INTRODUCTION

A fluid machine is a device which converts the energy stored by a fluid into mechanical energy
or vice versa . The energy stored by a fluid mass appears in the form of potential, kinetic and
intermolecular energy. The mechanical energy, on the other hand, is usually transmitted by a
rotating shaft. Machines using liquid (mainly water, for almost all practical purposes) are
termed as hydraulic machines. In this chapter we shall discuss, in general, the basic fluid
mechanical principle governing the energy transfer in a fluid machine and also a brief
description of different kinds of hydraulic machines along with their performances. Discussion
on machines using air or other gases is beyond the scope of the chapter.

CLASSIFICAITONS OF FLUID MACHINES

The fluid machines may be classified under different categories as follows:

Classification Based on Direction of Energy Conversion.

The device in which the kinetic, potential or intermolecular energy held by the fluid is
converted in the form of mechanical energy of a rotating member is known as a turbine . The
machines, on the other hand, where the mechanical energy from moving parts is transferred to
a fluid to increase its stored energy by increasing either its pressure or velocity are known as
pumps, compressors, fans or blowers .

Classification Based on Principle of Operation

The machines whose functioning depend essentially on the change of volume of a certain
amount of fluid within the machine are known as positive displacement machines . The word
positive displacement comes from the fact that there is a physical displacement of the boundary
of a certain fluid mass as a closed system. This principle is utilized in practice by the
reciprocating motion of a piston within a cylinder while entrapping a certain amount of fluid in
it. Therefore, the word reciprocating is commonly used with the name of the machines of this
kind. The machine producing mechanical energy is known as reciprocating engine while the
machine developing energy of the fluid from the mechanical energy is known as reciprocating
pump or reciprocating compressor.

The machines, functioning of which depend basically on the principle of fluid dynamics, are
known as rotodynamic machines . They are distinguished from positive displacement machines
in requiring relative motion between the fluid and the moving part of the machine. The rotating
element of the machine usually consisting of a number of vanes or blades, is known as rotor or
impeller while the fixed part is known as stator. Impeller is the heart of rotodynamic machines,
within which a change of angular momentum of fluid occurs imparting torque to the rotating
member.

For turbines, the work is done by the fluid on the rotor, while, in case of pump, compressor,
fan or blower, the work is done by the rotor on the fluid element. Depending upon the main
direction of fluid path in the rotor, the machine is termed as radial flow or axial flow machine .
In radial flow machine, the main direction of flow in the rotor is radial while in axial flow
machine, it is axial. For radial flow turbines, the flow is towards the centre of the rotor, while,
for pumps and compressors, the flow is away from the centre. Therefore, radial flow turbines
are sometimes referred to as radially inward flow machines and radial flow pumps as radially
outward flow machines. Examples of such machines are the Francis turbines and the
centrifugal pumps or compressors. The examples of axial flow machines are Kaplan turbines
and axial flow compressors. If the flow is party radial and partly axial, the term mixed-flow
machine is used. Figure 1.1 (a) (b) and (c) are the schematic diagrams of various types of
impellers based on the flow direction.

ROTODYNAMIC MACHINES

In this section, we shall discuss the basic principle of rotodynamic machines and the
performance of different kinds of those machines. The important element of a rotodynamic
machine, in general, is a rotor consisting of a number of vanes or blades. There always exists a
relative motion between the rotor vanes and the fluid. The fluid has a component of velocity and
hence of momentum in a direction tangential to the rotor. While flowing through the rotor,
tangential velocity and hence the momentum changes.

The rate at which this tangential momentum changes corresponds to a tangential force on the
rotor. In a turbine, the tangential momentum of the fluid is reduced and therefore work is done
by the fluid to the moving rotor. But in case of pumps and compressors there is an increase in the
tangential momentum of the fluid and therefore work is absorbed by the fluid from the moving
rotor.

Basic Equation of Energy Transfer in Rotodynamic Machines

The basic equation of fluid dynamics relating to energy transfer is same for all rotodynamic
machines and is a simple form of " Newton 's Laws of Motion" applied to a fluid element
traversing a rotor. Here we shall make use of the momentum theorem as applicable to a fluid
element while flowing through fixed and moving vanes. Figure 1.2 represents diagrammatically
a rotor of a generalised fluid machine, with 0-0 the axis of rotation and the angular velocity.
Fluid enters the rotor at 1, passes through the rotor by any path and is discharged at 2. The points
1 and 2 are at radii and from the centre of the rotor, and the directions of fluid velocities at
1 and 2 may be at any arbitrary angles. For the analysis of energy transfer due to fluid flow in
this situation, we assume the following:

(a) The flow is steady, that is, the mass flow rate is constant across any section (no storage or
depletion of fluid mass in the rotor).

(b) The heat and work interactions between the rotor and its surroundings take place at a
constant rate.

(c) Velocity is uniform over any area normal to the flow. This means that the velocity vector at
any point is representative of the total flow over a finite area. This condition also implies that
there is no leakage loss and the entire fluid is undergoing the same process.

The velocity at any point may be resolved into three mutually perpendicular components as
shown in Fig 1.2. The axial component of velocity is directed parallel to the axis of rotation ,
the radial component is directed radially through the axis to rotation, while the tangential
component is directed at right angles to the radial direction and along the tangent to the rotor
at that part.

The change in magnitude of the axial velocity components through the rotor causes a change in
the axial momentum. This change gives rise to an axial force, which must be taken by a thrust
bearing to the stationary rotor casing. The change in magnitude of radial velocity causes a
change in momentum in radial direction.
 However, for an axisymmetric flow, this does not result in any net radial force on the rotor. In
case of a non uniform flow distribution over the periphery of the rotor in practice, a change in
momentum in radial direction may result in a net radial force which is carried as a journal load.
The tangential component only has an effect on the angular motion of the rotor. In
consideration of the entire fluid body within the rotor as a control volume, we can write from the
moment of momentum theorem

(1.1)

where T is the torque exerted by the rotor on the moving fluid, m is the mass flow rate of fluid
through the rotor. The subscripts 1 and 2 denote values at inlet and outlet of the rotor
respectively. The rate of energy transfer to the fluid is then given by

(1.2)

where is the angular velocity of the rotor and which represents the linear velocity of
the rotor. Therefore and are the linear velocities of the rotor at points 2 (outlet ) and 1
(inlet) respectively (Fig. 1.2). The Eq, (1.2) is known as Euler's equation in relation to fluid
machines. The Eq. (1.2) can be written in terms of head gained 'H' by the fluid as

(1.3)
In usual convention relating to fluid machines, the head delivered by the fluid to the rotor is
considered to be positive and vice-versa. Therefore, Eq. (1.3) written with a change in the sign of
the right hand side in accordance with the sign convention as

(1.4)

Components of Energy Transfer It is worth mentioning in this context that either of the Eqs. (1.2)
and (1.4) is applicable regardless of changes in density or components of velocity in other
directions. Moreover, the shape of the path taken by the fluid in moving from inlet to outlet is of
no consequence. The expression involves only the inlet and outlet conditions. A rotor, the
moving part of a fluid machine, usually consists of a number of vanes or blades mounted on a
circular disc. Figure 1.3a shows the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of a rotor. The inlet
and outlet portions of a rotor vane are only shown as a representative of the whole rotor