Module-5

Cellular Telephone System

Cellular telephone system comprises of following
basic components:
Mobile station(MS): This is the mobile handset,
this is used by an user to communicate with
other user.
Cell: Each cellular region is divided into small
regions called cell (5 to 20km range)
Base station (BS): Each cell contains an antenna,
which is controlled by a small office.
Mobile Switching Centre(MSC): Each base
station is controlled by the switching office,
called mobile switching centre.
Cellular Concept
Cellular concepts involves various low power
transmitters, which allow cells to be sized
according to the subscriber density and
demand of a given area.
Frequency used in the one cell cluster cannot
be used in the other cells
Frequency Reuse
Frequency Reuse:
Frequency reuse is the core concept of the cellular
mobile radio systems.
The total available channels are divided into
number of channel sets.
Each channel set is assigned to a cell.
Cells are assigned with a group of channels that is
completely different from neighbouring cell.
Fig illustrates the concept of frequency reuse.
Cells with same alphabet use the same channel
set.
 Transmitting and Receiving
Basic operation of transmitting and receiving in cellular networks are:
Transmitting involves following step
1. A caller enters a 10 digit code (phone number) and presses the send button.
2. The MS scans a band to select a free band and sends a strong signal to send the number entered.
3. The BS relays the number to the MSC.
4. The MSC in turn dispatches the request to all the base stations in the cellular systems.
5. The Mobile Identification Number (MIN) is then broadcast over all the forward control channels throughout
the cellular systems. It is known as paging.
6. The MS responds by identifying itself over the reverse control channels.
7. The BS relays the acknowledgement sent by the mobile and informs the MSC about the handshake.
8. The MSC assigns the unused voice channel to the call and call is established.
Transmitting and Receiving
Receiving involves following steps:
1. All the idle mobile stations continuously listens to the paging signal to detect messages
directed to them.
2. When a call is placed to a Mobile Station, a packet is sent to the callees home MSC to find
were it is.
3. A packet is sent to the base station in its current cell, which then sends a broadcast on the
paging cell.
4. The called MS responds to the control channel.
5. In response, a voice channel is assigned and the ringing starts at MS.
Mobility Management
A MS is assigned a home network, commonly known as location area.
When a MS migrates out of its current BS into footprint of another, a procedure is performed to
maintain service continuity, known as handoff management.
An agent in the home network, keeps tracks of the current location of the MS.
The procedure to keep track of current location is referred as location management.
Handoff management and location management together referred to as mobility management.
Wireless Network Topologies
Wireless network topologies is defined as a configuration in which mobile terminal(MT)
communicates with other mobile terminals.
There are two type of network topologies used in wireless networks:
1. Ad-Hoc network Topology:
Ad-Hoc wireless network topology do not need any infrastructure to work.
Each node can directly communicate with other node, so no base station is necessary.
2. Infrastructure network topology
In this topology there is a fixed infrastructure that supports the communication between the
mobile terminals and between mobile and fixed terminals.
 Mobile Network Evolution
1G 2G 3G 4G
AMPS, NMT GSM/GPRS/ WCDMA/HSPA+ LTE
TACS EDGE CDMA2000/EVDO LTE-A
cdmaOne TD-SCDMA
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Mid 1980s 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s
analog Digital voice Mobile Mobile Internet
voice + Simple data broadband More & faster

CS590 (PENG) 9
0G Wireless
Mobile radio telephones were used for military communications in early 20th century
Car-based telephones first introduced in mid 1940s
◦ Single large transmitter on top of a tall building
◦ Single channel used for sending and receiving
◦ To talk, user pushed a button, enabled transmission and disabled reception
◦ Became known as “push-to-talk” in 1950s
◦ CB-radio, taxis, police cars use this technology
IMTS (Improved Mobile Telephone System) introduced in 1960s
◦ Used two channels (one for sending, one for receiving)
◦ No need for push-to-talk
◦ Used 23 channels from 150 MHz to 450 MHz
First Generation (1G) Technology
1G stands for first generation refers to the first generation of wireless telecommunication technology
known as cellphones.
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) invented at Bell Labs and first installed in 1982
Used in England (called TACS) and Japan (called MCS-L1)
Key ideas:
◦ Exclusively analog
◦ Geographical area divided into cells (typically 10-25km)
◦ Cells are small: Frequency reuse exploited in nearby (not adjacent) cells
◦ As compared to IMTS, could use 5 to 10 times more users in same area by using frequency re-use
(divide area into cells)
◦ Smaller cells also required less powerful, cheaper, smaller devices
First Generation (1G) Technology
First Generation (1G) Technology
Second Generation(2G) Technology
2G is short for "second-generation" wireless telephone technology.
To provide better voice quality, the second generation was developed for digitized voice
communication.
SMS messaging is also available as a form of data transmission for some standards.
Second generation 2G cellular telecom networks were commercially launched on the GSM
standard in Finland in 1991.
2G technologies can be divided into Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) based and Code
Division Multiple Access (CDMA) based standards depending on the type of multiplexing used.
2G makes use of a CODEC (Compression-Decompression Algorithm) to compress and multiplex
digital voice data.
Advantages of 2G
A 2G network can pack more calls per amount of bandwidth as a 1G network.
2G cellphone units were generally smaller than 1G units, since they emitted less radio power.
Some benefits of 2G were Digital signals require consume less battery power, so it helps mobile
batteries to last long.
Digital coding improves the voice clarity and reduces noise in the line.
Digital signals are considered environment friendly.
The use of digital data service assists mobile network operators to introduce short message
service over the cellular phones.
Digital encryption has provided secrecy and safety to the data and voice calls.
The use of 2G technology requires strong digital signals to help mobile phones work.
Second Generation(2G) Technology
Three major systems were evolved as follows:
IS- 136 (D-AMPS)
IS- 95 (CDMA)
Global System for Mobile (GSM)
D-AMPS
D-AMPS is essentially a digital version of
AMPS and it is backward compatible
with AMPS.
It uses the same bands and channels and
uses the frequency reuse factor of
1/7.25 frames per second each of 1994
bits, divided in 6 slots shared by three
channels.
Each slot has 324 bits-159 data, 64
control, 101 error-correction as shown in
Fig.
As shown in the figure, it uses both
TDMA and FDMA medium access control
techniques.
IS-95 (CDMA) & GSM
IS-95 (CDMA):
IS-95 CDMA: IS-95 is based on CDMA/DS-SS and FDMA medium access control techniques.
GSM:
The Global System for Mobile (GSM) communication is a European standard developed to
replace the first generation technology. Uses two bands for duplex communication.
Each voice channel is digitized and compressed to a 13Kbps digital signal.
Each slot carries 156.25 bits, 8 slots are multiplexed together creating a FDM frame, 26 frames
are combined to form a multiframe.
Global Systems for Mobile Communications(GSM)
GSM is known as Global Systems for Mobile Communications.
The first GSM system developed was GSM-900.
GSM operates in 900 MHz band for voice only.
GSM was the first totally digital cellular telephone system which used the services of SS7
signaling and integrated services digital network.
GSM System Architecture
The system architecture of the GSM is
shown in the fig.
It consists of three major subsystems that
interact with each other and with
subscribers through specified network
interfaces.
The three subsystems are as follows:
Mobile station.
Base station Sub systems
Network and switching subsystems
GSM System Architecture
Mobile Station (MS):
The MS consists of the physical equipment used by the subscriber to access a mobile network for
offered telecommunication services.
Functionally, the MS includes a Mobile Terminal (MT) and, depending on the services it can support,
various Terminal Equipment (TE), and combinations of TE and Terminal Adaptor (TA) functions (the TA
acts as a gateway between the TE and the MT).
Various types of MS, such as the vehicle mounted station, portable station, or handheld station, are
used.
Basically, a MS can be divided into two parts.
The first part is the Mobile equipment (ME) which contains the hardware and software to support
radio and human interface functions.
The second part contains terminal/user- specific data in the form of a smart card known as Subscriber
Identity Module (SIM), which can effectively be considered a sort of logical terminal.
GSM System Architecture
The SIM card plugs into the first part of the MS and remains in for the duration of use.
Without the SIM card, the MS is not associated with any user and cannot make or receive calls
(except possibly an emergency call if the network allows).
The SIM card is issued by the mobile service provider after subscription, while the first part of
the MS would be available at retail shops to buy or rent.
This type of SIM card mobility is analogous to terminal mobility, but provides a personal-
mobility-like service within the GSM mobile network.
An MS has a number of identities including the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI),
the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI), and the ISDN number.
The IMSI is stored in the SIM. The SIM card contains all the subscriber-related information stored
on the users side of the radio interface.
GSM System Architecture
Base Station Subsystem (BSS):
The BSS is the physical equipment that provides radio coverage to prescribed geographical areas,
known as the cells. It contains equipment required to communicate with the MS.
Functionally, a BSS consists of a control function carried out by the base station controller (BSC) and a
transmitting function performed by the BTS.
The BTS is the radio transmission equipment and covers each cell.
A BSS can serve several cells because it can have multiple BTSs.
The BTS contains the Transcoder Rate Adapter Unit (TRAU).
In TRAU, the GSM-specific speech encoding and decoding is carried out, as well as the rate adaptation
function for data.
In certain situations the TRAU is located at the MSC to gain an advantage of more compressed
transmission between the BTS and the MSC.
GSM System Architecture
Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS):
The NSS includes the main switching functions of GSM, databases required for the subscribers,
and mobility management. Its main role is to manage the communications between GSM and
other network users.
Within the NSS, the switching functions are performed by the MSC.
Subscriber information relevant to provisioning of services is kept in the home location register
(HLR). The other database in the NSS is the visitor location register (VLR).
The MSC performs the necessary switching functions required for the MSs located in an
associated geographical area, called an MSC area.
GSM System Architecture
The MSC monitors the mobility of its subscribers and manages necessary resources required to
handle and update the location registration procedures and to carry out the handover functions.
The MSC is involved in the interworking functions to communicate with other networks such as
Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) and ISDN.
The interworking functions of the MSC depend upon the type of the network to which it is
connected and the type of service to be performed.
The call routing and control and echo control functions are also performed by the MSC.
GSM System Architecture
Home location register (HLR):
The HLR is the functional unit used for management of mobile subscribers.
The number of HLRs in a PLMN varies with the characteristics of the PLMN.
Two types of information are stored in the HLR:
subscriber information and
part of the mobile information to allow incoming calls to be routed to the MSC for the particular
MS.
Any administrative action by the service provider on subscriber data is performed in the HLR.
The HLR stores IMSI, MS ISDN number, VLR address, and subscriber data
GSM System Architecture
Visitor Location Register (VLR):
The VLR is linked to one or more MSCs.
The VLR is the functional unit that dynamically stores subscriber information when the subscriber is located in the area
covered by the VLR.
When a roaming MS enters an MSC area, the MSC informs the associated VLR about the MS; the MS goes through a
registration procedure.
The registration procedure for the MS includes these activities:
The VLR recognizes that the MS is from another MN.
If roaming is allowed, the VLR finds the MS's HLR in its home MN.
The VLR constructs a Global Title (GT) from the IMSI to allow signaling from the VLR to the MSs HLR via the PSTN/ISDN
networks.
The VLR generates a Mobile Subscriber Roaming Number (MSRN) that is used to route incoming calls to the MS.
The MSRN is sent to the MS's HLR.
GSM System Architecture
Operation and Maintenance Subsystem (OMSS):
The OMSS is responsible for handling system security based on validation of identities of various
telecommunications entities. These functions are performed in the Authentication Center (AuC) and
Equipment identity register (FIR).
The AuC is accessed by the HLR to determine whether an MS will be granted service. The EIR provides
MS information used by the MSC. The EIR maintains a list of legitimate, fraudulent, or faulty MSs.
The OMSS is also in charge of remote operation and maintenance functions of the MN.
These functions are monitored and controlled in the OMSS.
The OMSS may have one or more Network Management Centers (NMCs) to centralize MN control.
The Operational and Maintenance Center (OMC) is the functional entity through which the service
provider monitors and controls the system.
The OMC provides a single point for the maintenance personnel to maintain the entire system. One
OMC can serve multiple MSCs.
Third Generation (3G) Technology
The third generation systems support high speed packet switched data (up to 2Mbps).
The 3G systems are accepted world-wide and the subscriber is able to get the mobile services from
anywhere in the world without replacing his handset or SIM card.
The subscriber also gets the same environment and services in the visiting network as in his home
network also being independent of the terminal.
Apart from this, the modern generation cellular systems provide with the framework to build various
kind of services (like VPN and conferencing) on the top of core cellular networks.
Currently the 3G cellular systems are being evolved from the existing cellular networks. Despite the
efforts of standardization, UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) and CDMA-2000 are
the two main 3G networks which are being used. Both these systems use CDMA technology.
The UMTS system is being promoted by ETSI (European Telecommunication Standards Institute) and
is a successor of GSM while CDMA2000 is successor of IS-95.
CDMA Technology
CDMA offers several advantages over FDMA and TDMA.
Error control coding, spreading of the spectrum, soft handoffs and strict power control are some of those
advantages.
CDMA is primarily an air-interface and access technique that is based on direct sequence - spread spectrum (DS-
SS). The air interface is significantly different in the case of CDMA compared with TDMA technique.
The core fixed network infrastructure of CDMA supports the wireless interface is very similar to the structure of
the GSM core network.
After 2000, third generation (3G) systems are being standardized all over the world currently by International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) under the banner of International Mobile Telecommunications beyond 2000
(IMT-2000).
Both IS-136 and IS-95 use CDMA as the air-interface and the access method. In CDMA, all user data, the control
channel and signaling information are transmitted on the same frequency at the same time. Also, CDMA employs
powerful error control codes.
The quality of voice is also improved and the multipath and fading problems are also reduced in CDMA
technology
FROM UNIVERSAL MOBILE TELECOMMUNICATION
SYSTEM (UMTS) TO LONG-TERM EVOLUTION (LTE)
(i) High Level Architecture of Long-Term
Evolution (LTE)
In 2004, 3GPP began a study into the
long term evolution of UMTS.
The aim was to keep 3GPP's mobile
communication systems competitive
over timescales of 10 years and beyond,
by delivering the high data rates and
low latencies that future users would
require.
Fig. shows the resulting architecture
and the way in which that architecture
developed from that of UMTS.
Evolution of the system architecture from GSM
and UMTS to LTE
In the new architecture, the evolved packet core (EPC) is a direct replacement for the packet switched domain of
UMTS and GSM. It distributes all types of information to the user, voice as well as data, using the packet switching
technologies that have traditionally been used for data alone.
There is no equivalent to the circuit switched domain: instead, voice calls are transported using voice over IP.
The evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network (E-UTRAN) handles the EPC's radio communications with the
mobile, so is a direct replacement for the UTRAN.
The mobile is still known as the user equipment, though its internal operation is very different from before.
The new architecture was designed as part of two 3GPP work items, namely system architecture evolution (SAE),
which covered the core network, and long term evolution (LTE), which covered the radio access network, air
interface and mobile. Officially, the whole system is known as the evolved packet system (EPS), while the acronym
LTE refers only to the evolution of the air interface.
Despite this official usage, LTE has become a colloquial name for the whole system, and is regularly used in this
way by 3GPP. We will use LTE in this colloquial way.
 FOURTH GENERATION (4G) TECHNOLOGY
4G is short for "fourth-generation" wireless telephone technology.
It is the latest technology which is started to be used in many countries.
LTE or Long Term Evolution is the brand name given to the efforts of 3GPP 4th Generation technology
development efforts mostly in Europe and UMB (Ultra-Mobile Broadband) is the brand name for similar efforts by
3GPP2 in North America.
The High Level requirements for a 4G technology were identified as:
Higher spectral efficiency.
Reduced cost per bit.
Increased service provisioning by lowering the cost and increasing efficiency.
Open interfaces as against closed technologies of the past.
Power consumption efficiency.
Scalable and flexible usage of frequency bands.
FOURTH GENERATION (4G) TECHNOLOGY
The technical specifications approved by 3GPP for the LTE project include the use of Orthogonal
Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) and advanced antenna technologies such as MIMO
(Multiple Input Multiple Output).
It specifies downlink peak speeds of 326Mbps and uplink peak speeds of 86Mbps, both in a 20
Mhz bandwidth.
It also mandates the roundtrip latency between the base station and handsets to 10-
milliseconds.
LTE-A System Architecture
Figure gives a high-level
description of the LTE-A network
architecture. Readers who are
more familiar with 2G/3G
networks may notice the
simplicity of the LTE-A
architecture.
In the old GSM there were base
transceiver stations (BTS), and
base station controllers (BSC), and
in UTRA networks we have
NodeBs and radio network
controllers (RNC), and several
different entities in the core
network
WIRELESS LAN (WLAN)
Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices using a wireless communication
method.
It usually provides a connection through an Access Point (AP) to the wider internet.
This gives users the ability to move around within a local coverage area while still be connected
to the network.
The major standards for WLANs are IEEE 802.11 and HIPERLAN
WLAN Specifications
The IEEE 802.11 specifications were developed specifically for Wireless Local Area Networks
(WLANs) by the IEEE and include four subsets of Ethernet-based protocol standards:
802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g.
802.11
802.11 operated in the 2.4 GHz range and was the original specification of the 802.11 IEEE
standard. This specification delivered 1 to 2 Mbps using a technology known as phase-shift
keying (PSK) modulation. This specification is no longer used and has largely been replaced by
other forms of the 802.11 standard.
WLAN Specifications
802.11a
802.11a operates in the 5 - 6 GHz range with data rates commonly in the 6 Mbps, 12 Mbps, or 24
Mbps range.
Because 802.11a uses the orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) standard, data
transfer rates can be as high as 54 Mbps.
OFDM breaks up fast serial information signals into several slower sub-signals that are
transferred at the same time via different frequencies, providing more resistance to radio
frequency interference.
The 802.11a specification is also known as Wi-Fi5, and though regionally deployed, it is not a
global standard like 802.11b.
WLAN Specifications
802.11b
The 802.11b standard (also known as Wi-Fi) operates in the 2.4 GHz range with up to 11 Mbps
data rates and is backward compatible with the 802.11 standard.
802.11b uses a technology known as complementary code keying (CCK) modulation, which
allows for higher data rates with less chance of multi-path propagation interference
The overall benefits include:
Up to twice the data rate of conventional 11 Mbps 802.11b standard products.
Greater WLAN coverage.
Improved security over standard 802.11b.
WLAN Specifications
802.11g
802.11g is the most recent IEEE 802.11 draft standard and operates in the 2.4 GHz range with
data rates as high as 54 Mbps over a limited distance.
Advantages of WLAN over Wired LAN
Installation: Wireless LANs are very easy to install. There is no requirement for wiring every
workstation and every room. This ease of installation makes wireless LANs inherently flexible. If
a workstation must be moved, it can be done easily and without additional wiring, cable drops
or reconfiguration of the network.
Portability: If a company moves to a new location, the wireless system is much easier to move
than ripping up all of the cables that a wired system would have snaked throughout the building.
It provide a useful complement to radio-based systems, particularly for systems requiring low
cost, light weight, moderate data rates, and only requiring short ranges.
BLUETOOTH
Bluetooth is a standard used in links of radio of short scope, destined to replace wired
connections between electronic devices like cellular telephones, Personal Digital Assistants
(PDA), computers, and many other devices.
Bluetooth technology can be used at home, in the office, in the car, etc.
This technology allows to the users instantaneous connections of voice and information
between several devices in real time.
The way of transmission used assures protection against interferences and safety in the sending
of information. Between the principal characteristics, must be named the hardiness, low
complexity, low consume and low cost.
The Bluetooth is a small microchip that operates in a band of available frequency throughout the
world. Communications can realize point to point and point multipoint.
The standard Bluetooth operates in the band of 2.4 GHz.
Bluetooth Architecture — Piconets and
Scatternets
Up to seven slaves can be active
and served simultaneously by the
master.
If the master needs to
communicate with more than
seven devices, it can do so by
first instructing active slave
devices to switch to low-power
park mode and then inviting
other parked slaves to become
active in the piconet.
This juggling act can be repeated,
which allows a master to serve a
large number of slaves.
Satellite Communication
ELEMENTS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION
The basic elements of a satellite communication system are shown in
the Fig. Basic elements are:
User: The user generates the baseband signal that proceeds through a
terrestrial network and transmitted to a satellite at the earth station.
Satellite: The satellite consists of a large number of repeaters in the
space that perform the reception of modulated RF carrier in its uplink
frequency spectrum from all the earth stations in the present
networks, amplifiers. They retransmit them back to the earth stations
in the down link frequency spectrum. To avoid interference, downlink
and uplink frequency spectrums should be separate and different.
Terrestrial network: This is a network on the ground which carries the
signal from user to earth station. It can be a telephone switch or a
dedicated link between the user and the earth station.
Earth Station: Its a radio station located on the earth and used for
relaying signals from satellites. It governs all the activities and
transmissions happening in the satellite communication.
Satellite Communication
TYPES OF SATELLITES (BASED ON ORBITS) :
Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites
 Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO) Satellites
GEO satellites are synchronous with respect to earth.
Looking from a fixed point from Earth, these satellites appear to be stationary.
These satellites are placed in the space in such a way that only three satellites are sufficient to
provide connection throughout the surface of the Earth.
The orbit of these satellites is circular.
There are three conditions which lead to geostationary satellites. Lifetime expectancy of these
satellites is 15 years.
1. The satellite should be placed 37,786 kms (approximated to 36,000 kms) above the surface of the
earth.
2. These satellites must travel in the rotational speed of earth, and in the direction of motion of
earth, that is eastward.
3. The inclination of satellite with respect to earth must be 00.
These satellites are used for TV and radio broadcast, weather forecast and also, these satellites are
operating as backbones for the telephone networks.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
These satellites are placed 500-1500 kms above the surface of the earth.
As LEO satellites circulate on a lower orbit, hence they exhibit a much shorter period that is 95 to 120
minutes.
LEO systems try to ensure a high elevation for every spot on earth to provide a high quality
communication link.
Each LEO satellite will only be visible from the earth for around ten minutes.
Using advanced compression schemes, transmission rates of about 2,400 bit/s can be enough for
voice communication.
LEOs even provide this bandwidth for mobile terminals with omnidirectional antennas using low
transmit power in the range of 1W.
The delay for packets delivered via a LEO is relatively low. Smaller footprints of LEOs allow for better
frequency reuse, similar to the concepts used for cellular networks. LEOs can provide a much higher
elevation in polar regions and better global coverage.
Low Earth Orbit (LEO) Satellites
These satellites are mainly used in remote sensing and mobile communication services (due to lower
latency).
Disadvantages:
The biggest problem of the LEO concept is the need for many satellites if global coverage is to be
reached.
Several concepts involve 50-200 or even more satellites in orbit. The high number of satellites
combined with the fast movements resulting in a high complexity of the whole satellite system.
The short time of visibility with a high elevation requires additional mechanisms for connection
handover between different satellites.
One general problem of LEOs is the short lifetime of about five to eight years due to atmospheric drag
and radiation.
Other factors are the need for routing of data packets from satellite to if a user wants to
communicate around the world.
Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) Satellites
MEO satellites can be positioned somewhere between LEOs and GEOs, both in terms of their
orbit and due to their advantages and disadvantages.
Using orbits around 10,000 km, the system only requires a dozen satellites which is more than a
GEO system, but much less than a LEO system.
These satellites move more slowly relative to the Earth's rotation allowing a simpler system
design (satellite periods are about six hours).
Depending on the inclination, a MEO can cover larger populations, so requiring fewer
handovers.
Disadvantages:
Due to the larger distance to the earth, delay increases to about 70-80 ms.
These satellites need higher transmit power and special antennas for smaller footprints.
A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
A generalized configuration of a fiber-optic communication system is shown in Fig.
A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Information Input:
The information input may be in any of the several physical forms, e.g., voice, video, or data.
Therefore an input transducer is required for converting the non-electrical input into an
electrical input.
For example, a microphone converts a sound signal into an electrical current, a video camera
converts an image into an electric current or voltage, and so on.
In situations where the fiber-optic link forms a part of a larger system, the information input is
normally in electrical form.
Examples of this type include data transfer between different computers or that between
different parts of the same computer.
In either case, the information input must be in the electrical form for onward transmission
through the fiber-optic link.
A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Transmitter:
The transmitter (or the modulator, as it is often called) comprises an electronic stage which
(i) converts the electric signal into the proper form and
(ii) impresses this signal onto the electromagnetic wave (carrier) generated by the
optoelectronic source.
Optoelectronic Source:
An optoelectronic (OE) source generates an electromagnetic wave in the optical range
(particularly the near-infrared part of the spectrum), which serves as an information carrier.
Common sources for fiber-optic communication are the light-emitting diode (LED) and the
injection laser diode (ILD).
A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Channel Couplers:
In fiber-optic systems, the function of a coupler is to collect the light signal from the
optoelectronic source and send it efficiently to the optical fiber cable.
Fiber-optic Information Channel:
In fiber-optic systems, the optical signal traverses along the cable consisting of a single fiber or a
bundle of optical fibers.
An optical fiber is an extremely thin strand of ultra-pure glass designed to transmit optical
signals from the optoelectronic source to the optoelectronic detector.
In its simplest form, it consists of two main regions:
(i) a solid cylindrical region of diameter 8-100 tun Called the core and
(ii) a coaxial cylindrical region of diameter normally 125 tun called the cladding.
A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Repeater
As the optical signals propagate along the length of the fiber, they get attenuated due to
absorption, scattering, etc., and broadened due to dispersion.
After a certain length, the cumulative effect of attenuation and dispersion causes the signals to
become weak and indistinguishable.
Therefore, before this happens, the strength and shape of the signal must be restored.
This can be done by using either a regenerator or an optical amplifier, e.g., an erbium-doped
fiber amplifier (EDFA), at an appropriate point along the length of the fiber.
Optoelectronic Detector:
The reconversion of an optical signal into an electrical signal takes place at the OE detector.
Semiconductor p-i-n or avalanche photodiodes are employed for this purpose.
A FIBER-OPTIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Receiver:
For analog transmission, the output photocurrent of the detector is filtered to remove the dc
bias that is normally applied to the signal in the modulator module, and also to block any other
undesired frequencies accompanying the signal.
After filtering, the photocurrent is amplified if needed.
These two functions are performed by the receiver module.
For digital transmission, in addition to the filter and amplifier, the receiver may include decision
circuits. If the original information is in analog form, a digital-to-analog converter may also be
required.
Information Output:
Finally, the information must be presented in a form that can be interpreted by a human
observer.
MICROWAVE COMMUNICATIONS
Microwave communications are widely used for telephone networks, in broad cast and
television systems and several other communication application by services, railways, etc.
Frequency Modulated Microwave Communication System:
FM microwave systems, when equipped with suitable multiplexing technology are capable of
carrying hundreds of voice and data channels.
In addition to point-to-point communications. the FM microwave systems can also be extended
to broadcasting television audio signals.
Block diagram of FM transmitter
Frequency Modulated Microwave Communication System
The baseband input signal can be anything from a FDM voice channel to a TDM channel or from a
composite video signal to a wideband data signal.
The baseband signal is first applied to the preemphasis network that, in general, provides extra
amplification to high frequency baseband signals.
When the signal coming out of the preemphasis circuit is applied to the FM modulator, the low
frequencies get frequency modulated by the Intermediate
Frequency (IF) carrier and the high frequencies get phase modulated.
This ensures a more uniform SNR (signal to noise ratio) throughout the frequency range.
The IF frequencies are generally in the range of 60-80 MHz. The modulated output from the FM
deviator is passed through the IF amplifier to the mixer.
The mixer then converts the signal to microwave frequencies. Using the mixer instead of the
multiplier preserves the modulation index and also limits the bandwidth.
The output of the mixer is passed through the band pass filter to band limit the signal and then to the
channel-combining network. Finally, the signal is fed to the transmitter antenna.
Virtual line of sight for microwave FM transmission using Repeaters
Block diagram of FM receiver
FM receiver
The RF signal picked by the receiving antenna is passed to the channel separation network,
which separates the individual channels.
The bandpass filter then filters out any frequencies that fall outside the bandwidth of the
required signal.
The mixer employs the same RF oscillator frequency as used at the transmitter and converts the
RF signal to the IF band.
The FM detector demodulates the signal which is then passed to the deemphasis network.
The de-emphasis network applies inverse functionality of the preemphasis network at the
transmitting end, to finally restoring the original baseband signal.