lentils, groundnuts, corn, mhunga, pumpkins,
melons and sweet potatoes. Vegetables are also
grown in winter in areas where water is readily
available. The rural people also keep livestock like
cattle, goats and sheep and poultry like chickens Fig. 11.1 Rural settlement
from which they get meat, eggs and milk plus hides.
In most cases they practise subsistence farming.
Rural settlements characteristics:
•• There are traditional huts.
•• One homestead has more than one structure.
•• Homes are linked to fields in most rural areas.
•• There is no electricity in most rural areas.
•• Water is extracted from boreholes or wells or rivers or dams.
•• Most of the roads are dusty.
•• No robots.
•• Commercial activity is in service centres or growth points.
•• Survival is on farming mostly, complemented by gold panning, crafts, building and blacksmithing
in some places.
•• Settlement patterns are nucleated.
•• Settlement patterns are nucleated meaning to say that they are influenced by a given resource and
so tend to crowd around the resource like a mine or a road.
•• Transport is scarce in some places, so people use scotch carts to ferry their sick to hospital. The
scotch carts are also used to ferry people to the main road for transport. In some areas you have to
travel 10km before you reach the main road or clinic or rural service centre. Other people go on
foot while others use bicycles.

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 (b) What would attract you to live in that settlement?
8. Draw a rough sketch of your rural home and show its situation among roads, physical features, shops,
farmland and show the direction.
Give the reasons why your home is located there.

UNIT 11.2 SITE AND SITUATION FACTORS

The location and growth of a settlement depended upon its site and situation. The site is the actual location
of a settlement on the earth and is composed of the physical characteristics of the landscape specific to
the area. The site is the actual place where people decided to locate their settlement. There are factors
considered when choosing the location include reliable water supply, away from flood risks, defence,
building materials (stone or wood), fertile land, protection from winds, fuel supply (wood), south-facing
slope (aspect), flat land, easy to build on and natural harbour.
A situation is where a city is, in relation to its surrounding features. Those features could be natural
surroundings (mountains, rivers, roads), nearby areas of productive capacity, the size of its hinterland (an
inland area found behind a port and claimed by the power that owns the coast), the location of competing
cities, and transportation routes.
Distinguish between site and situation of a settlement
•• Site of a settlement is the exact position of a settlement whilst a situation of a settlement is the
position of the settlement in relation to other settlements or physical and man-made features.
•• Site is the exact location of a city, you can find it on a map. The situation of a city relates to its
surrounding features, both human-made and natural.
•• The site of a city has features that are inherent to its location. The situation of the city includes
characteristics that are external to the settlement.
•• The site is the land that the city was built upon. The situation contains the surrounding areas of the
city.
Description of site of settlements
The settlement is located on a valley or on a watershed, on a hilltop or on an island.
For example:
•• Rosehill, Cuepepe, Granbair, Maherbourg and Port Louis are towns located on an island of Mauritius.
•• Foundation College is located in the city centre of Bulawayo.
•• Pax House and Munhumutapa Building are skyscrapers located in the ‘heart’ of Harare.
•• My home is located on a Mopani plateau.
Description of situation of settlements
Next to the city across the main road, around the central watershed, across the mountains on the western
side of the river, adjacent to the railway line, east of the hills on the plateau, across the bridge, next to the
mining area on the western side of the river, 2km on the western side of Harare.
Site factors affecting the location of a local settlement
Settlement sites are affected by many factors as mentioned below.
Minerals – people want to mine in order to get rich so they settle in places where there are minerals.
Technology – skills that people have enable them to settle in places that used to be inhabitable. An
example is man’s ingenuity of building sky-scrappers next to an ocean like in Port Louis in Mauritius. Man
is even able to clear swamps and build infrastructure there.

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Arable land around
Settlements situated where there is arable land can easily grow. Settlements need flat ground, not hilly
or steep ground. The bigger the flat area around a settlement, the higher the chances of its expansion
with all things being equal. For example, Bulawayo is expanding to the outskirts such as Cowdray Park,
Emganwini, Magwegwe North and Pumula South because of the availability of arable land around. Harare,
Gweru, BeitBridge and many others are also expanding according to the availability of expansion space.
The presence of a resource for example, a mineral
When people discover a mineral and a mining concern develops. It is likely to attract more people, as
workers, who end up bringing their families to stay there. Then the need for services like more houses,
shops, roads, banks and other businesses inevitably cause the growth of the settlement into a mining
town. Hwange developed due to the mining of coal and Kwekwe developed due to the Industries at
Zisco Steel and then surrounding mining areas.
The influence of an irrigation scheme
An irrigation and a tourist resort also have a potential for expanding and developing a settlement.
Chisumbanje and Triangle Estates have grown and developed into agricultural towns in the South
Eastern Lowveld. Meanwhile Victoria Falls developed due to tourism as people came to see the wonder
gorge and the smoke that thunders.
The influence of a nearby bigger settlement
The existence of a nearby bigger settlement also may influence the growth of a small settlement through
decentralisation of industry and the movement of some people into that small town. Chitungwiza grew
because of relieving pressure from Harare.

Activity 11.2 Research

There are other factors in the situation of settlements that influence a settlement to expand. Can you name
them with your friend?

Exercise 11.2

1. The rural settlements consider the following list of factors as important.

A. Farmland, pasture, availability of water B. Industry, high rise buildings, shops
C. Minerals, heavy industry, tertiary industry D. Irrigation, commerce, machines
2. Nowadays food can be brought in from long distances and water can also be piped from long distances
because of improvements in _________.
A. transport and technology B. insurance
C. communication using cell phones D. health
3. The presence of a mineral in an area improves the lives of people because it provides ____________.
A. food to all B. employment
C. clothing D. farm tools
4. Food can be produced all year round through _________.
A. transport B. mining
C. irrigation D. commercial sales

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5. One of the most important functions of a growth centre is to ____________.
A. increase population in a nearby larger town
B. relieve population pressure from a nearby larger town
C. increase unemployment
D. keep thieves who will steal from a larger town
6. (a) Name three factors that would be considered in the location of a new secondary school in a city.
(b) Give two factors why the airports are located at the outskirts of cities.
7. (a) Explain why nowadays nearness to a water source or having enough space for farming are no longer
important factors in locating a settlement.
8. Choose two factors and explain how they influence the location of a settlement.
[Presence of a mineral, water supply, technology, ethnicity, population growth, type of soil, pasture,
peace]

UNIT 11.3 RURAL SETTLEMENT PATTERNS

Rural settlements patterns  refer to the shape of a community based on how they arrange houses. There are
generally three types of settlements. Each is based on its population density. Rural settlement patterns
refers to the pattern formed by the settlements; how they look makes a pattern. It could be linear, circular,
clustered, fragmented and dispersed.
1. Compact/clustered/nucleated settlement
Compact settlements have the highest density of
population. They have homes stacked together,
often touching at the sides or stacked in multi-
family buildings. The buildings are clustered
around a centre. Streets tend to be narrow
between the rows of homes. We often find this
type of arrangement in highly fertile floodplains.
Houses are stacked together at a point of higher
ground, which is sensible for flood-prone areas,
while the majority of land uses the fertile alluvial
deposits for farming. People live in this type of
settlement so as to work together and share
resources and farming tools. Fig. 11.3 Nucleated

2. Linear
A linear settlement is a type of settlement whereby
people settle and build homes along a transport
route. It is usually caused due to the fact that
people can be able to get easy access to transport
themselves and their goods and services.
In a linear settlement, there is the presence of
a transport line, for example, road or railway, a
river or a spring to provide water for domestic or
commercial use, a coast line which has a favourable
fishing ground, for example, shore of East African
coast and there is suitable terrain for cultivation of Fig. 11.4 Linear
crops such as at the foot of a scarp.

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Exercise 11.3

1. An example of a rural settlement pattern is __________.

A. skyscraper B. dispersed
C. T-shape D. robot controlled roads
2. Settlements that follow a railway line which criss-crosses a road are ______.
A. radial B. circular
C. linear D. haphazard.
3. Settlements that follow a river or a road or a track are called ____ settlements.
A. radial B. linear
C. central D. haphazard
4. What name is given to the following settlement pattern?

A. Haphazard B. Linear
C. Radial D. Circular.
5. Study the following settlement pattern.

Key

Houses

(a) Name the settlement pattern.

(b) Give two examples of such settlements in your home area.
(c) Give two advantages of such settlements.
(d) Give one disadvantage of such settlements.
6. (a) Draw and label a circular settlement.
(b) Give two examples of such settlements.
7. Study the picture below and describe the scene there.

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Wants the environment clean and free from pollution. It protects water sources, wild life, soils, fisheries
and other resources from misuse. It looks into mining and prevents the degradation of environment It
does environmental impact assessment prior to any mining or building project on the land. This therefore
means that EMA is responsible for authorising and prohibiting projects in conjunction with the Rural
District Councils and Urban Councils.

Activity 11. 4 Discussion

1. What are the differences between your rural homes and urban homes?
2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of living in the rural areas over cities?
3. As you discuss with your friend look into the factors such as space, waste disposal, freedom, playing space for
children, farming space, the cost of living, peace and crime, quality of food, water and electricity, technology,
exposure to information and others.

Activity 11. 5 Mentorship

Visit an EMA office in your vicinity as a class and plan five questions (as groups of five) that you are going to ask
the officials. When you come back write a report on what you learned about the duties of EMA and how you as
learners can contribute to the environmental protection and maintenances as a way of complementing EMA.
OR
You can form an Environmental Club and liaise with EMA for mentorship as young environmentalists.

Exercise 11.4

1. In towns land is governed by the __________.

A. Urban Councils Act B. Rural Councils Act
C. Mining Act D. Education Act
2. The Regional town and country planning Act, the Rural District Councils Act, the Urban Councils Act
and the EMA Act are all part of the _______ on settlement.
A. planning B. communication
C. legislation D. tourism
3. This act provides for the control and development of infrastructure in environmentally sensitive areas,
regulates the formulation of building standards and bye-laws in both rural and urban areas. They can
destroy buildings that are below standards and likely to cause danger to people. Which Act is this?
A. The Rural District Councils Act B. Regional Town and Country Planning Act
C. The Urban Councils Act D. The EMA Act
4. The Act also empowers Rural District Councils to make bye-laws on water pollution, solid waste
management and the removal of vegetation. Which Act is this?
A. The Rural District Councils Act B. Regional Town and Country Planning Act
C. The Urban Councils Act D. The EMA Act
5. One of the roles of EMA is to ________.
A. control Chinese
B. increase pollution in cities
C. arrest people and companies that cause pollution and encroach on environmentally sensitive areas
D. construct high rise buildings
6. Write notes on the EMA Act.
7. (a) According to your own understanding what is the link between the EMA Act and the Urban Councils
Act?

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 (b) When you find squatters increasing at the outskirts of the city causing land degradation and
pollution, which authority would you report to and why?
8. (a) A gang of young men have burned a large farm area as a means of hunting. What damage to the
environment are they likely to cause?
(b) Which joint authorities should attend to this problem and why?

Interesting facts

It is important for us to protect our land, water and air from any pollution. Before large projects are
implemented, they have to be cleared by EMA through an Environmental Impact Assessment [EIA] - such
projects as mining, housing and irrigation, and dam construction projects which affect the environment
to a large extent.

Summary of the chapter

In this chapter you have learned that:
•• Settlement types are affected by various factors both in rural and urban setups.
•• Various settlement patterns in rural areas are a result of a central resource, a road, a railway line,
river or a path and that they are mostly characterized by thatched huts.
•• Urban settlements are dominated by commercial activity, high cost of living and high living
standards.
•• The siting and situating of settlements derives from various crucial factors and avoid certain areas
because of the problems associated with them.
•• There are laws governing the allocation and use of land both in the rural and urban areas, which
include the Rural District Councils Act, the Urban Councils Act and the EMA Act.
•• The RDC Act concerns the regulation of land use and infrastructural development in rural areas.
•• The UBC Act provides for the distribution of land and its development including the stipulation of
standards on infrastructure to prevent any health hazards.
•• The EMA Act deals with environmental protection to prevent air pollution, land degradation and
regulate proper disposal of waste.
Glossary of terms
Pattern – the shape that a settlement makes as observed by an onlooker or passer-by.
Rural settlements – homes in rural areas.
Urban settlements – houses in towns.
Cultural rituals – functions to indigenous beliefs according to tribes, for example, taboos.
Land reform – the reallocation of land.
Fast Track Land Reform – the fast reallocation of land as farms were taken from whites and given to
the Blacks in the early year 2000s.
Government Policy – what the government decides to do or not to do.
Land holding capacity – the extent to which land can accommodate activity or settlements without
being depleted of its resources.
Satellite town – a relief town to keep people offloaded from an overpopulating city.
Decentralization – distributing town services to the rural areas.
Sky scrapers – tall, or high rise buildings with many floors.
Commercial zone – an area of business in a town or city.

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11. Which authority is responsible for allocating house stands in Zimbabwean cities?
A. The Rural District Councils B. The Urban City Councils
C. The Ministers D. The Environmental Management Agency
12. Which authority is responsible for the city’s cleanliness and health?
A. The Urban city council B. The local minister
C. The local councillor D. The nearest Rural District council
13. What is arable land?
A. It is land that has not been used B. Land where crops can be grown
C. It is land that is built up D. It is land that none wants
14. Mr. Motlalepula from Botswana wants to develop an irrigation scheme as an investment that will
create jobs for local people at Kezi. Which authorities will be involved in approving his project?
A. The Rural District Council, the Local minister, the local residents and EMA
B. The EMA and local residents
C. Local residents only
D. The Rural District Council only
15. In rural set ups there are large pieces of land where no one is allowed to build a home or cultivate.
What is the land for?
A. Future generations B. Pasture and national parks
C. Sports grounds D. Councillors

Structured Questions
1. (a) In your own words define the following terms:
(i) A hut (ii) Compound (iii) Village (iv) Sky-scrapper (v) Room [10]
(b) List differences between a city and growth point, house and room, road and a path. [6]
(c) With the aid of labelled diagrams, describe circular, and haphazard types of settlements. [9]
2. (a) List five factors that would be considered when you want to build your home in a rural setup. [5]
(b) Explain why you would consider these factors important in the location of your new home. [10]
(c) Why would you expect rural settlements to be dominated by the old people, youths or children?
Explain your answer. [5]
(d) Describe two sources of livelihoods in rural areas. [5]
3. With the aid of well labelled diagrams, describe a radial settlement and a linear settlement giving
practical examples where these settlements occur within your vicinity. [10]
(a) In the urban set up, why do you think industries are situated in the outskirts of the city? [4]
(b) Why do you think rent is more expensive in the low density than in the high density suburbs? [4]
(c) Why do we have sky scrapers in the city centre and not in the outskirts? [2]
(d) Identify and describe two sky scrapers in a city of your choice. [5]
4. In a city why is it important to plan carefully on:
(a) (i) larger space for residential areas?
(ii) having recreational zones like parks and stadiums?
(iii) the industrial areas? [9]
(b) Describe the legislation from the EMA Act, and the Rural Councils Act. [6]
(c) What do you think were the benefits of the Fast Track Land Reform in Zimbabwe? [5]
(d) Give two disadvantages the Fast Track Land Reform. [2]
(e) Suppose you were in charge of redistributing land, how were you going to do it? [3]

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 Chapter
TRANSPORT AND TRADE

12
Chapter objectives
By the end of this chapter, you should be able to:
•• describe transport.
•• identify modes of transport.
•• explain changes in modes of transport in recent times.
•• explain advantages and disadvantages of all modes of transport.
•• explain the different transport networks in Zimbabwe, region and Africa.
•• draw transport networks with reference to Zimbabwe, the Southern African in general.
•• calculate transport indices.
•• interpret transport indices.
•• discuss transport challenges and solutions to such challenges.

Introduction
Nowadays we can reach all places using transport. People can move across oceans by ships (water
transport) and air (airplanes) and by road (cars) we reach places that are far. By pipeline we can transport oil
all over the world. Nearby places can be reached through horses and in rural setups the scotch cart, bicycle
and foot are still viable means of transport. Where we cannot reach we can as well send messages by the
modern technology of WhatsApp, Instagram, Facebook and Twitter. Trade, highly benefits from water, air,
road, railway, pipeline and foot transport and all these being aided by computer technology which covers
communication advertising.

UNIT 12.1 MODES OF TRANSPORT

Transport is the movement of people or anything from one particular place to another. Many years ago
people had limited modes of transport so they used to transport themselves and their goods by horses or
donkeys, and scotch carts. In this modernised world, it is easier for people to travel short and long distance
and the transportation of goods from one place to another is made easier as well. People have a variety of
types of transport to choose from. These types include buses, cars, trains, airplanes, boats, trucks, bicycles,
motorbikes, carts and foot.
Transport is very essential in a country, therefore, its availability and efficiency is greatly appreciated
since commodities and people can travel from one place to another at any time without any hindrances.
Availability of modes of transport ease the day to day running of businesses because it is needed to
transport inputs, outputs and workers from one point to another. Thus, increasing the productivity of a
nation.

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Modes of transport
Modes of transport are the different types of transportation that people use when they want to travel from
one destination to another. There are five modes of transport and these are road, railway, air, water and
pipeline.
Air transport
Includes of aeroplanes and helicopters. They are
used to transport people and small luggage or
goods. Passengers and goods from Zimbabwe may
reach Europe or USA in a couple of hours, yet it
would take ages by water. Here speed is important.
Costs are high, hence goods of high value are
considered for example, gold and jewellery. It takes
(40 minutes or two thirds of an hour) less than an
hour to travel by plane from Bulawayo to Harare, a
distance of 440km or more and it takes a third of an
hour to travel from Bulawayo to Joshua Mqabuko
Airport, less than 20km by bus. In passenger planes
luggage is limited to 30kg only. Fig. 12.1 Aeroplane

Road transport
These are vehicles that use roads to transport people
and goods. They include cars, trucks, bicycles, buses
and motorbikes. Goods can be carried from door
to door in towns and around. Road is limited to a
weight restriction of 20 tonnes unlike the railway
line which can carry heavier goods to 1000 tonnes.
Road is the most commonly used means of transport
worldwide.
Railway transport
It is a mode of transport that uses railway lines. It
consists of trains and transports people and heavy Fig. 12.2 Vehicles
goods over short and long distances.
Water transport
Water transport refers to the movement of people
and goods across lakes or rivers and oceans using
boats, canoes and ships. There are also other water
cruisers like submarines which are for war and they
move under the water. It includes ships, boats,
cruises and it transports people and large cargos.
Ships can carry very large cargoes over 100 000
tonnes.
Cargo costs are very cheap but it takes ages to reach
its destination. This is suitable transport to carry Fig. 12.3 Train
goods across oceans.

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 Fig. 12.4 Cruise Fig. 12.5 Pipeline
Pipeline transport
This is a type of transport for liquids such as oil and petrol. It also carries sewage and water in cites. Though
it is costly in that you have to buy the land, it still has the lowest operational costs compared with other
types. An example is the Beira-Mutare pipeline which Zimbabwe helped Mozambique to protect during
the RENAMO bandits period. A pipeline also transports gas.
Changes in modes of transport in recent times
Technological advancements have enabled us to travel faster and more efficient than before.
Transportations were invented and discovered so as to reduce transport problems and the t ime taken to
reach destinations. Changes in modes of transport are increasing transport efficiency. In water transport,
people used sailing boats and technology brought about modern cruise liners. In air transport, the
technological advancements brought about fast jets. Bullet trains were also invented.

Exercise 12.1
1. Which animals were used as draught animals in ancient times?
A. Dogs and jackals B. Cats and dogs
C. Cattle and buffaloes D. Horses and donkeys
2. Which means of transport align with water transport in the following lists?
A. Cars, buses, lorries, kombis B. Canoes, ships, boats, submarines
C. Jet, spotter, cargo plane, helicopter D. Steam locomotives, electric trains, goods trains
3. Which list of transport means is associated with war?
A. Helicopters, submarines, tankers, horses B. Bus, passenger train, cargo ship, cargo plane
C. Private jet, private car, motor bike, canoe D. Donkeys, foot, honder fits, tractors
4. Which transport is suitable for transporting bulky cargoes across oceans, taking a long time to reach
the destinations?
A. Cargo ships B. Submarines
C. Pipelines D. Trains
5. How is crude oil and gas transported from one place to the other?
A. Through buses B. Through trains with containers
C. Through aeroplanes and ships D. Through pipelines

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6. Mr. Ncube, with his business associates, transported a container of curios for sale to Mauritius in 2008.
A month later they followed and it took them a few hours to get there from Bulawayo via South Africa.
As soon as they arrived they used some transport to Rosehill where they lodged. Daily they would
commute to Port Louis the capital for selling their products at the market places and sometimes they
would spend time at the beach on recreation. Using your knowledge on transport determine or infer
with reasons:
(a) The transport types in order which they used to ferry the container from Bulawayo to Mauritius.
(b) The transport they used from their residential homes from Bulawayo to their lodging place at
Rosehill in Mauritius.
(c) The transport they used on daily basis from Rosehill to Port Louis.
(d) The transport they used in the ocean on recreation at the beaches.
7. (a) What are the features of an aircraft that enable it to travel so fast?
(b) Why do you think jewellery and gold are transported using aircraft?
(c) Why is coal transported by rail?
8. (a) Name three modes of communication.
(b) Give two examples and explain how communication can be used in order to avoid travelling.

UNIT 12.2 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF TRANSPORT MODES

Modes of transport vary in speed, efficiency, cost and comfort as well as in type of luggage they carry and
their carrying capacities as well. Each type or mode of transport has its advantages and disadvantages in
its use.
Road transport
On the road you will find buses, cars, motorbikes, lorries, trucks, and bicycles according to their types.
These vehicles help to move people from one point to the other on the surface. They move on tarred roads
and dust roads. It is the quality of the road and the fuel conversion efficiency of a vehicle that affects speed
and durability of the tyres.
Advantages
•• Road transport is cheap over long distances.
•• It gives door to door deliveries.
•• It can also transport goods together with passengers.
•• It allows commuting.
•• Road ports are termini.

Disadvantages

•• Road transport is expensive over short distances.

•• Accidents on roads due to bad driving.
•• Traffic congestion sometimes causes accidents and lateness.
Railway transport
These are types of transport that use the railway line. It includes trains and subways (underground trains).
Trains are used to transport people over short and long distances and goods as well. In other words,
passenger trains transport people and goods train transport goods. Trains can carry a lot of people at a
time. They can carry bulky goods like iron ore, coal and finished goods. Trains are fast over short distances
and cheap over long distances. Trains start off and stop at a park station or railway station.

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 Water moves from dams to the houses through pumping by the city council. The most important pipeline
is that one which transports fuel, for example, crude oil through the Beira Corridor. Crude oil is a liquid.
Advantages
•• It moves large quantities over long distances.
•• Low costs of moving liquid.
•• Safe.
Disadvantages
•• It is very slow.
•• It carries large volumes of certain types of fluids.

Activity 12.1 Group work

In groups:
(a) Write down advantages and disadvantages of each of transport.
(b) Discuss on the factors that determine the choice of transport?

UNIT 12.3 TRANSPORT NETWORKS

The transport networks that are found in Zimbabwe are road, rail and air. Transport networks are crucial
in Zimbabwe and in other African countries because it result in economic growth and competitiveness
in the global market. The interconnectedness of roads makes the road transport network. Examples are
network of roads and streets, railways, pipes, aqueducts, and power lines. For instance, from the City Hall of
Bulawayo, we have major roads that form the transport network. To the East we have the Beitbridge Road,
to the North we have the Victoria Falls Road, and to the West we have the Plumtree – Botswana road. The
Beitbridge road is joined by the Masvingo Road at Mbalabala and so there is a turn to the left. To the South
is the Kezi-Maphisa road.

Regional Transport Networks

Where a road branches from another road it is called a transport node. Road networks are numerous
in regional capital cities like Harare (Zimbabwe), Gaborone (Botswana), Windhoek (Namibia), Lilongwe
(Malawi) and Lusaka (Zambia). Roads within a town, country, region and continent connect and crisscross
as destinations differ. People usually choose the shortest routes to their destinations so that they save on
time and cost. For example, South Africa has a modern and well-developed transport infrastructure. The
air and rail networks are the largest on the continent, and the roads are in good condition. The country’s
ports provide a natural stopover for shipping to and from Europe, the Americas, Asia, Australasia and all
coasts of Africa. The transport sector has been highlighted by the government as a key contributor to
South Africa’s competitiveness in global markets. It is regarded as a crucial engine for economic growth
and social development, and the government has unveiled plans to spend billions of rands to improve the
country’s roads, railways and ports.

International transport networks

Internationally countries are better linked and travelled using the air network better than road or rail.
Air
Air space is controlled by the radar. Air routes are not so diverse in Zimbabwe. We have two most important
and busy airports – the Harare International Airport and the Victoria Falls International Airport recently

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developed for tourism. Bulawayo is not very busy. In Botswana, Gaborone and Maun International Airports
as well as Kasane are the busiest. In these airports you find a lot of planes landing, stationary and taking off
every minute. The movement of a plane is computerised.
The movement of a plane is computerised. Oliver Tambo International Airport in South Africa is the
connecting link at international level. Other important links are Kenya, Egypt, Tanzania, and Ghana just to
name a few.
Map of air networks

Importance of transport networks

•• It enables migration.
•• Daily movement to and fro work is enabled by transport (commuting).
•• Transport enables trade to succeed. Goods of various types, quantities and qualities are moved
from place to place by airlines, railways, road traffic and water transport.
•• Business thrive due to transport. Orders and deliveries rely on transport.
•• Important meetings of pastors, business people, school heads, Ministers and Presidents are enabled
by various means of transport at any time.

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 •• Technology is the form of communication via phones, WhatsApp and Twitter now play a great role
in place of transport. Internet has played a great part enabling fast communication where the cost
of air transport or road is saved. Technology even enables the conduction of meetings by people in
different continents thus greatly saving the cost of flying them together.

Route
It is a link between two sites along which people or goods are moved. Choice of route depends on speed
and cost or reliability.
The distance between Bulawayo and Harare depends on which route you take; whether you use the route
via Chivhu or you use the normal one that goes via Gweru, Chanute and other towns. But by air it will be
the shortest because the plane flies straight.
Transport indices, calculations and interpretation
We may measure travel time and speed, transport nodes (or vertices)
delay, transport stops (route nodes) and traffic
density mathematically using formulae.
Transport networks join many forms of transport
which include buses, motor vehicles, bicycles and
rail transport. These routes make patterns and these
patterns affect the shape of a settlement.
Transport routes links places together and when edges (or links)
two or more routes link to one place, there is a
formation of a node.
A node or vertex is the end point of a route or
place where two or more rotes converge, usually a Fig. 12.6 Transport network showing nodes and links
settlement. Beta  Index  – is an indication on how
connected neighbouring areas are.

Calculation of traffic index

B
It is called the better index. It shows the relationship
between edges and nodes in a given area. Its A C
formula is: Beta Index (BI) = Number of links
Number of nodes
Example 1
Number of links
Beta Index (BI) = Number of nodes
8
Beta Index (BI) =
6
Beta Index (BI) = 1, 3 D E F

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3. The advantage with rail transport is that _________.
A. it can carry bulky goods B. it is expensive over short distances
C. it is slow D. it is noisy
4. The most time consuming transport is ____________.
A. water B. air
C. pipeline D. road
5. Which transport is the most fatal where there are hardly any survivors when an accident occurs?
A. Air B. Road
C. Pipeline D. Rail
6. Compare and contrast road and air transport.
7. Describe advantages and disadvantages of air transport.
8. Why is transport important to the country and to people?

UNIT 12.4 TRANSPORT CHALLENGES AND SOLUTIONS

The transport system is confronting a number of big challenges over the coming years and decades.
The Ministry has, over the last year or so, moved to strengthen its understanding of these issues and
how we can support the Government to address them over time. The challenges include the following;
•• Dirt roads or undeveloped roads destroy vehicles and cause accidents and delays in movement.
•• Poor roads with single lanes delay movement.
•• Traffic congestion is a problem especially in capital cities, for example, Harare in Zimbabwe is just
something else on a weekend in the city centre.
•• Accidents cause the death of people and loss of goods. Some accidents have been declared national
disasters.
•• Reckless driving, use of un-road worthy vehicles and speeding may cause serious accidents leading
to the loss of lives.
•• When an airplane crashes there is no survivor because it burns instantly. Sometimes it sinks into the
depth of an ocean.
Solutions to transport challenges
•• Development is the answer to dirt roads and single lanes meaning to say that roads need to be
graded and tarred so that they are of good quality.
•• Disaster prevention must be done by educating drivers to be sober and always follow road
regulations.
•• Serious inspection of vehicles to be made especially those that carry many passengers as public
transport.
•• Traffic congestion can be eased by developing double lanes on most of the roads. Even the
introduction of fly overs can ease the traffic congestion and prevent accidents and traffic germs
during the rush hours. Harare needs just this.
•• Police should also actively control traffic at pedestrian crossings.
•• Reckless driving should be criminalised.
•• Speed should be strictly monitored to avoid accidents.
•• Drunken driving should attract very stiff penalties.

Activity 12.4 Discussion

As a class, discuss the solutions to transport challenges.

167
Interesting facts
1. The movement of a plane is computerised.
2. Where there is traffic congestion and traffic germ on the road, a pedestrian would be better off than a
motorist, especially when you want to get to a nearby place within the streets. You can visit Harare on
Saturday to experience and witness this situation.
Summary of the chapter
•• Naming modes of transport, describing how they operate and describing their advantages and
disadvantages over one another.
•• Describing transport networks in Zimbabwe, regionally and internationally with a good example of
stant and swift and even faster than an airplane.
•• Analysis of transport indices, calculating them and interpreting their implications.
•• The larger the beta index, the better the connection of settlements in an area.
•• Transport networks are crucial in Zimbabwe and in other African countries because it result in
economic growth and competitiveness in the global market.
•• The interconnectedness of roads makes the road transport network.
Glossary of terms
Transport – way or means of movement on land, water, and air.
Transport network – various roadways or airways or waterways interconnecting to various
destinations.
Route – the direction taken by a transport to a destination.
As a crow flies – by a straight route.
Nodes – points where roads join each other.
Loading points – pick points or stopping points.
Connecting points – a city from which various transports connect.
Congestion – the crowding of cars on the road especially during the rush hour.
Modern technology – modern ways of communication, for example, WhatsApp, Email, Twitter,
sms, voice call.
Commuting – moving to and fro work daily.
Accident – a danger or hazard on the road due resulting in the damage of vehicles and
injury or deaths of people.
Calculate – compute as in Mathematics.
Interpret – deduce implications.
Analyze – break into components and examine.
Peak hour – the busiest time of the day, early in the morning as people go to work and
in the knocking off time as they return home.

Revision Exercises
Multiple Choice Questions
1. Among the following, which one is the most used type of transport worldwide?
A. Road B. Air
C. Water D. Animal power
2. You want to get to your rural home from a large city of Zimbabwe and you come from a low income
family. Which transport would you use?
A. Bus B. Bicycle
C. Horse D. Aeroplane

168
Structured Questions
1. (a) List five modes of transport that you know of. [5]
(b) Describe advantages or disadvantages of using road transport. [5]
(c) Explain the advantages and disadvantages of rail transport. [5]
(d) Fill in the following table.
Purpose of transport Mode of transport Means of transport
Transporting perishables i. ___________ Small aeroplane
Travelling from Kwekwe to
ii. _______________ vi. __________
Bulawayo
Transporting steel alloys from
iii. ____________ vi. _______________
Kwekwe to Harare
Transporting new cars from
iv. _____________ vii. ________
France to south Africa
Transporting oil from Beira to
viii. _________ Pipeline
Lusaka
2. (a) Choose from the following answers: road, water, cargo, bus, pipeline, crude oil, goods train, bus,
cargo plane. [10]
(b) Explain why one would choose:
(i) A plane instead of a bus.
(ii) A bus instead of a train.
(iii) A car instead of a bus.
(iv) A ship instead of a train.
(v) A plane instead of a ship. [10]
(c) How does trade benefit from the services of transport? [5]
3. (a) Explain what you understand by the following terms:
(i) Transport network [2]
(ii) Transport route [2]
(iii) Commuter buses [2]
(iv) Traffic congestion [2]
(b) Name two international airports associated with tourism. [2]
(c) Describe business activities associated with Victoria Falls. [8]
(d) What is the importance of Great Zimbabwe to Zimbabwe as a tourist resort? [5]
4. Tourism attracts a lot of transportation of both people and goods.
(a) Using examples, explain the role of air transport and road transport in the tourism industry. [6]
(b) Why do you think Botswana has developed fly-overs in Francistown recently? [3]
(c) Why is it important to maintain roads in a good condition in urban areas as well as in rural areas? [6]
(d) How is Zimbabwe benefitting from tollgates? [5]
(e) What are the disadvantages of tollgates? [3]
(f ) Name two tollgates that you know. [2]

170
EXAMINATION III
Paper 1: Multiple Choice Questions [25 marks]
Time allowed: 1hr 15 mins.
MAPWORK
Question 1- 8 refer to the 1: 50 000 Odzi map, Zimbabwe.
1. What is the name of the feature in Grid Square 4430007916000?
A. Huts B. Buildings
C. Dam D. Power line
2. The drainage pattern shown in Grid Square 44430007910000 _________ is called drainage.
A. trellis B. dendritic
C. circular D. radial
3. The settlement pattern in this grid is___________.
A. linear B. haphazard
C. circular D. radial
4. The rural settlement pattern shown in grid square 4430007907000 is _______.
A. clustered B. radial
C. dispersed D. linear
5. In which grid square would you find a dip tank?
A. 4291007912000
B. 4308007903300
C. 4391007911200
D. 4460007904300
6. What is the altitude of the summit of the hill in grid square 4300007914000?
A. 1220m B. 1200m
C. 1240m D. 1260m
7. The highest point in grid 4468007910300 is _____________.
A. orchard B. cultivation
C. spot height D. farm
8. What is the contour interval on Odzi map?.
A. 10m B. 20m
C. 30m D. 40m
9. Which human activity leads to increase in rainfall?
A. afforestation B. deforestation
C. siltation D. mining
10. Which of the following is a clean source of energy?
A. petroleum B. biogas
C. coal D. water
11. Bond notes were introduced in Zimbabwe to _______.
A. reduce inflation B. ease the shortage of cash
C. increase inflation D. reduce prices of basic food commodities

171
Paper 2: Structured Questions
Answer any four questions in this paper.
Section A
1. (a) Distinguish between weather and climate? [4]
(b) In travelling, people always want the shortest routes, but this is not always possible. Explain the
problems associated with getting the shortest and straight routes (travelling as a crow flies) by road,
air and railway. [8]
(c) What are the problems associated with Zimbabwean rural roads and how can they be solved? [5]
(d) You are the Minister of Transport and you have been asked to talk on the budget for your ministry,
that it should be allocated more money than the Ministry of Agriculture this year. Draft your points
and support them so that you will get support from other policy makers at Parliament. [8]

Section B
2. (a) How does trade benefit from the services of transport? [6]
(b) Explain what you understand by the following terms:
(i) transport network [3]
(ii) transport route [3]
(Iii) commuter buses [3]
(c) Name one international airport associated with tourism. [1]
(d) Tourism attracts a lot of transportation of both people and goods.
(i) Explain the role of air transport and road transport in the tourism industry. Refer to examples. [6]
(ii) Why do you think Botswana has developed flyovers in Francistown recently? [4]
3. (a) List three factors that would be considered when you want to build your home in a rural setup? [3]
(b) Select two of the factors and explain why you would consider them important in the location of
your new home. [4]
(c) Why would you expect the settlements to be dominated by the old people, youths or children?
Explain your answer. [8]
(d) A new gold mine is opening at Esigodini.
(i) What pattern of settlements would you expect to develop here? Why? [4]
(ii) Would you expect the settlements to be dominated by the old people, youths or children?
Explain. [3]
(iii) Why should women be fewer in the settlement? [3]

Section C
4. (a) With the aid of examples, describe what is meant by primary industries, secondary industries and
tertiary industries and explain the benefits of each of the economy. [10]
(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of gold panning in the places where it is practised?
[10]
(c) Describe the benefits of activities and services found at Victoria Falls. [5]

173
EXAMINATION II
MAP WORK -Questions 1-12 refer to the 1: 50 000 map of Masvingo Zimbabwe

175
REVISION EXERCISES FOR CHAPTER 6
MAP WORK - Question 1- 8 refer to the 1: 50 000 Antelope mine map, Zimbabwe.

176
 Updated Curriculum A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1–4

A Practical Approach

Updated Curriculum
FORM A Practical Approach FORM
to to

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

nderstanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features: Geography 1 Geography 2
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 1

• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.

A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of geographical instruments and apparatus
including techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

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Kafikira Wiseman Ncube Nkosilomusa Ntshingila Sithabisiwe Doro Crecens Chimanikire Soccicah Muzvidzani Melody

A Practical Approach
Updated Curriculum

Updated Curriculum

FORM A Practical Approach FORM

to
to

Geography 3 Geography 4
A Practical Approach to Geography | Form 2

his is a learner centred comprehensive book which gives learners an effective

understanding of the learning area. It constitutes of the following features:
• well-structured content as outlined in the syllabus.
• interesting facts about the subject that motivate and stimulate interest in the
learning of Geography.
• activities that require learners to actively participate in their learning process.
• knowledge of geographic terms, laws, facts, concepts, theories and phenomena.
• knowledge and understanding of scientific instruments and apparatus including
techniques of operations and aspects of safety.
• simple language to enhance understanding.
• attractive illustrations that reinforce concepts being learned.
• thorough revision exercises at the end of the chapter and follow up examinations
meant to evaluate the extent to which taught skills and knowledge have been
grasped.

9 78079 74 60645

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