Wolaita Sodo University

College of Engineering
Semester Project on Power Quality Measurement System

Automatic Power Factor Correction

Submitted By:
S.No. NAME OF THE CANDIDATES ID No.

1. AMANUEL ASFAW ENG/RT/1068/12

2. ELFNESH ABEBE ENG/R/315/10

3. FIREHIWOT ADMASU ENG/R/857/10

4. HENOK BIRHANU ENG/R/325/10

5. TESFATSION CHAFU ENG/RT/1030/11

6. YESHALEM WORKIE ENG/R/351/10

Department: Electrical & Computer Engineering

Stream: Power Engineering (SEC 1)
Advisor Name: Ins. Mareshet K.
Mar. 17, 2022

Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

 SEMESTER PROJECT 2021/22

TITLE PAGE
POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT SYSTEM OF
AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Submitted By:

S.No. NAME OF THE CANDIDATES ID No.

1. AMANUEL ASFAW ENG/RT/1068/12

2. ELFNESH ABEBE ENG/R/315/10

3. FIREHIWOT ADMASU ENG/R/857/10

4. HENOK BIRHANU ENG/R/325/10

5. TESFATSION CHAFU ENG/RT/1030/11

6. YESHALEM WORKIE ENG/R/351/10

A SEMESTER PROJECT SUBMITTED TO DEPARTMENT OF

ELECTRICAL & COMPUTER ENGINEERING (POWER ENGINEERING)

Mar 17, 2022

Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

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DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the project entitled ―Automatic Power Factor Correction
type of Power Quality Measurement System’’ is our own work carried out by us
during the academic year 2021/22 under the supervision & guidance of Ins.
Mareshet K., Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering, College of
Engineering. The extent & source of information are derived from existing
literature and have been indicated through the project at the appropriate places. The
matter embodied in this work is original & has not been submitted for semester
project, either in this or any other university.

S/No. (Name of the students) ID No. Signature

1. Amanuel Asfaw ENG/RT/1068/12 _______

2. Elfnesh Abebe ENG/R/315/10 _ ______

3. Firehiwot Admasu ENG/R/857/10 _______

4. Henok Birhanu ENG/R/325/10 _______

5. Tesfatsion Chafu ENG/RT/1030/11 _______

6. Yeshalem Workie ENG/R/351/10 _______

Place: Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

Date: Mar 17, 2022

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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that project report entitled ―Automatic Power Factor Correction of
Power Quality Measurement System’’ that is submitted by this group members is a
record of the candidates own work carried out by them under my own supervision.
The matter embodies in thesis is original & has not been submitted for any
semester project.

---------------------------------- ------------------

Advisor Sign.

--------------------------------- ------------------

Department Head Sign.

Place: Wolaita Sodo, Ethiopia

Date: Mar 17, 2022

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, we would like to thank the almighty God, without his blessing and mercy this project
would not have been possible.

Then, we would like to thank our family members for their constant support and encouragement.

Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to our advisor Ins. Mareshet K. for his
continuous support of our project, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm & immense
knowledge. His guidance helped us in all the time of research and writing of this project.

WE would like to express our gratitude to our head of the department, Electrical & Computer
Engineering ―Mr. Sirak’’ and dean of the college, College of Engineering ―Mr. Tsegaye ’’ who
helped us to finalize our project.

Lastly, we offer our regards to the faculty & all of those who supported us in any aspect during
the completion of this project.

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ABSTRACT

Low power factor results in poor electrical efficiency of electrical loads. It results
in excess heating of equipment since the current flow through electrical system
components is higher than necessary, which lead to damage or shortening of life of
the appliances. Low power factor also results in low-voltage conditions which can
lead to slow operation of appliances and dimming of lights. When the power factor
is low, the electrical utility provides higher apparent power which means that the
utility will use larger distribution system devices. And the utility will pass the
higher expenses through higher utility bills. In the present technological revolution
power becomes very precious. So we need to find out the causes of power loss and
improve the power system efficiency. Due to industrialization, the use of inductive
load is increasing and hence power system is losing its efficiency. So we need to
improve the power factor with a suitable method. Whenever we are thinking about
any programmable devices micro-controller based embedded technology comes
into front. Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line
voltage and line current, by determining the delay in the arrival of the current
signal with respect to voltage signal; with the help of high accuracy power factor
transducer using an internal timer. This time values are then calibrated as DC
output voltage and corresponding power factor. Then the values are displayed in
the (2X16) LCD modules. Automatic power factor correction techniques can be
applied to the industries, power systems and also households to make them stable
and efficient. The use of microcontroller reduces the costs become more efficient.

Keywords: ATMEGA-328 Micro-controller, APFC, Power quality, Power factor transducer

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i
CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii
LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... vi
CHAPTER-ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1
1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM .............................................................................. 11
1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................... 12
1.3 OBJECTIVE ................................................................................................................... 14
CHAPTER-TWO .......................................................................................................................... 15
2. INTRODUCTION TO APFC ............................................................................................... 15
2.1 THEORY ........................................................................................................................ 15
2.2 EXPECTED OUTCOMES & SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT ........................... 22
CHAPTER-THREE ...................................................................................................................... 24
3. METHODOLOGY AND SYSTEM DESIGN ..................................................................... 24
3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND OVERALL OPERATION ......................................... 24
3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN ......................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER-FOUR ........................................................................................................................ 35
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................... 35
4.1 SIMULATION RESULTS ............................................................................................. 35
CHAPTER-FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 39
5. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION ...................................................................... 39
5.1 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................... 39
REFERENCE ................................................................................................................................ 40
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 43

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure2.1: Phasor diagram ............................................................................................................ 16

Figure3.1Block diagram of project ............................................................................................... 25
Figure 4.1 Configuration of micro-controller with LCD and relay .............................................. 36
Figure 4.2 Simulation result-1 ...................................................................................................... 37
Figure 4.3 Simulation result-2 ...................................................................................................... 38

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CHAPTER-ONE

1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

1.1.1. POWER QUALITY

The concept of power quality has often been misunderstood and oversimplified. But, in this
sophisticated electronics era, assessment of power quality has become extremely important issue.
The widespread use of high-tech devices has complicated all aspect of electrical power. These
devices are more sensitive to the effects of power quality and also they have a negative impact
on it. Poor power quality can result in less productivity, lost and corrupted data, equipment
damage and poor power efficiency of a system.

The causes and solutions of power quality problems are site dependent, so the power quality
assessment is important for sensitive projects. Under normal (ideal sinusoidal, balanced, and
symmetric) conditions power quality is basically a loading problem. But, with the growth in the
power electronics and control systems industry, majority of linear customer loads, are now being
dominated by non-linear customer loads. Such loads like: switch mode power supplies used in
both industrial and commercial computers / microprocessors; variable speed drives used in
process control; arcing device like welders and arc furnaces; silicon controlled rectifiers used in
air-conditioners; and basically any electronic device which draws current in pulses are termed to
be non-linear. So the power quality of a system is equally the customer’s concern as much it is
the supply authority’s concern.

―Power Quality‖ is a broad term used to describe an electrical power system performance. It has
acquired much interest in recent years because of the increasing concern for supplying clean/ a
loss free electrical energy to the consumers in the existence of non-sinusoidal waveforms. Since,
modern electrical systems are largely based on control units with micro-controllers; PQ analysis
has become more important due to the effects of power quality disturbances on the safe operation
of electrical system control units. Anything unfavorable (e.g. corruptive effects of power

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electronics and non-linear loads) in the power system can be defined as power quality
disturbances.

The main objective of power companies is to provide solutions to enhance power quality with
specific supply continuity and voltage quality. A proper understanding of the power quality can
help companies to determine an appropriate approach to improve PQ. Power quality assessment
has become a critical concern for virtually all electric utilities through the world. It is primarily
due to the fact that customer’s equipment has become more sensitive and is now interconnected
in extensive networks and processes.

Power quality monitoring system is a process that is based on gathering voltage and current data,
transporting them to remote centers, and converting them into decision-making information. It
continuously measure and analyze the power quality, and can carry out additional functions, such
as communication with an internet network, statistical analysis through uninterrupted
measurement. Generally, the PQ monitoring systems are classified in three generations, which
vary according to their functions of performance. In the first generation, the functions are
displaying electrical parameters (voltage, current, and power, etc.) and evaluating power quality
option. In the second generation, the functions are event detecting, PQ parameter calculation,
serial communication and feature display. Finally, the functions in the third generation are PQ
parameter calculation, communication and web-browsing features.

 Nonlinear loads

There are various energy consumers that use devices with nonlinear current, voltage
characteristics that affect the power quality delivered by the energy supplier [5]. The power
quality parameters are worst because of: Nonlinear loads, Electromagnetic immunity of devices
on electromagnetic distortions is smaller & Electromagnetic ecology

The main point of the power quality improving is to understand the problem by the energy
customers and suppliers [7]. In order describe the sources of the power distortion, it is necessary
to determine which parameters of the power decide about the quality. The factors that affect the
power quality the most are: faults in power system, substations mains, as well as switching on
and off the loads of the high power [1]. Moreover, installation of the big amount of nonlinear

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loads such as lighting, electronic devices in the vicinity of the nonlinear, high power electric
drive has negative consequences.

Nonlinear loads having electronic inputs, converts delivered energy into the same type of energy,
but with different parameters than in the feeder [9]. This type of power conversion allows
controlling the conversion of the energy in order to obtain the other type of energy, i.e. the
mechanical one. It concerns the electric motors, lighting and heating. All the energy saving
systems basing on the semi-conductors (diodes, thyristors, etc.) allows for the energy savings; on
the other hand they launch distortions to the electric grid [9].

These nonlinear loads are being used more often in many locations. In the ideal supplying
system, the current and voltage waveform is strictly sinusoidal. In case, where there are the
nonlinear loads in the system the waveforms are distorted. As a result of the nonlinear loads, one
may have a problem with the increase of the RMS current of the capacitors for the reactive
power compensation. The devices that are prone to the harmonics are transformers. The
harmonic presence makes the power losses of the transformer core bigger [8]. Distorted currents
may cause: Higher supplying power, Higher power losses in a transmission line, Malfunction of
protection, Overheating of transformers and motors, Malfunction of capacitors for reactive
power compensation, Increase of the current in neutral conductor & Disturbances for sensitive
devices Shorter life expectancy of the insulation.

 What is power quality?

Power Quality refers to the characteristics of power system specifically current and voltage,
provided to customers. Power has to be provided in clean sinusoidal waveforms at a frequency
that doesn’t contain sags or spikes, which allow customer’s equipment to operate reliably. Good
power quality can be defined as a steady supply voltage that stays within the prescribed range,
steady AC frequency close to the rated value & smooth voltage curve wave form that resembles
a sine wave. It is a stable electric power that drive electrical device and enhance its ability to
function properly. It refers to the ability of electrical equipment to consume the energy being
supplied to it.

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 Why do we measure power quality?

Along with the development of various technologies, customers are requiring high level power
quality than ever before and due to the regulatory requirements for the quality of electricity
supply being imposed, power quality has become an important issue for facilities. Generally,
power quality has become a major concern for both electricity providers and their customers. For
customers, the economic impact of power disturbances may cost a lot of money for repairing &
replacing home appliances in production of losses and cleanup. For utilities, system disturbances
lead to customer dissatisfaction and also results in load & revenue losses. Therefore, requirement
of a system which can monitor electrical parameters, detect and record abnormalities in real time
is essential.

 Causes of poor power quality

There is a need to identify the factors which lead to poor power quality in a power system. There
are a number of possible causes that bring poor power quality but we classified them as:

a) Uncertain events

Most of the problems in power quality are caused by random events like faults, resonance,
lightening surges, etc. Electric utility is associated with such kind of electric power disturbances.

b) Utility

Utility is responsible for poor power quality at three ends: generation end, transmission end &
distribution end. Power quality issues at the generating end arise due to expansion, maintenance,
scheduling, outages and load shifting. Also, power quality gets affected in transmission lines due
to wind interrupting the power supply, voltage variations, lightening, improper functioning of
voltage regulation devices, etc. And voltage dips, interruptions, transients, spikes, transformer
energization, etc. are reasons of poor power quality in the distribution system end.

c) Consumer

Consumers contribute to a big chunk of power quality issues. Non-linear loads whose
impedances vary with the applied voltage, used by consumers produce harmonics in the power

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system, thus leading to poor power quality. The changing impedance means non-sinusoidal
current drawn by the non-linear load even if there is sinusoidal voltage in the system. The non-
sinusoidal current contains harmonic current which interfere the system’s impedance & leads to
voltage distortion that can affect the power system and the loads connected to it.

d) Manufacturer

Power quality issues can be related to manufacturers in two ways: standards and equipment
sensitivity. Lack of standards for installation, testing, certification, purchase, sales or use of any
product may result in poor power quality. Again, the sensitivity of equipment may cause poor
power quality issues if it is incompatible with the electrical environment due to high sensitivity.

 Effects of poor power quality in power system

The decline in quality of power is a big issue due to increase in the usage of power electronic
devices that uses inverters, an increase of unbalanced loads like large furnaces or rectifiers, and
typically complex power distribution due to an increment in power network interconnections for
new energy plants. Inadequate power quality induces potential problems in receptacle or
transmission devices and electronic apparatus malfunctions. For instance, harmonics is known to
produce burn-out reactors and bad noise in capacitors. Moreover, impulse noise and voltage
drops block control elements that are dependent on a computer. Power supply network issues
that are induced by inadequate power quality are a frequent issue for both electric power
providers and consumers. Nevertheless, it is not simple to tell if the source of inadequate power
supply quality is at the provider’s side or the consumer’s system. Depending on this
arrangement, power quality measurement is required to know the actual source of power quality
issues as well as to treat and assess for efficient counter measures.
There are harmful impacts of poor power quality on both utility & consumer end. Some of the
main effects of poor power quality in the power system are as following:

 Harmonics add up to the wave form and equipment may receive high peak of wave forms
thereby damaging it. High voltages may also cause the equipment to operate in saturation
region producing additional disturbances.
 Due to overheating, noise, etc. lifetime of equipment will reduce.

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 System’s efficiency or performance highly decreased due to poor power quality.

 Due to power failure or interruption, important data can be lost or corrupted which may
lead to a great loss.
 Costs of power system are highly increased if there is poor power quality.
 When there is a power failure, consumer can face many problems due to unavailability of
power & it affects the utility costs as well.
 Consumer loads are badly affected or even get damaged due to power quality issues.
 Sometimes there is need to oversize the power system due to additional stress imposed by
poor power quality. This expansion results in high installation costs.

 Importance of power quality in power system

With the introduction and wide spread use of sensitive electronic equipment, energy users have
become much more aware & sensitive to transients and other power anomalies. Previously,
equipment was fairly immune to short term power fluctuations, harmonic distortions and did not
project problems back in to utility’s system. Now, with the introduction of non-linear devices,
harmonics are created which can affect the customer’s and utility’s electrical system equipment.
The utility is no longer just providing power to turn lights on and start motors. As a result, there
has been an increase of problems experienced by electrical end-users. To determine the source of
these issues, there are available means for customers, utilities and consultants to easily monitor
record and analyze an electric power. Based on the sources of the problem, power treatment
methods are available to cure or limit the problems.

Electricity with a bad quality is dangerous and uneconomical at both utility & consumer end.
There is a big need to focus on the quality of power being supplied to the loads. Power quality
can have a visible impact on the performance & cost of a power system. So, it is essential to
make sure that the power being consumed by the system is of right quality and compatible to
function with the power delivered to it.

The power quality factors are the items needed for examining and assessing power problems. By
quantifying the power quality factors, user can obtain a complete understanding of the power
quality profile. The raising application of devices and loads with a non-linear voltage-current
and/or operating features which are not steady over time, has headed to an raise in electrical

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system disturbances in electrical power supply of public power supply and industrial electrical
networks. In parallel with the evolution of suited regulations and recommendations for the
resolution of limits and compatibility levels, assessment methods and devices are being built
which allow the relevant measured figures for system disturbances to be developed. The
following measures are of special interest:

• Voltage fluctuations
• Flickers
• Power factor
• Transient over-voltages
• Voltage unbalance
• Harmonics
• Inter-harmonics

1.1.2 POWER FACTOR

The power factor of an AC electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power to the
apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1[1]. Real power is the capacity of the electric
load for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and
voltage of the electric load. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to
a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent
power can be greater than the real power [1]. Low-power-factor loads increase losses in a power
distribution system and result in increased energy costs.

In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase; changing polarity at
the same instant in each cycle Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements such as
filament lamps and cooking stoves have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or
capacitive elements such as lamp ballasts and motors often have a power factor below 1.0 [2].
Over the last few years, the interest in reactive power compensation has been growing, mainly
because of the way in which energy supplier charge a customer for reactive power [3].
Moreover, the energy price is growing, what force the industry plants and individual customers
to minimize energy consumption, including reactive power. The aim is to minimize reactive
power flow in supplying and distribution systems, eliminate or minimize the charge for reactive
power as well as aspire to active energy limitation, in result, reducing fare for electrical energy

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[3]. In the matter of fact, the energy providers want them customers to compensate reactive
power. There are few solutions, that allow handle the problem of reactive power compensation.
One of them is reactive power compensator using capacitors. This is the most popular
compensating device, mainly because of economic reasons, they are relatively cheap comparing
with i.e. active filters or compensation by means of electric motors [3]. That is the main reason,
for which our semester project topic is Power Quality Measurement System & specifically
Design of automatic power factor corrector using capacitors.

 Active /Real Power

Power is a measure of energy per unit time [1]. Power therefore gives the rate of energy
consumption or production. The units for power are generally watts (W). For example, the watt
rating of an appliance gives the rate at which it uses energy. The total amount of energy
consumed by this appliance is the wattage multiplied by the amount of time during which it was
used; this energy can be expressed in units of watt-hours (or, more commonly, kilowatt-hours)
[4].The power dissipated by a circuit element whether an appliance or simply a wire is given by
the product of its resistance and the square of the current through it: P= (I) ^2 R. The term
―dissipated‖ indicates that the electric energy is being converted to heat. This heat may be part of
the appliance’s intended function (as in any electric heating device), or it may be considered a
loss (as in the resistive heating of transmission lines); the physical process is the same. Another,
more general way of calculating power is as the product of current and voltage: P=IV. For a
resistive element, we can apply Ohm’s law (P=I.V) to see that the formulas P=I2 R and P=I.V
amount to the same. [4]

 Complex power
Applying the simple formula P=IV becomes more problematic when voltage and current are
changing over time, as they do in AC systems. In the most concise but abstract notation, power,
current and voltage are all complex quantities [5], and the equation for power becomes: S=I*V
Where S is the apparent power and the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate of the current I,
meaning that for purposes of calculation, the sign (positive or negative) of its imaginary
component is to be reversed. All this ought to make very little sense without a more detailed
discussion of complex quantities and their representation by phasor. In the interest of developing
a conceptual understanding of AC power, let us postpone the elegant mathematics and begin by

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considering power, voltage, and current straightforwardly as real quantities that vary in time. [5]
In the fundamental and correct way to interpret the statement P=I*V when I and V vary with
time is as a statement of instantaneous conditions. Regardless of all the complexities to be
encountered, it is always true that the instantaneous power is equal to the instantaneous product
of current and voltage. In other words, at any instant, the power equals the voltage times the
current at that instant. This is expressed by writing each variable as a function of time, P (t) = I
(t)* V (t), where (t) is the same throughout the equation (i.e., the same instant). [5]

However, instantaneous power as such is usually not very interesting to us. In power systems, we
generally need to know about power transmitted or consumed on a time scale much greater than
1/60 of a second. Therefore, we need an expression for power as averaged over entire cycles of
alternating current and voltage. Consider first the case of a purely resistive load. Voltage and
current are in phase; they are oscillating simultaneously. The average power (the average product
of voltage and current) can be obtained by taking the average (rms values) of each and then
multiplying those together [5]. Thus, Pave = Irms *Vrms (in resistive case). But now consider a
load with reactance. The relative timing of voltage and current has been shifted; their maximum
no longer coincides. In fact, one quantity is sometimes negative when the other is positive. As a
result, the instantaneous power transmitted or consumed will be negative. We can interpret the
negative instantaneous power as saying that power flows ―backwards‖ along the transmission
line, or out of the load and back into the generator [6].

 Reactive power
Finally, we also specify what we might intuitively think of as the difference between apparent
and real power, which is known as reactive power [6]. Reactive power is the component of
power that oscillates back and forth through the lines, being exchanged between electric and
magnetic fields can’t get dissipated [6]. It is denoted by the symbol ―Q‖, and its magnitude is
given by (Q = Irms *Vrms* sinφ) Again, note how the equation converges for the resistive case
where φ =0 and sinφ = 0, as there will be no reactive power at all. Reactive power is measured in
VAR (volt-ampere reactive). We can represent power as a vector in the complex plane: namely,
and arrow of length S (apparent power) that makes an angle φ with the real axis. The angle φ is
the same as the phase difference between voltage and current.

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1.1.3 Devices for reactive power compensation

In the most cases, PFC is used for economic reasons. Using compensating device, one can save
electricity bill as well as keep certain grid parameters determined by the energy provider [10].
Power factor correction gives even more profits, than only savings. Compensating ―unnecessary‖
reactive power the current carrying capacity of an existing network can be sufficient to send
more active power through it, maintaining the same ratings of the apparatus within the supplying
and distribution system. PFC also allows decreasing transmission losses and limits voltage drops
[8]. Generally, reliability of the network gets better. But one should be aware, that compensating
device connected to the mains can also have negative consequences like [10]:

 Transient generation
 Higher order harmonics generation
 Long lasting voltage rise
 Gain of higher order harmonics
 Voltage drops, outages and over-voltage of short duration
 Other kind of distortions

All of this can be caused for few reasons, such as resonance phenomenon, mistakes in design,
use of unsuitable equipment, wrong exploitation. But despite of all the negative consequences,
there are also positive ones, which will definitely improve energy quality [8]. These are as
follows:

 Limitation of reactive power

 Adjustment of a voltage at receivers (burden) terminals
 Higher order harmonic filtration
 Making phase voltage symmetric
 Limitation of voltage swing and flickering

Bearing above in mind, before one decides, what kind of compensating device will be used in
particular case; there is a few factors and conditions that has to be taken under consideration,
such as [10]:

 Rating of the mains, that is: voltage, frequency, and it`s real value (measurement)
 Demand on inductive reactive power taking into account the aim of compensation

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 Presence of higher order harmonics of a current and voltage

 Short circuit parameters at the capacitor bank future location
 Ambient conditions
 Place of installation

Compensating devices can be classified into four groups [10]:

1. Power capacitor based compensators

2. Power electronics compensators and active filters
3. Hybrid compensation systems (power capacitors and power electronics based)
4. Synchronous machines

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load
with a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system. A poor power
factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference between the voltage and current at
the load terminals, or it can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current
waveform.

The problem statement of this study/project is the existence of poor power factor in Moha Soft
Drinks due to various inductive loads. A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be
improved by the addition of power factor correction using capacitor banks to generate capacitive
reactance to compensate the inductive reactance.

A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power factor
correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform requires a change in
equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable improvement. Many
inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95 when in reality, the true power
factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is based on the Cosine of the angle between
the voltage and current but does not take into account that the current waveform is discontinuous
and therefore contributes to increased losses on the supply. Attempts are made over the years to
improve a power factor close to unity (1.0) using capacitors banks to generate capacitive
reactance to compensate for the inductive reactance. Switching on and off of the capacitor banks
for the compensation also produces harmonics in the system .Therefore the need for improving

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the power factor using microcontroller to do the switching of the capacitor banks on/off the
system and also eliminate harmonic effect in the system.

1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW

Though correction of power factor is a very old practice, we have considered the work done in
recent previous years in our Thesis. Many of the authors below have suggested and prescribed
many ways of power factor correction. [12] Proposed a continuing effort to develop an effective,
reliable, and inexpensive adaptive power factor controller (APFC). The APFC was able to
compensate adaptively the reactive power of rapidly varying loads without adding harmonics or
transients to the power system. Based on thousands of hours of field operation, the APFC had
substantially modified to improve its reliability and effectiveness [12]. [13] Proposed the speed
and power factor of an adjustable speed slip power recovery drive were controlled in order to
optimize the operation. This was accomplished by means of a variable-voltage & frequency
power converter. The function of the digital controller of the power converter was to provide the
online speed and power factor regulation [13]. [14] reports a laboratory model of a
microcomputer-based power factor controller (PFC) for compensating the reactive power of
rapidly varying loads by switching capacitors sized in a binary ratio, with the help of zero
voltage static switches. Four types of control strategies were tried: 1. unity step control method
2.binary search method. 3. Successive approximation method and 4.look-up table method.
Features like: independent control of current in each phase, reactive current sensing and
capacitor switching in one cycle, zero voltage switching of static switches to prevent the
occurrence of transients and harmonics, and switch failure detection logic and their display are
all incorporated in the software programming [14]. [15] Investigates the use of variable
inductance (the inductance varies with current), which provides adequate harmonic reduction.
Three types of inductors are investigated: an inductor with a fixed air-gap operating with a
saturated core, a swinging inductor which has a stepped gap and a novel inductor construction
with a sloped air-gap (SAG). Results are presented for a 200 W power supply and it is shown
that the SAG inductor has the best performance in terms of harmonic response and size [15]. [16]
Proposed a detailed analysis of the ripple current of an electrolytic capacitor in a boosttype
power factor control circuit. The ripple current was divided into two components, namely the
low-frequency and the high-frequency components. The root-mean-square value of the capacitor

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current was derived for both components [16]. In [11] proposed the programming of micro-
controller for power factor correction that described the design and development of a three-phase
power factor corrector using (Programmable Interface Microcontroller) chip. This involved
sensing and measuring the power factor value from the load using PIC and sensors, then using
proper algorithm to determine and trigger sufficient switching capacitors in order to compensate
excessive reactive components, thus withdraw PF near to unity [11]. [17] Proposed a new
integrated power quality device-power factor controller (PFC) for power distribution system and
industrial power circuit applications. A PFC integrated breaker-switched capacitor banks into a
compact design with low cost sensing elements and an intelligent control unit. The device
provided more accurate voltage control and power factor correction than traditional shunt
capacitor bank installations [17]. [18] Proposed a power factor controller (PFC) for a three-phase
induction motor (IM) utilized the programmable logic controller (PLC). It focused on the
implementation of a laboratory model for a PLC based PFC to improve the power factor of a
three-phase induction motor. During the online process a set of capacitors sized in a binary ratio
would be switched on or off with the help of zero voltage static switches according to a control
strategy to obtain a pre-specified power factor. This control strategy relied on a look-up table and
an expert system. [19] Proposed an innovative converter topology that improved the performance
of a switched reluctance motor drive, aimed to equip home appliances. It was based on a
modified C-dump converter configuration, where the energy recovery stage acted as an active
power factor controller for off-line operation. [20] Proposed a general description of new
functions integrated in the medium voltage switchboard to meet the power quality challenge.
They described circuit breakers with magnetic actuators that were easy to justify economically
and gave low cost power quality solutions. [21] introduces a single-phase digital power-factor
correction (PFC) control approach that requires no input voltage sensing or explicit current-loop
compensation, yet results in low-harmonic operation over a universal input voltage range and
loads ranging from high-power operation in continuous conduction mode down to the near-zero
load. The controller is based on low-resolution A/D converters and digital pulse width
modulator, requires no microcontroller or DSP programming, and is well suited for a simple,
low-cost integrated-circuit realization, or as a hardware description language core suitable for
integration with other power control and power management functions. [22] proposed a novel
compensator, where in-phase and quadrature components of the supply current are vector-

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controlled. Implementation of this compensator in a power electronic system operating with a

very poor power factor (and hence high THD) shows that the system then draws a leading
current. A conventional power electronic system with one of the traditional static VAR
compensators and the conventional power electronic system incorporated with the proposed
compensator are simulated and the simulation results are obtained. It is shown that the proposed
method offers only 0.7% THD, which also implies that the power factor is improved [22].
Shuffling presents an intelligent power factor compensation controller that can perform power
factor correction without exciting harmonic resonance under varying demand conditions.
Practical and robust control algorithms are proposed for the purpose of easy implementation in a
micro-controller. In addition, the controller relies on common low cost sensing devices and does
not require additional measurements. As a result, the controller can be constructed as a
retrofitting device to replace existing power factor correction controllers with little effort [23].

1.3 OBJECTIVE

1.3.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVE

The main objective of our project is, in order to compensate the reactive power by switching on
and off the capacitor bank through electromagnetic relay using Micro-controller and to provide
an automatically controlled power factor correction unit that will bring the power factor near to
0.95 and have sufficient capacity for future PFC requirements or expansion.

1.3.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE

 In order to size desired capacitive bank

 In order to select power factor transducer

 To program the microcontroller that will switch the capacitor bank base from the data of
the power factor transducer

 In order to select appropriate relay and relay driver

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CHAPTER-TWO
2. INTRODUCTION TO APFC

2.1 THEORY
2.1.1 POWER FACTOR
Power factor is an energy concept that is related to power flow in electrical systems. To
understand power factor, it is helpful to understand three different types of power in electrical
systems.

• Real Power is the power that is actually converted into useful work for creating heat,
light and motion. It is measured in kilowatts (KW) and is totalized by the electric billing
meter in kilowatthours (KWh) [1]. An example of real power is the useful work that
directly turns the shaft of a motor.
• Reactive Power is the power used to sustain the electromagnetic field in inductive and
capacitive equipment. It is the non- working power component & it is measured in
kilovolt-amperes reactive (KVAR). It does not appear on the customer billing statement.
• Apparent power is the combination of real power and reactive power. It is a total power
measured in kilovolt-amperes (KVA) and is totalized by the electric billing meter in
kilovolt-ampere-hours (kVAH).

Power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of real power to total power, and is expressed as
percentage (%).

Power factor = (P (kWh) / S (kVAh)) x 100%

Power factor cos ϕ is defined as the ratio between the Active component IR and the total value of
the current I; ϕ is the phase angle between the voltage and the current [1].

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Figure2.1: Phasor diagram

2.1.2 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION

Power factor correction is the process of compensating for the lagging current by creating
leading current connecting capacitors to the supply. A sufficient capacitance can be connected so
that the power factor is adjusted to be as close to unity (1.0) as possible. Power factor correction
(PFC) is a system of counteracting the undesirable effects of electric loads that create a power
factor that is less than one. Power factor correction may be applied either by an electrical power
transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission network or,
correction may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs charged to them
by their electricity service provider.

An electrical load that operates on alternating current requires apparent power, which consists of
real power and reactive power. Real power is the power actually consumed by the load. Reactive
power is repeatedly demanded by the load and returned to the power source, and it is the cyclical
effect that occurs when alternating current passes through a load that contains a reactive
component. The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent
power, so the electric load has a power factor of less than one. The reactive power increases the
current flowing between the power source and the load, which increases the power losses
through transmission and distribution lines. This results in operational and financial losses for
power companies. Therefore, power companies require their customers, especially those with
large loads, to maintain their power factors above a specified amount especially around ally 0.90
or higher, or be subject to additional charges. Electrical engineers involved with the generation,
transmission, distribution and consumption of electrical power have an interest in the power
factor of loads because power factors affect efficiencies and costs for both the electrical power

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industry and the consumers. In addition to the increased operating costs, reactive power can
require the use of wiring, switches, circuit breakers, transformers and transmission lines with
higher current capacities. Power factor correction attempts to adjust the power factor of an AC
load or an AC power transmission system to unity through various methods. Simple methods
include switching in or out banks of capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the inductive or
capacitive effects of the load, respectively.

• Passive PFC

The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a filter
that passes current only at line frequency 50Hz. This filter reduces the harmonic current, which
means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power factor can
be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter requires large-value
high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive. A passive PFC requires an
inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less. This is a simple way of
correcting the nonlinearity of a load is by using capacitor banks. It is not as effective as active
PFC. Passive PFCs are typically more power efficient than active PFCs.

• Active PFC

An active power factor corrector is a power electronic system that controls the amount of power
drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as close as possible to unity. In most
applications, the active PFC controls the input current of the load so that the current waveform is
proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a sine wave). The purpose of making the power
factor as close to unity (1) as possible is to make the load circuitry that is power factor corrected
appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power). In this case, the voltage and current
are in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This enables the most efficient delivery
of electrical power from the power company to the consumer. Some types of active PFC are:
Boost, Buck and Buck-boost. Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage.
Active PFC is the most effective and can produce a PFC of 0.99 (99%).

 Advantages of Power Factor Correction

There are several advantages in utilizing power factor correction capacitors. These include:

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• Reduce demand charges

• Increase load carrying capabilities in existing circuits
• Improve voltage
• Reduce power system loses

Higher power factors result in:

 Reduction in system losses, and the losses in the cables, lines, and feeder circuits and
therefore lower cable sizes could be opted for.
 Improved system voltages, thus enable maintaining rated voltage to motors, pumps and
other equipment. The voltage drop in supply conductors is a resistive loss, and wastes
power heating the conductors. Improving the power factor, especially at the motor
terminals, can improve the efficiency by reducing the line current and the line losses.
 Improved voltage regulation.
 Increased system capacity, by release of KVA capacity of transformers and cables for the
same KW, thus permitting additional loading without immediate expansion.

 Disadvantages of a low power factor

A load having poor power factor draws greater current for the same value of required useful
power, than that of a load with compensated power factor. A simple example showing the
current required by a single phase electric motor with different power factor values is given
below:

Supply voltage = 240Volts (single phase)

Motor input = 10KW

Power factor = 0.65

Current (I) 1 = (Power (KW) / Volts (V) x P.F) = (10000 / 240 x0.65) = 64.1A

If the power factor of the motor is compensated to 0.9

Current (I) 2 = (Power (KW) / Volts (V) x P.F) = (10000 / 240 x0.9) = 46.3 A

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From the above example: as the power factor decreases, the current required for the same value
of active/useful power increases. The result is that the capacity of the equipment, like the
switchgear, cables, transformers, etc. will have to be increased to cater for the higher current in
the circuit. All this adds to the cost. Further, the greater current causes increased power loss or
I^2 R losses in the circuits. Also due to higher current, the conductor temperature rises and hence
the life of the insulation is reduced.

2.1.3 Power Factor and Electrical Loads

In general, electrical systems are made up of three components: resistors, inductors and
capacitors. Inductive equipment requires an electromagnetic field to operate. Because of this,
inductive loads require both real and reactive power to operate. The power factor of inductive
loads is referred to as lagging, or less than 100%, based upon our power factor ratio [26]. In most
commercial and industrial facilities, a majority of the electrical equipment acts as a resistive or
an inductive load. Resistive loads include incandescent lights, baseboard heaters and cooking
ovens. Inductive loads include fluorescent lights, AC induction motors, arc welders and
transformers.

2.1.4 Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used
to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain
at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric material or an insulator. For example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge
on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field.

An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value of capacitance, measured in farads.

This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between
them. The value of a capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large
areas of conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early
means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of

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leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage,
while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the
resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems
for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes. Capacitors also require
reactive power to operate. However, capacitors and inductors have an opposite effect on reactive
power. The power factors for capacitors are leading. Therefore capacitors are installed to
counteract the effect of reactive power used by inductive equipment.

 Power Factor capacitors

Power factor capacitors may conveniently be switched on and off with individual motors. This
assures that the capacitor is energized only during the times when the motor is energized when
you need power factor correction. For this type of application, typically a Fixed Capacitor Bank
is used. This is the simplest and most economical form of power factor correction [28].
Depending on the manner in which you connect the capacitor, you may or may not need to
include fuses Harmonics will reduce the life of power factor capacitors. Whenever there are
harmonic producing loads on the power system, the capacitor bank should include capacitor
protection reactors that will detune‖ the capacitor bank to a frequency where no harmonic energy
exists. Instead of the capacitor protection reactor we intend using a microcontroller to detune the
capacitor bank to a frequency where no harmonics energy can exist thereby improving the
correction of Power factor [27].

 Fixed & Automatic Capacitors

Fixed capacitor banks are always on at all times regardless of the load in the facility, while an
automatic capacitor bank varies the amount of correction supplied to an electrical system. An
automatic capacitor is much more expensive per kVAR than the fixed one. A 100 kVAR of fixed
capacitors will save much power factor penalties as a 100 kVAR automatic capacitor [30].
Generally, when a capacitor is connected to a system there is a reduction in ampere on the
system. This reduction in ampere reduces the voltage drop across a load, which results in a
higher voltage in the system. If 100 kVAR is connected to a 1000 KVA transformer, there is

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approximately 75 % voltage rise on the system (if there are no other loads on the system). The
more kVAR connected, the higher the voltage rise. This voltage rise is counter acted by the
increase of load in the facility. Typically, in the night and on weekends, utility voltage are higher
than normal, and facilities that are not normally loaded during these times, could experience a
higher than normal voltage rise if too much capacitance is connected to their system. Based on
this, generally limit fixed capacitors to 10% to 15% fixed kVAR to KVA of load size [31].

 Uses of Automatic Power Factor Capacitors

When the load conditions and power factor in a facility changes frequently; the demand for
power factor compensating capacitors will also change. In order to assure that the proper amount
of power factor capacitors KVAR are always connected to the system (without over-correcting),
an Automatic type Capacitor should be used for applications involving multiple loads [29]. A
microcontroller based automatic compensation system is formed by:

• Some sensors detecting current and voltage signals

• An intelligent unit that compares the measured power factor with the desired one and
operates the connection and disconnection of the capacitor banks with the necessary
reactive power (power factor regulator)
• An electric power board comprising switching and protection devices
• Some capacitor banks

2.1.5 Power factor Harmonics

Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are whole multiples of the
frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g. 50Hz or 60 Hz). Any signal
component having a frequency which is not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency is
designated as an inter-harmonic component or referred to more simply as an inter-harmonic [27].
Harmonics and inter-harmonics are basically the result of modern developments in electricity
utilization and the use of electronic power conditioning modules. Using switching power
supplies to control loads and to reduce power consumption results in unwanted frequencies
superimposed on the supply voltage. The presence of voltage at other frequencies is, as far as
possible, to be avoided [29]. Potential Sources of Harmonics

• Switched mode power supplies: dimmers, current Regulators, frequency converters

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• Low power consumption lamps

• Electrical arc-furnaces & arc welding machines
• Induction motors with irregular magnetizing current
• All equipment built-in with switching devices/internal loads with non-linear
voltage/current characteristics.

Effects of Harmonics on Mains supplies

• Distortion of main supply voltage & unwanted currents flowing in the supply network
generate additional energy losses.
• Defective operation of regulating devices, disturbed operation of florescent lamps,
television receivers or other equipment.
• Malfunction of ripple control and other mains signaling systems, protective relays and
other control systems.
• Additional losses in capacitors and rotating machines.
• Additional acoustic noise from motors and other apparatus, reducing the efficiency of
motors.
• High harmonic amplitudes may not only cause malfunctions, additional losses and
overheating, but also overload the power distribution network and overheat the neutral
conductor and cause it to burn out.

2.2 EXPECTED OUTCOMES & SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

2.2.1 EXPECTED OUTCOME

The expected outcome of this project is to measure existed power factor and
improve/compensate the power factor using capacitor bank. And also by using proper algorithm
and micro-controller, It is expected to turn on the capacitor automatically, in order to compensate
excessive reactive components, thus bringing power factor near to unity, reducing current drawn
by a load, removing harmonics in the system there by improving the efficiency of the system and
finally reducing the electricity bill.

2.2.2 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROJECT

Significant of our project is to improve system voltages, thus enable maintaining rated voltage to
motors, pumps and other electrical loads/equipment. The voltage drop in supply conductors is a
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resistive loss, and wastes power heating the conductors. Improving the power factor, especially
at the motor terminals, can improve the efficiency by reducing the line current and the line
losses. Reduction in system losses, and the losses in the cables, lines, and feeder circuits and
therefore lower cable sizes could be opted for the system.

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CHAPTER-THREE
3. METHODOLOGY AND SYSTEM DESIGN

3.1 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION AND OVERALL OPERATION

Automatic Power Factor correction device is developed based on a micro-controller & power
factor transducer. The voltage and current sampled is step down to supply the power factor
transducer. The output of power factor transducer is pure DC; this output varies with respect to
the current distortion. The V and I sample signals are feed to the micro-controller in order to
measure the arrival of V and I result. This value is calibrated as phase angle and corresponding
power factor. The values are displayed in the LCD modules after converting suitably. The
capacitor banks are switched as per the calibration in steps. The block diagram mainly consist of
a microcontroller, power factor transducer, relay circuit, capacitor, voltage and current
measurement unit and inductive load.

• 50 Hz AC supply is connected to the capacitor start induction load.

• Current transformer and potential transformer are used to reduce current and voltage level
for power factor transducer.
• power factor transducer measures true phase angle delivered to a load and converts that
measurement to a DC voltage or current signal proportional to the power measured
• The measured voltage and current signal are given to pin of microcontroller.
• Microcontroller calculate the power factor of measured value, depends up on error it will
send signal to the relay.
• LCD display is used to display power factor value of the line continuously.
• When the relay is energized by microcontroller it connects the capacitor parallel with
load, when it is de-energized it disconnects the capacitor from the line.

A single or various household appliances/loads with low power factor, might not severely affect
efficiency of a power system except inductive load. Since the main objective of our project is to
correct power factor of inductive loads. So we used a microcontroller, since the power factor
must be corrected automatically. In large industrial plants where many motors are generally
used, then centralized compensation is far more practical and economical than individual motor
compensation. In this instant, large banks or racks of capacitors are installed at the main

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incoming distribution boards of the plant and they are sub-divided into steps which are
automatically switched in or out depending on specific load requirements by means of an
automatic control over the system, thus improving the overall power factor of the network. In
order to calculate capacitor (kVAR) size requirements for the plant’s power factor correction, the
following information must be known beforehand: the average plant power factor & the
maximum running load of the plant in kW. Generally, the automatic power factor correction
system consists of:

• Capacitor bank with protection

• Power factor transducer
• Microcontroller
• Switch and switching driver

AC Supply Induction
Motor

PT CT Capacitor
Switch

Switching
Power Driver
Factor
Transducer
Micro-controller

Figure3.1Block diagram of project

LCD

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3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN

3.2.1CAPACITOR SIZING
Electric power customers want to increase/compensate load’s power factor to unity (1.0), to
increase the efficiency of equipment and also to avoid paying penalties charged by the electric
utility due to poor power factor. Process of reactive power compensation/power factor correction
helps them to raise the power factor to around 0.9 depend on the capacitor bank configurations.
There are various types of capacitor bank configurations, namely: Grounded Y-configuration,
Ungrounded Y-configuration, H-configuration & Delta configuration. From these various types,
we use Delta-configuration of capacitor banks.

Delta-configuration of capacitor banks

Delta-connected banks are generally used at distributions voltages and they are configured with a
single series group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltages. With only one series group of
units, no overvoltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the isolation of a faulted
capacitor unit. Therefore, unbalance detection is not required for protection. A delta-connected
bank of capacitors is usually applied to voltage classes of 2400 V or less. In a three phase
system, to supply the same reactive power, the star connection requires a capacitor with a
capacitance three times higher than the delta connected capacitor. In addition, capacitor with the
Star-connection results to be subjected to a voltage √3 lower and a current √3 higher than a
capacitor inserted in Delta-connected.

Why PF compensation capacitors are in Delta configuration?

Capacitor banks in PFC Units are connected in Delta because the sum of stored KVARs is
required in parallel across a three phase network to improve the power angle on the load. The
summation of KVARs is done in electrical stepping sequences through the PFC Unit controller
depending on the number of capacitor banks exist in the PFC Unit. When we draw the equivalent
circuit of a delta connected capacitor. We will find that for the same cell capacitance (C)
measured in Farad (F), Delta-connection will give us 1.5 F between any two lines, whereas the
Star-connection will give us only 0.5 F between any two lines.

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Mathematical Basis for the Design of Project

The following are given/known electrical parameters in Moha Soft Drinks PLC. Remember that
these parameters vary depending on the load demand of any inductive equipment. But for the
calculation purpose, we used the following:

Supply voltage (V supply) 380 V

Maximum power factor 0.85

Desired power factor 0.96

Active power (P) 57,755 KW

Existing reactive power (Q) 51,051 KVAR

Input power of Moha soft drinks is 57,755 KW & the reactive power present is 51,051 KVAR,
then the amount of existing power factor can be calculated and the objective of this project is to
compensate the power factor to 0.96.

Using the company’s parameter values of active power & existing reactive power:

P=57,755 KW……………………………..active power

Q1=51,051 KVAR………………………….reactive power

 From the power factor triangle relationship:

S1² = P²+ Q1²

S1= SQRT [(57,755)² + (51,051)²]

S1= 77,083 KVA

 To find the existing power factor:

PF old= P/S1

PF old= (57,755 KW) / (77,083 KVA)

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PF old= cos φ1 = 0.75

 To calculate the new apparent power use the new power factor

P= S2 * PF new

S2= P/PF new

S2= (57,755 KW) / (0.96)

S2= 60,161 KVA

 To calculate the new/compensated reactive power:

S2² = P²+ Q2²

(60,161)² = (57,755)²+ Q2²

Q2= SQRT [(60,161)²- (57,755)²]

Q2= 16,843 KVAR………5614.5 KVAR per phase i.e 1/3 of total KVAR

 To calculate the total load current:

I load = S1 /[sqrt (3) * V supply]

I load = (77,083 KVA) / [sqrt (3) * (380 V)]

I load = (77,083*10^3 VA) / [sqrt (3) * 380 V]

I load = 117,115 A

 To calculate the active component of the load current:

Active component of I load = I load cos φ1 = I load × 0·75 = 117,115 A * 0.75 = 87,836 A

Active component of I =I cos φ2

I = I load active/ cos φ2 = 87,836 A/0.96 = 91,496 A

Reactive component of I load = I load sin φ max. = 117,115 A * 0.85 = 99,547.75 A

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Reactive component of I = I sin φ = 91,496 A * 0.28 = 25,618.88 A

I capacitance = Reactive component of I load – Reactive component of I

I cap. = 99,547.75 A – 25,618.88 A = 73,928.87 A

When we connect the capacitor bank in delta the required capacitor value will be:

Per phase capacitor current:

I cap. = 73,928.88 A / sqrt 3 = 42,682.85 A

To calculate the capacitor size: Q2= V^2 / X c

X c = V^2 / Q 2 = (380 V)^2 / (16,843 KVAR) = 8.57 * 10^-3

X c = 1 / (2*pie*f*C)

C =1 / (2*pie*f*X c) = 1 / (2*3.14*50 Hz*8.57 * 10^-3) = 0.3716 F = 371,611 micro Farad

C total = 1,114,833 Micro Farad

The current taken from the supply is reduced from 117,115 A to 73,928.87 A without altering the
power taken by the load. This implies compensation of power factor has a positive effect in
choosing conductors with less cross-sectional area, plant size and capacity in proper economical
way.

3.2.2 PROTECTION FOR CAPACITOR BANK

 Capacitor Fuse

Delta configured capacitor banks can be used in two different arrangements: ―in line" or "group
fuse" method. The second method uses branches or individual fuses of the circuit. Three phase
capacitors use fuses in the line because they are connected in delta internally. Normally branch
fuses are used for single-phase capacitors, connected in delta. However, on the smaller banks
mentioned above, the single phase capacitors could be connected in delta and fused outside in the
line. In small capacitor banks that have only one capacitor per phase, this should be the method
of choice when the neutral of the capacitor bank is not grounded. When the capacitor bank has
higher KVAR rating and units are placed in parallel, in line fuse rating becomes large and may

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not co-ordinate with the tank rupture curve of the capacitor and also upstream co-ordination may
not be possible. The ratings of fuses are:

120.5 KVAR / 380 V = 317.1 * 1.5 = 475.65… (It is a normal industrial practice to use a 1.5
factor for medium voltage applications for current limiting fuse selection)

 Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker should not be sized less than 135% of the rated capacitor current:

Rated Capacitor Current = (KVAR) / (sqrt (3) * V) A where, V - line to line voltage

KVAR = 3 phase KVAR rating of capacitor (Nameplate rating)

For 723.33 KVAR capacitor & 380 V systems:

Rated Capacitor Current = (723.33 * 1000 VAR) / (sqrt 3 * 380 V) =1098.986 A

Therefore, the breaker shall be rated to carry (1098.986 A x 135%) or 1483.63 A continuously in
its operating environment. In this case, a 1000A 100% rated breaker will be required minimum.

 Contactors for Capacitors Switching

An automatic power factor correction system consists of several capacitor banks of identical or
different ratings which are energized separately/step by step according to the value of the power
factor to be compensated. These devices automatically determine the power that make the
capacitor to be energized and activates the relevant contactors. In case of automatic correction,
the inrush peak current depends on the power, which is already on duty, and can reach 100 times
the nominal current of the step to be energized.

I = Q / (sqrt 3 * V) = (3 * 120.5 KVAR) / (380 V * 1.73) = 549.24 A

The contactor operating current (I contactor):

I contactor = 549.24 A * 1.43 = 785.4166 A

The selected contactors’ have contact capacity of 800A each.

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In this case, splitting our capacitor banks in to two we use two contactors both having same
contact capacity i.e. 800 A.

3.2.3 POWER FACTOR TRANSDUCERS

A power factor transducer measures the real/true electrical power, phase angle difference
delivered to a load and converts that measurement to a DC voltage or current signal proportional
to the real power measured. To measure phase angle, the power factor transducer must monitor
both the voltage and current in a circuit. Further, it must be able to accurately determine the
phase relationship between the voltage and current. This is the angle by which the current leads
or lags the voltage. This measurement is very important to accurately determine true power. The
power factor transducer also measure the power in each branches of the circuit. This circuit
requires two-elements, voltage and current transducer. The outputs of the two transducers or
multipliers are summed so that the output signal of the entire power factor transducer represents
total power. Analog power factor transducers including Hall Effect provide good accuracy even
with distorted wave shapes, discontinuity, or where there is poor frequency regulation.

 Single-Phase power factor Transducers

The most common application for a power factor transducer is monitoring single-phase loads
such as a heaters and small motors. This requires a single-element watt transducer connected
directly between the power line and the load. It has a single multiplier or element inside the
electronics package. Often the combined loads of an entire house, apartment, or office are
monitored with a power factor transducer. This requires a two-element model with current
transformers. The two-element power factor transducer has two multipliers inside the electronics
package. The output of these two multipliers is summed to obtain the total power. The output
signal of this power factor transducer thus represents the total power being used.

 Three-Phase Power Factor Transducer

Most motors in industry are three-phase, three-wire motors. These require two- element watt
transducers. Do not attempt to save money and use a single element transducer—it will not
provide correct or useful information. Smaller three-phase motors may be connected directly to
the power factor transducer. Larger three-phase motors will require the use of current and/or
potential transformers.

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Power factor transducers are polarity sensitive. They do not sense the power only, but also the
direction in which it is flowing. If a current transformer is installed backward, the watt
transducer will sense this as reverse power flow and provide an output reversed in polarity, a
negative output. Watt transducers are also phase sensitive. If a current transformer is installed on
the wrong phase line, it will interpret as a 120-degree phase angle shift and give the wrong result.

 Selection of Power Factor Transducer

With these known electrical load parameter prospective, we selected LTPFU type power factor
or phase angle transducer. These types of transducers require an auxiliary power supply and offer
a highly accurate method of the phase angle of the input. They have a full four quadrant
capability. The output is a linear function of the phase angle between the two inputs (current &
voltage), and the circuit can also be used as power factor transducer only added a coso ӫ circuit.
Output amplifier provides constant current and voltage output. And the output can’t be affected
by a load resistance provided within the specific range.

3.2.4 ARDUINO UNO MICROCONTROLLER (ATMEGA-328)

Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz crystal
oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It contains
everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer with a USB
cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

 Specification of Arduino

Microcontroller: ATmega328

Operating Voltage: 5V

Input Voltage (recommended): 7-12V

Input Voltage (limits): 6-20V

Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)

Analog Input Pins: 6

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DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA

DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA

Flash Memory: 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by boot loader

SRAM: 2 KB (ATmega328)

EEPROM: 1 KB (ATmega328)

Clock Speed: 16MHz

 Power of Arduino

The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply. The
power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from an AC-
to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a 2.1mm center-
positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted in the GND and
VIN pin headers of the power connector. The board can operate on an external supply of 6 to 20
volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may supply less than five volts and the
board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may overheat and damage
the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts. In our project we use microcontroller
especially for measuring the power factor transducer output (voltage or current) and displaying
the measured value in the form of the current power factor value (lagging or leading) and
energizing the relay driver. The microcontroller energizes the relay driver, only when the
measured power factor value is less than 0.95. If the measured power factor value greater than
0.95 the microcontroller de-energize the relay driver.

3.2.5 RELAY DRIVER

The relay driver type used is 2N3904. The relay used has the following specifications: Coil
voltage =12 V dc, Contact capacity = 230 V, 7A. The above specification indicates that the coil
requires 12 V DC voltage and 200 mA DC current. The Microcontroller can’t supply more than
10mA current. So driver section is very much required. 2N3904 has a typical maximum output
current of 500mA under normal conditions of temperature.

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3.2.6 ELECTRO MAGNETIC RELAY

These are varying much reliable devices and widely used in the field. The operating frequency of
these devices is minimum 10-20ms. That is 50Hz – 100Hz. The relay which is used here can
carry 25 mA currents continuously. The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle of
magnetism. When the base voltage appears at the relay driver section, the driver transistor will
be driver transistor will be driven into saturation and allow flowing current in the coil of the
relay, Which in turn create a magnetic field and the magnetic force produced due to that will act
against the spring tension and close the contact coil. Whenever the base voltage is withdrawn the
transistor goes to cutoff .So there will be no current flow in the coil of the relay. Hence the
magnetic field disappears so the contact point breaks automatically due to spring tension. Those
contact points are isolated from the low voltage supply, so that a high voltage switching is
possible with the help of electromagnetic relays. The electromagnetic relays normally have 2
contact points namely: normally closes (NC) & normally open (NO). Normally closed points will
make a short circuit path when the relay is off & normally open points will become open
circuited when the relay is de-energized.

3.2.7 LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD)

LCD panel consists of two patterned glass panels in which the crystal is filled under vacuum.
The thickness of glass varies according to end use. Most of the LCD modules have glass
thickness in the range of 0.7 mm to 1.1 mm. Normally these liquid crystal molecules are placed
between glass plates to form a spiral stair case to twist the light. Light entering the top plate,
twist before entering the bottom plate. Hence the LCDs are also called as optical switches.
These LCD cannot display any information directly. These act as an interface between
electronics and electronics circuit to give a visual output. The values are displayed in the 2x16
LCD modules after converting suitably. As the name suggests LCD is a technology based on the
use of liquid crystal. It is a transparent material but after applying voltage it becomes opaque.
This property is the fundamental operating principle of LCDs.

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CHAPTER-FOUR
4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 SIMULATION RESULTS

The microcontroller based automatic power factor compensator has the function of correcting the
power factor for industrial purpose. The capacitor bank is a set in delta-configuration. This is to
optimize the switching of values of the capacitors to correct the power factor. It has a
microcontroller circuit that automatically switches the capacitor bank, in order to correct the
power factor of inductive loads. The relay driver and the relay acts as a switch to energize the
capacitors. The relay drivers are dependent on the microcontroller circuit. To detect the phase
angle of current and voltage, it has a current transformer, potential transformer and power factor
transducer. The Liquid Crystal Display is a (16x2) line display that shows the value of the power
factor of the load. For safety purposes, the device has a circuit breaker to protect the entire circuit
from overload, contactor and fuse.

The problem statement of this study/project is the existence of poor power factor in Moha Soft
Drinks due to various inductive loads. A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be
improved by the addition of power factor correction using capacitor banks to generate capacitive
reactance to compensate the inductive reactance. And, the main objective of our project is to
compensate the power factor of Moha Soft Drinks. Finally, the result of the project implies that
from the mathematical analysis, the current taken from the supply is reduced from 117,115 A to
73,928.87 A without altering the power taken by the load. And the factory’s penalty charge for
the Electric Utility due to existed poor power factor will also decrease, which lead to choose an
economical conductor with less cross sectional area. This implies compensation of power factor
has a positive effect in choosing conductors with less cross-sectional area, plant size and capacity
of a plant in most proper economical way.

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Figure 4.1 Configuration of micro-controller with LCD and relay

In the absence of power factor transducer, current transformer and potential transformer, we used
a simulation method by using DC supply, micro-controller, 16x2 LCD screen, 2N3904 relay
driver and relay. In terms of the power factor transducer output reference table, we use variable
Dc supply for micro-controller input and finally we got a better result.

When the power factor value reaches above 0.95, the digital pin of the micro-controller de-
energize the relay driver and the relay automatically shut down the switching network.

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Figure 4.2 Simulation result-1

When the power factor value reaches above 0.95, the digital pin of the micro-controller de-
energize the relay driver and the relay automatically shut down the switching network.

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Figure 4.3 Simulation result-2

When the power factor value reaches under 0.95, the digital pin of micro-controller energize the
relay driver and the relay automatically closed the switching network.

This project work is carried out to design the automatic power factor compensation system using
micro-controller. Microcontroller senses the power factor by continuously monitoring the power
factor transducer output, and then according to the lagging behavior of power factor due to load
it performs the control action through a proper algorithm by switching capacitor bank through
different switches and improves the power factor of the load. This project gives more reliable
power factor correcting system by continuously monitoring the given load of the system.
Measuring of power factor from load is achieved by using power factor transducer and the
micro-controller developed algorithm to determine and trigger switching of capacitors in order to
compensate demand of excessive reactive power locally, thus bringing power factor near to
desired level.

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CHAPTER-FIVE
5. CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATION

5.1 CONCLUSION
Automatic power factor compensation plays vital role in power quality measurement and
monitoring system, especially for industrial applications. Nowadays, there are many power
electronic devices being used such as converters, inverters, UPS systems etc. They all generate
distortions to the supplying voltage and current waveforms. In order to avoid poor power quality,
it is necessary to apply reactive power compensating device minimizing reactive power
consumption. Moreover, the harmonics make the task of reactive power compensation harder,
since they are dangerous for the power capacitors installed in the capacitor bank. Compensating
devices based on the power capacitors are the most common manner of reactive power
compensation.

In this study, the power factor correction device is designed to display and take a switching
measurement of the power factor of the load connected to the network. The conversion process
of difference between the current and voltage signals of the load to degree and time, and
calculation process are achieved by power factor transducer and designed analog-digital
integrated circuit. The designed circuit is further advantageous than the other static capacitor
bank circuit because the designed circuit has automatic protection property, with the help of
micro-controller. Dynamic compensation can be made by adding relay and contactor to the
designed circuit. The micro-controller based compensation process is also carried out by
switching capacitor groups. We can conclude that, power factor correction techniques can be
applied to various industries, power systems and also households to make the system stable and
efficient. The use of microcontroller reduces the costs, because multiple parameters can be
controlled and use of extra hard wares, and input output ports are also reduced. Here an extensive
care should be taken for overcorrection, otherwise the voltage and current becomes more and the
machine/connected load becomes unstable, as a result the life of capacitor banks will be reduced.
This method of improving/correcting power factor of a load gives rise to the compensation of
power factor of industrial, utilities or household inductive loads.

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REFERENCE
[1] John J. Grainger, William D. Stevenson (1994). ―Power System Analysis‖ New York:
McGraw-Hill.

[2]. Meier, Alexandra. Electric Power Systems: A Conceptual Introduction (Wiley Survival
Guides in Engineering and Science). s.l: Wiley - IEEE Press, 2006.

[3]. Power Factor Correction - Design of automatic capacitor bank. Kepka, Jakub. Wroclaw :
Wroclaw University of Technology, 2010.

[4]. Reactive power under non-sinusoidal conditions. L, Czarnecki. : IEEE Tran. on Power
Apparatus and Systems, 1983.

[5]. A combined time-domain and frequency-domainapproach to hybrid compensation in

unbalanced nonsinusoidal systems. L, Czarnecki. Milan : IEEE Stresa - Italy, 1993.

[6]. Circuit Protection and control Reactors for filtering. [Katalog produktów] s.l.: Circuitor.

[7]. Circutor. Power Factor Correction and harmonic filtering. Automatic power factor regulators
[Electronic Catalogue] s.l. : Circutor, 2009.

[8] Berthold Fuld'; Siegfried Kern; Ray Ridley (1991) ―A Combined Buck and Boost
PowerFactor-Controller for Three-Phase Input‖, IEEE European Conference on Power
Electronics and Applications, Volume: 7, Pages: 144-148.

[9] Freitas, W.; Morelato, A.; WilsunXu; Sato, F. (2005) ―Impacts of AC Generators and
DSTATCOM Devices on the Dynamic Performance of Distribution Systems‖, IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, Volume: 20, Issue: 2, Pages: 1493-1501.

[10] Jones, L. D.; Blackwell, D. (1983) ―Energy Saver Power Factor Controller for Synchronous
Motors‖, IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Volume: 5, Issue: 5, Pages:
1391-1394.

[11] Barsoum model, An intelligent power factor corrector for power system using artificial
neural Networks, Electric Power Systems Research 79 (2009) 152–160. [12] (Sharkawi et al.
1988) J., Branas C., Casanueva R., Microcontroller Power Mode Stabilized Power Factor

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Correction Stage for High Intensity Discharge Lamp Electronic Ballast, IEEE Transaction on
Power Electronics, Vol. 22, No. 3, 2007, 845-853.

[13] Ioannides and Papadopoulos Power factor correction technique based on artificial neural
Networks, Energy Conversion and Management 47 (2006), 3204–3215.

[14] (Manual et al. 1994). Gorgun A., PID Controlled Synchronous Motor for Power Factor
Correction, Powereng, 2009 ,408-412.

[15] Wolfle,W.H. Power Factor Correction of a Switching Mode Power Supply By Using
NeuroFuzzy Controller, Gazi University. Journal of Science, 18(3), 2005, 421-437.

[16] Kurachi et al. High power factor correction circuits with space vector and hysteresis control
methods, Electric Power Systems Research 43 (1997), 207-214.

[17] (Tinggren 1999) Singlestage power-factor-corrected converter for switched reluctance

motor drive, Electric Power Systems Research 76 (2006), 534–540.

[18] (Ali et al. 2000) A Novel Common Power Factor Correction Scheme for Homes And
Offices, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, Vol. 20, No. 3, 2005, 2257-2263.

[19] (Consoli et al. 2001) Devresi Tasarımı ve Simülasyonu (Design and simulation of Power
Factor Measurement Circuit by using PIC), Master Thesis, Yuzuncu Yıl Üniversity, Science
Institute, 2009.

[20] Borlotti et al. Hardware Implementations of Multi-Layer Feed Forward Neural Networks
and Error Back Propagation Using 8-Bit PIC Microcontrollers, Neural and Fuzzy Systems:
Design, Hardware and Applications (Digest No.: 1997/133), IEE Colloquium on, 1997, 2/1–2/5.

[21] (Mather, B.A. 2011) An electronic design of a low cost Braille typewriter, in: Proceedings
of the Intelligent Information Systems Conference, The Seventh Australian and New Zealand
2001, 2001, 153–157.

[22] Venkateswarlu, N. ―High- Performance Line Conditioner with Output Voltage Regulation
and Power Factor Correction‖, IEEE Proceedings on Electric Power Applications, Volume: 151,
Issue: 1, Pages: 91- 97. [23] (Shuffling 2012) Performance Line Conditioner with Output

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Voltage Regulation and Power Factor Correction‖, IEEE Proceedings on Electric Power
Applications, Volume: 151, Issue: 1, Pages: 91- 97.

[24] Alexander, C.K. and Sadiku, M.N.O. (2000). ―Fundamentals of Electric Circuit‖ United
States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

[25] Stephen, J. C. (1999). ―Electric Machinery and Power System Fundamentals.‖ 3rd.ed.
United State of America: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

[26] John J. Grainger, William D. Stevenson (1994). ―Power System Analysis.‖ New York:
McGraw-Hill.

[27] Jos Arrillaga, Neville R. Watson (2003). ―Power System Harmonics‖ 2nd.ed. Chichester:
John Wiley.

[28] J. E. Miller (1982). ―Reactive Power Control in Electric System‖ New York: Wiley

[29] Roger C. Dugan, Mark F. McGranaghan, H. Wayne Beaty (1996). ―Electrical Power
Systems Quality‖ 1st.ed. New York: McGraw Hill.

[30] Paul Gill (1998). ―Electrical Power Equipment Maintenance and Testing‖ Boca Raton, FL:
CRC Press.

[31] Keith Harker (1998). ―Power System Commissioning and Maintenance practice.‖ London:
Institution of Electrical Engineers.

[32] Ramasamy Natarajan (2005). ―Power System Capacitors‖ Boca Raton, FL: Taylor &
Francis.

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APPENDICES
// Programming code for Micro-controller

#include <LiquidCrystal.h>

int sensorPin = A0; // select the input pin for the potentiometer

int sensorValue = 0; // variable to store the value coming from the sensor

int pin1=1;

LiquidCrystal lcd(12,11,5,4,3,2);

void setup() {

lcd.begin(1,1);

// declare the ledPin as an OUTPUT:

pinMode(pin1, OUTPUT);

void loop() {

// read the value from the sensor:

sensorValue = analogRead(sensorPin);

if(sensorValue>105)

digitalWrite(pin1,HIGH);

else

{digitalWrite(pin1,LOW);

lcddisplay();

void lcddisplay()

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lcd.setCursor(1,1);

if(sensorValue<5)

{lcd.print(" unity ");}

if(sensorValue>5&&sensorValue<25)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.99 lag");}

if(sensorValue>25&&sensorValue<45)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.98 lag");}

if(sensorValue>45&&sensorValue<65)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.97 lag");}

if(sensorValue>65&&sensorValue<85)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.96 lag");}

if(sensorValue>85&&sensorValue<105)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.96 lag");}

if(sensorValue>105&&sensorValue<125)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.95 lag");}

if(sensorValue>125&&sensorValue<145)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.94 lag");}

if(sensorValue>145&&sensorValue<165)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.93 lag");}

if(sensorValue>165&&sensorValue<185)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.92 lag");}

if(sensorValue>185&&sensorValue<205)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.91 lag");}

if(sensorValue>205&&sensorValue<225)

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{lcd.print("PF = 0.9 lag");}

if(sensorValue>225&&sensorValue<245)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.89 lag");}

if(sensorValue>245&&sensorValue<265)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.88 lag");}

if(sensorValue>265&&sensorValue<285)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.87 lag");}

if(sensorValue>285&&sensorValue<305)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.86 lag");}

if(sensorValue>305&&sensorValue<325)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.85 lag");}

if(sensorValue>325&&sensorValue<345)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.84 lag");}

if(sensorValue>345&&sensorValue<365)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.83 lag");}

if(sensorValue>365&&sensorValue<385)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.82 lag");}

if(sensorValue>385&&sensorValue<405)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.81 lag");}

if(sensorValue>405&&sensorValue<425)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.8 lag");}

if(sensorValue>425&&sensorValue<445)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.79 lag");}

if(sensorValue>445&&sensorValue<465)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.78 lag");}

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if(sensorValue>465&&sensorValue<485)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.77 lag");}

if(sensorValue>485&&sensorValue<505)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.76 lag");}

if(sensorValue>505&&sensorValue<525)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.75 lag");}

if(sensorValue>525&&sensorValue<545)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.74 lag");}

if(sensorValue>545&&sensorValue<565)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.73 lag");}

if(sensorValue>565&&sensorValue<585)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.72 lag");}

if(sensorValue>585&&sensorValue<605)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.71 lag");}

if(sensorValue>605&&sensorValue<625)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.7 lag");}

if(sensorValue>625&&sensorValue<645)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.69 lag");}

if(sensorValue>645&&sensorValue<665)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.68 lag");}

if(sensorValue>665&&sensorValue<685)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.67 lag");}

if(sensorValue>685&&sensorValue<705)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.66 lag");}

if(sensorValue>705&&sensorValue<725)

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{lcd.print("PF = 0.65 lag");}

if(sensorValue>725&&sensorValue<745)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.64 lag");}

if(sensorValue>745&&sensorValue<765)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.63 lag");}

if(sensorValue>765&&sensorValue<785)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.62 lag");}

if(sensorValue>785&&sensorValue<805)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.61 lag");}

if(sensorValue>805&&sensorValue<825)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.6 lag");}

if(sensorValue>825&&sensorValue<845)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.59 lag");}

if(sensorValue>845&&sensorValue<865)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.58 lag");}

if(sensorValue>865&&sensorValue<885)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.57 lag");}

if(sensorValue>885&&sensorValue<905)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.56 lag");}

if(sensorValue>905&&sensorValue<925)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.55 lag");}

if(sensorValue>925&&sensorValue<945)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.54 lag");}

if(sensorValue>945&&sensorValue<965)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.53 lag");}

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if(sensorValue>965&&sensorValue<985)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.52 lag");}

if(sensorValue>985&&sensorValue<1005)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.51 lag");}

if(sensorValue>1005&&sensorValue<1024)

{lcd.print("PF = 0.5 lag");}

48