Network Analysis & Synthesis (Book)

1
QUANTUM SERIES
For
B.Tech Students of Second Year
of All Engineering Colleges Affiliated to
Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,
Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow
(Formerly Uttar Pradesh Technical University)
Network Analysis & Synthesis
By
Amrit Kumar Mandal
TM
QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.

Ghaziabad New Delhi
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Network Analysis & Synthesis (EC : Sem-3)

1st Edition : 2009-10 12th Edition : 2020-21
nd
2 Edition : 2010-11
3rd Edition : 2011-12
4th Edition : 2012-13
11th Edition : 2019-20 (Thoroughly Revised Edition)
Price: Rs. 85/- only
Printed Version : e-Book.

3
CONTENTS
KEC 303 : Network Analysis & Synthesis
UNIT-1 : NODE AND MESH ANALYSIS (1–1 C to 1–32 C)

Node and mesh analysis, matrix approach of network containing
voltage & current sources and reactances, source transformation
and duality.
UNIT-2 : NETWORK THEOREMS (2–1 C to 2–41 C)

Network theorems: Superposition, reciprocity, Thevenin’s, Norton’s,
Maximum power transfer, compensation and Tallegen's theorem as
applied to A.C. circuits.
UNIT-3 : FOURIER SERIES (3–1 C to 3–34 C)

Trigonometric and exponential Fourier series: Discrete spectra and
symmetry of waveform, steady state response of a network to
nonsinusoidal periodic inputs, power factor, effective values, Fourier
transform and continuous spectra, three phase unbalanced circuit
and power calculation.
UNIT-4 : LAPLACE TRANSFORM (4–1 C to 4–36 C)

Laplace transforms and properties: Partial fractions, singularity
functions, waveform synthesis, analysis of RC, RL, and RLC
networks with and without initial conditions with Laplace
transforms evaluation of initial conditions.
UNIT-5 : TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR (5–1 C to 5–31 C)

Transient behaviour, concept of complex frequency, driving points
and transfer functions poles and zeros of immittance function, their
properties, sinusoidal response from pole-zero locations, convolution
theorem and two four port network and interconnections, behaviour
of series and parallel resonant circuits, introduction to band pass,
low pass, high pass and band reject filters.
SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1C to SQ-15C)
SOLVED PAPERS (2019-20) (SP–1 C to SP–16 C)

KEC303 Network Analysis and Synthesis 3L:0T:0P 3 Credits
Unit Topics Lectures

I Node and mesh analysis, matrix approach of network containing voltage & 8
current sources and reactances, source transformation and duality.
II Network theorems: Superposition, reciprocity, Thevenin’s, Norton’s, 8
Maximum power transfer, compensation and Tallegen's theorem as applied
to A.C. circuits.
III Trigonometric and exponential Fourier series: Discrete spectra and 8
symmetry of waveform, steady state response of a network to non-
sinusoidal periodic inputs, power factor, effective values, Fourier
transform and continuous spectra, three phase unbalanced circuit and
power calculation.
IV Laplace transforms and properties: Partial fractions, singularity functions, 8
waveform synthesis, analysis of RC, RL, and RLC networks with and
without initial conditions with Laplace transforms evaluation of initial
conditions.
V Transient behaviour, concept of complex frequency, driving points and 8
transfer functions poles and zeros of immittance function, their properties,
sinusoidal response from pole-zero locations, convolution theorem and two
four port network and interconnections, behaviour of series and parallel
resonant circuits, introduction to band pass, low pass, high pass and band
reject filters.
Text/Reference Books
1. Franklin F. Kuo, “Network Analysis and Synthesis,” Wiley India Education, 2nd Ed., 2006.
2. Van, Valkenburg, “Network analysis,” Pearson, 2019.
3. Sudhakar, A., Shyammohan, S. P., “Circuits and Network,” Tata McGraw-Hill New
Delhi, 1994.
4. A William Hayt, “Engineering Circuit Analysis,” 8th Edition, McGraw-Hill Education.
5. A. Anand Kumar, “Network Analysis and Synthesis,” PHI publication, 2019.
Course Outcomes:
At the end of this course students will demonstrate the ability to:
1. Understand basics electrical circuits with nodal and mesh analysis.
2. Appreciate electrical network theorems.
3. Apply Laplace transform for steady state and transient analysis.
4. Determine different network functions.
5. Appreciate the frequency domain techniques.
Network Analysis and Synthesis 1–1 C (EC-Sem-3)
1 Node and Mesh

Analysis
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Nodal Analysis ............................................. 1–2C to 1–9C
Part-2 : Mesh Analysis ............................................ 1–9C to 1–16C
Part-3 : Matrix Approach of Network ............... 1–16C to 1–22C

Containing Voltage and Current
Sources and Reactances
Part-4 : Source Transformation and .................. 1–22C to 1–30C

Duality
Node & Mesh Analysis 1–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
PART-1
Nodal Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions
Que 1.1. Discuss nodal analysis.
Answer
1. In general, in a N node circuit, one of the nodes is chosen as reference
or datum node, then it is possible to write N – 1 nodal equations by
assuming N – 1 node voltages.
2. Each node in a circuit can be assigned a number or a letter. The node
voltage is the voltage of a given node with respect to one particular
node, called the reference node, which we assume at zero potential.
3. In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.1.1, node 3 is assumed as the reference
node.
4. The voltage at node 1 is the voltage at that node with respect to node 3.
Similarly, the voltage at node 2 is the voltage at that node with respect
to node 3.
5. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node 1,
V1 V1 – V2
I1 = 
R1 R2
where V1 and V2 are the voltages at node 1 and 2, respectively.
1 1   1 
V1    – V2   = I1 ...(1.1.1)
 R1 R2   R2 
R2 R4
1 2
I1 R1 R3 R5
3
Fig. 1.1.1.
6. Similarly, at node 2,
!!!
V2 – V1 V2 V2
  =0
R2 R3 R4  R5
1  1 1 1 
– V1    V2     =0 ...(1.1.2)
 R2  R
 2 R3 R4  R5
7. From the eq. (1.1.1) and eq. (1.1.2), we can find the voltages at each
node.
Que 1.2. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.2.1, find the voltage Vx
using nodal analysis.
Iy +
40 
50  + 0.2V
0.6 A 100  Vx – x
25Iy
–
Fig. 1.2.1.
Answer
V1 V2
Iy +
40 
50  + 0.2V
0.6 A 100  Vx – x
25 Iy
–
Fig. 1.2.2.
1. By KCL at node 1,
Vx V – V2
– 0.6  I y  – 25 I y  1 =0 ...(1.2.1)
50 40
V2 = 0.2 Vx ...(1.2.2)
and other constraint equation,
Vx
Iy = and V1 = Vx ...(1.2.3)
100
3. Putting value of Iy, V1 and V2 in eq. (1.2.1),
Vx V 25Vx V1 – V2
– 0.6   x –  =0
100 50 100 40
– 120 + 2Vx + 4Vx – 50Vx + 5Vx – 5 × 0.2 Vx = 0
120
 Vx = = – 3 volt
– 40
Que 1.3. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1.3.1, determine the voltage
v using nodal analysis.
+
8 2
100 V + 12  6 10 A
– v
–
Fig. 1.3.1.
Answer
1. Let the node voltage be V1 and V2. Here, V2 = v
+
8 2
100 V + 12  v 6 10 A
–
–
Fig. 1.3.2.
V1 – 100 V1 V1 – V2
  =0
8 12 2
17V1 – 12v = 300 ...(1.3.1)
V2 – V1 V2
 – 10 = 0
2 6
– 3V1 + 4v = 60 ...(1.3.2)
4. After solving eq. (1.3.1) and eq. (1.3.2), we get
v = 60 V
Que 1.4. Using nodal analysis, determine the power supplied by

the 8 V voltage source in Fig. 1.4.1.
8V 1
V1 1 V2 V3
2 2
6
2V 6A
4 3
5
Fig. 1.4.1.
Answer
1. Nodal equations for the circuit of Fig. 1.4.1, at node 1 as
V1  2 V1  8  V3
 –6=0
5 1
6V1 – 5V3 = – 8 ...(1.4.1)
2. The KCL equation at node 2 is

V2 V2  V3
6  = 0 or 5V2 – 2V3 = – 72 ...(1.4.2)
4 6
V3  V2 V3 V  8  V1
  = 0 or – 6V1 – V2 + 9V3 = 48 ...(1.4.3)
6 3 1
4. Solving the eq. (1.4.1), eq. (1.4.2) and eq. (1.4.3), we get
V1 = 4.592 V; V2 = – 11.555 V; V3 = 7.111 V
5. Current through 1  resistance and 8 V voltage source
V1  8  V3 4.592  8  7.111
=  = 5.481 A
1 1
6. Power supplied by the 8 V source = 8 × 5.481 = 43.848 W.
Que 1.5. Write nodal equations for the circuit shown in

Fig. 1.5.1, and find the power supplied by the 20 V source.
4
– + 8
+ –
20 V Vx
4 2
5A
4Vx
Fig. 1.5.1.
Answer
1. Consider nodes 1 and 2 and node voltages V1 and V2 as shown in
Fig. 1.5.2.
4
V1 – + 8 V2
1 + 2
20 V Vx –
4 2
5A 4Vx
Fig. 1.5.2.
2. The KCL equation at node 1 is :

V1 V1  V2 V1  20  V2
5   =0
4 4 8
0.625V1 – 0.375V2 = – 7.5 ...(1.5.1)
3. The KCL equation at node 2 is :
V2  V1 V2  20  V1 V2
  – 4Vx = 0
4 8 2
– 0.375V1 + 0.875 V2 – 4Vx = 2.5 ...(1.5.2)
4. Substituting, Vx = V1 + 20 – V2 in eq. (1.5.2)
– 4.375V1 + 4.875V2 = 82.5 ...(1.5.3)
5. Solving eq. (1.5.1) and eq. (1.5.3), we have the node voltages,
V1 = – 4.02 V and V2 = 13.39 V.
6. The current delivered by the 20 V source is
V1  20  V2  4.02  20  13.39
 = 0.324 A
8 8
7. The power supplied by the 20 V source is
Ps = 20 × 0.324 = 6.48 W
Que 1.6. Explain the concept of supernode analysis.

OR
How do you apply nodal analysis when there is only a voltage source
in a branch between two nodes ?
Answer
1. Suppose any of the branches in the network connected between two
nodes has only a voltage source, then it is slightly difficult to apply
nodal analysis.
2. An alternative way to overcome this difficulty is to apply the supernode
technique.
3. In this method, the two adjacent nodes that are connected by a voltage
source are reduced to a single larger node called supernode and then
the equations are formed by applying KCL.
4. This is explained with the help of Fig. 1.6.1. Node 4 is the reference
node and nodes 2 and 3 form the supernode.
Vx
V1 R2 V2 + – V3
Ix
R1 R4
I R5
R3
Vy Vz
Fig. 1.6.1.
5. KCL at node 1 is :
V1  Vy V1  V2
I=  ...(1.6.1)
R1 R2
6. KCL at supernode 2, 3 is :
V2  V1 V2 V3  Vz V3
   =0 ...(1.6.2)
R2 R3 R4 R5
7. The constraint equation is :
V2 – Vx = V 3
V2 = V3 + Vx ...(1.6.3)
8. After solving eq. (1.6.1), eq. (1.6.2) and eq. (1.6.3), V1, V2 and V3 can be
calculated.
Que 1.7. Determine the current in the 5  resistor for the circuit
shown in Fig. 1.7.1.
V1 2 V2 + – V3
1 2 3
20 V
3 5
10 A 2
1 +
– 10 V
Fig. 1.7.1.
Answer
1. At node 1
V1 V1  V2
10 = 
3 2
1 1  V
V1     2 – 10 = 0
3 2 2
0.83 V1 – 0.5 V2 – 10 = 0 ...(1.7.1)
2. At node 2 and 3, the supernode equation is
V2  V1 V2 V3  10 V3
   =0
2 1 5 2
 V1 1  1 1 
 V2   1  V3    = 2
2 2  5 2 
– 0.5 V1 + 1.5 V2 + 0.7 V3 – 2 = 0 ...(1.7.2)
3. The voltage between nodes 2 and 3 is given by
V2 – V3 = 20 ...(1.7.3)
4. Solving eq. (1.7.1), eq. (1.7.2) and eq. (1.7.3), we obtain

V3 = – 8.42 V
V3  10
5. The current in the 5  resistor =
5
 8.42  10
= = – 3.68 A (current towards nodes 3)
5
Que 1.8. Find the current ia, using nodal analysis in the circuit
ia
12 
12 V 8
V1 V2
+– V3
+ 5Vx
6A
5 Vx
–
Fig. 1.8.1.
Answer
1. Considering the supernode in Fig. 1.8.1, the supernode equation is
V1 V1  V3 V2  V3
  –6=0
5 12 8
0.283V1 + 0.125V2 – 0.2083V3 = 6 ...(1.8.1)
V3  V1 V3  V2
 – 5Vx = 0
12 8
– 5.083V1 – 0.125V2 + 0.208V3 = 0 ...(1.8.2)
3. The constraint equation is V1 = V2 + 12 ...(1.8.3)
4. Solving eq. (1.8.1), eq. (1.8.2) and eq. (1.8.3), we have
V1 = – 1.25 V
V2 = – 13.25 V
V3 = – 38.5 V
V1  V3  1.25  ( 38.5)
5. ia =  = 3.104 A
12 12
PART-2
Mesh Analysis.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.9. Explain mesh analysis briefly.
Answer
1. Mesh analysis is applicable only for planar networks. For non-planar
circuits, mesh analysis is not applicable.
2. A circuit is said to be planar, if it can be drawn on a plane surface
without crossovers. A non-planar circuit cannot be drawn on a plane
surface without a crossover.
3. Fig. 1.9.1(a) is a planar circuit and Fig. 1.9.1(b) is a non-planar circuit.
+ +
– –
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.9.1.
4. A mesh is defined as a loop which does not contain any other loops
within it.
5. To apply mesh analysis, our first step is to check whether the circuit is
planar or not and the second is to select mesh currents.
6. Finally, writing Kirchhoff’s voltage law equations in terms of unknowns
and solving them leads to the final solution.
7. In circuit shown in Fig. 1.9.2, there are two loops abefa and bcdeb in the
network.
R1 R3
a b c
VS + I1 R2 I2 R4
–
f e d
Fig. 1.9.2.
8. Let us assume loop currents I1 and I2 with directions as indicated in the
Fig. 1.9.2.
9. Considering the loop abefa alone, we observe that current I1 is passing
through R1, and (I1 – I2) is passing through R2. By applying Kirchhoff’s
voltage law, we can write
Vs = I1R1 + R2(I1 – I2)
I1(R1 + R2) – I2 R2 = Vs ...(1.9.1)
10. Similarly, if we consider the second mesh bcdeb, the current I2 is passing
through R3 and R4, and (I2 – I1) is passing through R2. By applying
Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the second mesh, we have
R2 (I2 – I1) + R3 I2 + R4 I2 = 0
– I1 R2 + (R2 + R3 + R4)I2 = 0 ...(1.9.2)
11. By solving the eq. (1.9.1) and eq. (1.9.2), we can find the currents I1 and
I2.
12. If we observe Fig. 1.9.2, the circuit consists of five branches and four
nodes, including the reference node. The number of mesh currents is
equal to the number of mesh equations.
13. In general, if we have B number of branches and N number of nodes
including the reference node then the number of linearly independent
mesh equations M = B – (N – 1).
Que 1.10. Write the mesh current equations in the circuit shown
in Fig. 1.10.1, and determine the currents.
5
+ 10 
10 V 2
– +
50 V
–
Fig. 1.10.1.
Answer
1. Assume two mesh currents in the direction as indicated in Fig. 1.10.2.
5
10 
+
10 V I1 2  I2
– +
50 V
–
Fig. 1.10.2.
2. The mesh current equations are
5I1 + 2(I1 – I2) = 10 ...(1.10.1)
10I2 + 2(I2 – I1) + 50 = 0 ...(1.10.2)
3. We can rearrange the eq. (1.10.1) and eq. (1.10.2) as
7I1 – 2I2 = 10 ...(1.10.3)
– 2I1 + 12I2 = – 50 ...(1.10.4)
4. By solving the eq. (1.10.3) and eq. (1.10.4) then we have
I1 = 0.25 A, and I2 = – 4.125 A
5. Here, the current in the second mesh, I2, is negative; that is the actual
current I2 flows opposite to the assumed direction of current in the
circuit of Fig. 1.10.2.
Que 1.11.
20  15 
10 
2A ia
–
+ 20ia
10 V
15 
Fig. 1.11.1.
i. Use the mesh current method to solve for ia in the circuit shown
in Fig. 1.11.1.
ii. Find the power delivered by the independent current and voltage
sources.
iii. Find the power delivered by the dependent voltage source.
iv. Show that the power delivered by the sources is equal to the
power dissipated by the resistors.
Answer
20  15 
10 
+ ia
2A v0 i1 i2 –
– + 20i
10 V a
15 
Fig. 1.11.2.
i. The circuit with loop currents marked is shown in Fig. 1.11.2. It has two
loops. Loop 1 has an independent current source of 2 A. Hence i1 = 2 A.
 KVL equation for loop 2, we get
10(i2 – 2) + 15i2 – 20ia + 15i2 – 10 = 0
ia = i2 – i1 = i2 – 2
10(i2 – 2) + 15i2 – 20(i2 – 2) + 15i2 – 10 = 0,
20i2 = –10
i2 = – 0.5 A
 ia = i2 – 2 = – 0.5 – 2 = – 2.5 A
ii. Applying KVL to mesh 1, we get
– v0 + 20i1 + 10(– ia) + 10 = 0,
v0 = 20 × 2 + 10(2.5) + 10 = 75 V
So power delivered by 2 A current source = 75 ×2 = 150 W
Power delivered by 10 V source = 10ia = 10 × (– 2.5) = – 25 W
The negative sign implies that power is absorbed by the 10 V source.
iii. Power delivered by the dependent voltage source of 20ia is
20ia × i2 = 20(– 2.5)(– 0.5) = 25 W
iv. So net power delivered by all sources = 150 – 25 + 25 = 150 W
Power dissipated by resistors = i12 × 20 + ia2 × 10 + i22 × 15 + i22 × 15
= 22 × 20 + (– 2.5)2 × 10 + (– 0.5)2 × 30 = 150 W
So Power delivered by sources = Power dissipated by resistors.
Que 1.12. Using mesh analysis, determine what value of vs in

Fig. 1.12.1 will cause vx = 0.
4A 6A
+ 0.5 vx
–
12  6
+ + +
– 40 V V –
s
v 30 
x
–
Fig. 1.12.1.
Answer
4A 6A
0.5 v
+ x
I – I
1 2
–
12  (b) 6
+ + +
– I3 I –
40 V v 4 V
x 30  s
Fig. 1.12.2.
1. In Fig. 1.12.2, loop current I1 = 4 A and loop current I2 = 6 A.

2. KVL equations around mesh 3
– 40 + 12(I3 – I1) + vx = 0
3. It is given that vx = 0. Therefore,
– 40 + 12(I3 – 4) = 0
12I3 = 88
I3 = 88/12 = 7.333 A
4. Also vx = 30(I3 – I4) = 0
 I3 = I4 = 7.333 A
5. Applying KVL to mesh 4, we get
– vx + 6(I4 – I2) + vs = 0
vs = – 6(I4 – I2) = – 6(7.33 – 6) = – 8 V
Que 1.13. How do you apply mesh analysis when there is a current
source in a branch common to two loops ?
OR
Explain concept of supermesh analysis.
Answer
1. Suppose any of the branches in the network which is common to two
loops has a current source, then it is slightly difficult to apply mesh
analysis straight forward.
2. One way to overcome this difficulty is by applying the supermesh
technique.
3. A supermesh is constituted by two adjacent loops that have a common
current source, that is, a supermesh is a combination of two adjacent
meshes ignoring the common branch in which current source is present.
4. Consider the network shown in Fig. 1.13.1. Here the current source I is
in the common boundary for the two meshes 1 and 2. Let the voltage
across the current source I be Vx.
R1
R2 R3
+ I1 R4
V1 – I2 I3
I + V
– 2
Fig. 1.13.1. Circuit with supermesh.
5. Using supermesh for Fig. 1.13.1,

I1R1 + (I2 – I3)R3 + V2 – V1 = 0 ...(1.13.1)
6. Constraint equation I1 – I2 = I ...(1.13.2)
7. For loop 3, (I3 – I2)R3 + I3R4 – V2 = 0 ...(1.13.3)
8. Using eq. (1.13.1), eq. (1.13.2) and eq. (1.13.3), currents I1, I2 and I3 can
be calculated.
Que 1.14. In the circuit shown in Fig. 1.14.1, find the power
delivered by the 10 V source and the voltage across the 4  resistor
using mesh analysis.
V4
+ –
4 6
4A 6
2 2
V4/4
10 V 6V
Fig. 1.14.1.
Answer
V4
4 6
I1
A C
B
4A 6
2 I2 2 I
3
V4/4
10 V 6V
D
Fig. 1.14.2.
1. Since the 4 A current source is in a branch common to meshes 1 and 2,

we use the supermesh techniques.
2. There is a current source in mesh 3,
 I3 = V4/4.
3. Also I1 = V4/4.
So I1 = I3.
4. Also I2 – I1 = 4
I2 = I1 + 4
5. The combined supermesh equation is :
4I1 + 6I1 + 6(I1 – I3) + 2(I2 – I3) + 6 – 10 + 2I2 = 0,
8I1 + 2I2 – 4I3 = 2 (I2 = I1 + 4)
 8I1 + 2(I1 + 4) – 4I1 = 2
I1 = – 1 A
I3 = – 1 A and I2 = – 1 + 4 = 3 A
6. The voltage across the 4  resistor = 4I1 = 4 × (– 1) = – 4 V
7. Power delivered by the 10 V source, Pd = 10I2 = 10 × 3 = 30 W
PART-3
Matrix Approach of Network Containing Voltage and
Current Sources and Reactance.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.15. Using mesh analysis, determine the voltage Vs which

gives a voltage of 50 V across the 10  resistor as shown in
Fig. 1.15.1.
50 V
3 – 10  +
+ I4
I1
60 V VS
– 1 I2 5
2
I3
4 + –
50 V
Fig. 1.15.1.
Answer
1. Since the voltage across the 10  resistor is 50 V, the current passing
through it is I4 = 50/10 = 5 A.
2. From Fig. 1.15.1, we can form four equations in terms of the currents
I1, I2, I3 and I4, as
4I1 – I2 = 60 ...(1.15.1)
– I1 + 8I2 – 2I3 + 5I4 = 0 ...(1.15.2)
– 2I2 + 6I3 = 50 ...(1.15.3)
5I2 + 15I4 = Vs ...(1.15.4)
3. Solving the eq. (1.15.1), (1.15.2), (1.15.3) and (1.15.4) using Cramer’s
rule, we get
4 1 0 60
1 8 2 0
0 2 6 50
0 5 0 Vs
I4 =
4 1 0 0
1 8 2 5
0 2 6 0
0 5 0 15
8 –2 5 –1 –2 5
= 4 –2 6 0 1 0 6 0
5 0 15 0 0 15
= 4{8(90) + 2(– 30) + 5(– 30)} + 1 {– 1 (90)}
= 1950
8 –2 0 –1 –2 0 –1 8 –2
4 = 4 – 2 6 50  1 0 6 50 – 60 0 –2 6
5 0 VS 0 0 VS 0 5 0
= 4{8(6 Vs) + 2(– 2Vs – 250)} + 1{– 1(6Vs)} – 60 {– 1(– 30)}

= 170 Vs – 3800
170 Vs – 3800
I4 = =5A [ I4 = 5 A]
1950
1950  5  3800
 Vs = = 79.7 V
170
Que 1.16. Determine the voltages at each node for the circuit
3
10  V 3
1 V2 2  V3
1 2 3
10 V +
– 5 5A 1 6
Fig. 1.16.1.
Answer
1. At node 1, assuming that all currents are leaving, we have
V1 – 10 V1 – V2 V1 V1 – V2
   =0
10 3 5 3
 1 1 1 1 1 1 
V1      – V2    = 1
 10 3 5 3  3 3
0.96 V1 – 0.66 V2 = 1 ...(1.16.1)
2. At node 2, assuming that all currents are leaving except the current
from current source, we have
V2 – V1 V2 – V1 V2 – V3
  =5
3 3 2
2 1 1 1  1 
– V1    V2     – V3   = 5
3 3 3 2 2
– 0.66 V1 + 1.16 V2 – 0.5V3 = 5 ...(1.16.2)
3. At node 3, assuming all currents are leaving, we have
V3 – V2 V3 V3
  =0
2 1 6
– 0.5 V2 + 1.66 V3 = 0 ...(1.16.3)
4. Applying Cramer’s rule, we get
1  0.66 0
5 1.16  0.5
0  0.5 1.66 7.154
V1 = = = 8.06 V
0.96  0.66 0 0.887
 0.66 1.16  0.5
0  0.5 1.66
5. Similarly,
0.96 1 0
 0.66 5  0.5
0 0 1.66 9.06
V2 = = = 10.2 V
0.96  0.66 0 0.887
 0.66 1.16  0.5
0  0.5 1.66
0.96  0.66 1
 0.66 1.16 5
0  0.5 0 2.73
V3 = = = 3.07 V
0.96  0.66 0 0.887
 0.66 1.16  0.5
0  0.5 1.66
Que 1.17. Determine the mesh current I1 in the circuit shown in

Fig. 1.17.1.
10  2
+
I2 10 V
5 –
50 V + I1
–
1
3 I3 +
5V
–
Fig. 1.17.1.
Answer
1. From the circuit in Fig. 1.17.1, we can form the following three mesh
equations
10I1 + 5(I1 + I2) + 3(I1 – I3) = 50 ...(1.17.1)
2I2 + 5(I2 + I1) + 1(I2 + I3) = 10 ...(1.17.2)
3(I3 – I1) + 1(I3 + I2) = – 5 ...(1.17.3)
2. Rearranging the eq. (1.17.1), (1.17.2) and (1.17.3), we get
18I1 + 5I2 – 3I3 = 50
5I1 + 8I2 + I3 = 10
– 3I1 + I2 + 4I3 = – 5
3. According to Cramer’s rule
50 5  3
10 8 1
5 1 4 1175
I1 = = A
18 5 3 356
5 8 1
3 1 4
I1 = 3.3 A
Que 1.18. Determine the power dissipation in the 4  resistor of

the circuit shown in Fig. 1.18.1 by using mesh analysis.
5 2 6
+
50 V I1 3 I2 4 I3 10 V
–
Fig. 1.18.1.
Answer
1. Power dissipated in the 4  resistor is P4 = 4(I2 – I3)2
2. By using mesh analysis, we can find the currents I2 and I3.
3. From the given circuit in Fig. 1.18.1, we can obtain three mesh equations
in terms of I1, I2 and I3
8I1 + 3I2 = 50 ...(1.18.1)
3I1 + 9I2 – 4I3 = 0 ...(1.18.2)
– 4I2 +10I3 = 10 ...(1.18.3)
4. By solving the eq. (1.18.1), (1.18.2) and (1.18.3), we can find I2 and
I3.
8 50 0
3 0 4
0 10 10 – 1180
I2 = = = – 2.35 A
8 3 0 502
3 9 4
0  4 10
8 3 50
3 9 0
0  4 10 30
I3 = = = 0.06 A
8 3 0 502
3 9 4
0  4 10
5. The current in the 4  resistor = (I2 – I3)

= (– 2.35 – 0.06) A = – 2.41 A
6. Therefore, the power dissipated in the 4  resistor,
P4 = (2.41)2 × 4 = 23.23 W
Que 1.19. Use nodal analysis to find the power dissipated in the
6  resistor for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.19.1.
1
3 1 2
2 3
+
6
20 V 5A 5
–
Fig. 1.19.1.
Answer
1. Assume voltage V 1, V 2 and V 3 at nodes 1, 2, and 3 as shown in
Fig. 1.19.1.
2. By applying current law at node 1, we have
V1 – 20 V1 – V2 V1 – V3
  =0
3 1 2
1.83V1 – V2 – 0.5V3 = 6.67 ...(1.19.1)
3. At node 2,
V2 – V1 V2 – V3
 = 5A
1 6
– V1 + 1.167V2 – 0.167V3 = 5 ...(1.19.2)
4. At node 3,
V3 – V1 V3 – V2 V3
  =0
2 6 5
– 0.5 V1 – 0.167 V2 + 0.867 V3 = 0 ...(1.19.3)
5. Applying Cramer’s rule to eq. (1.19.1), (1.19.2) and (1.19.3), we
have
2
V2 =

1.83 –1 – 0.5
where = –1 + 1.167 – 0.167 = 0.47
– 0.5 – 0.167 0.867
1.83 6.67 – 0.5

2 = – 1 5 – 0.167 = 13.02
– 0.5 0 0.867
13.02
 V2 = = 27.70 V
0.47
6. Similarly,
3
V3 =

1.83 –1 6.67
–1 + 1.167 5
3 = = 9.03
– 0.5 – 0.167 0
9.03
 V3 = = 19.22 V
0.47
7. The current in the 6  resistor is
V2 – V3 27.70  19.22
I6 = = = 1.41 A
6 6
8. The power absorbed or dissipated = I62 R6
= (1.41)2 × 6
= 11.99 W
PART-4
Source Transformation and Duality.
Questions-Answers
Que 1.20. Discuss source transformation technique for solving

network.
Answer
1. Any practical voltage source consists of an ideal voltage source in
series with an internal resistance. Similarly, a practical current source
consists of an ideal current source in parallel with an internal resistance
as shown in Fig. 1.20.1.
2. Rv and R1 represent the internal resistances of the voltage source Vs,
and current source Is, respectively.
Rv
a a
+
Vs Is R1
–
b b
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.20.1.
3. Any source, be it a current source or a voltage source, drives currents
through its load resistance, and the magnitude of the current depends
on the value of the load resistance.
4. Fig. 1.20.2(a) and (b) represent a practical voltage source and a practical
current source respectively connected to the same load resistance RL.
Rv a a
I IL
RL
+
Vs IL Is R1 RL
–
(a) b (b) b
Fig. 1.20.2.
5. From Fig. 1.20.2(a), the load voltage can be calculated by using
Kirchhoff’s voltage law as
Vab = Vs – IL R v
Open circuit voltage Voc = Vs
Vs
Short circuit current Isc =
Rv
6. From Fig. 1.20.2(b)
Vab
IL = Is – I = I S –
R1
Open circuit voltage Voc = IsR1
Short circuit current Isc = Is
7. Here two sources (voltage and current source) are said to be equal, if
they produce equal amounts of current and voltage when they are
connected to identical load resistance.
8. Therefore, by equating the open circuit voltages and short circuit
currents of the two sources we obtain
Voc = Is R 1 = Vs
Vs
Isc = Is =
Rv
9. If follows that R1 = Rv = Rs
 Vs = Is Rs
where Rs is the internal resistance of the voltage or current source.
10. Therefore, any practical voltage source, having an ideal voltage Vs and
internal series resistance R s can be replaced by a current source
Is = Vs / Rs in parallel with an internal resistance Rs.
11. The reverse transformation is also possible. Thus, a practical current
source in parallel with an internal resistance Rs can be replaced by a
voltage source Vs = Is Rs in series with an internal resistance Rs.
Que 1.21. Determine the equivalent voltage source for the current
source shown in Fig. 1.21.1.
A
5A 5
B
Fig. 1.21.1.
Answer
1. The voltage across terminals A and B is equal to 25 V.
2. Since the internal resistance for the current source is 5 , the internal
resistance of the voltage source is also 5 .
3. The equivalent voltage source is shown in Fig. 1.21.2.
5
A
+
25 V
–
B
Fig. 1.21.2.
Que 1.22. Determine the equivalent current source for the voltage
source shown in Fig. 1.22.1.
30 
A
+
50 V
–
B
Fig. 1.22.1.
Answer
1. The short circuit current at terminals A and B is equal to
50
I= = 1.66 A
30
2. Since the internal resistance for the voltage source is 30 , the internal
resistance of the current source is also 30 .
3. The equivalent current source is shown in Fig. 1.22.2.
1.66 A 30 
B
Fig. 1.22.2.
Que 1.23. Using source transformation, find the power delivered

by the 50 V voltage source in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.23.1.
5 3
2
10 A
50 V + +
– – 10 V
Fig. 1.23.1.
Answer
1. The current source in the circuit in Fig. 1.23.1 can be replaced by a
voltage source as shown in Fig. 1.23.2.
V
A
5 2 3
+ + +
50 V – 20 V – – 10 V
Fig. 1.23.2.
2. Apply KCL at node A,

V – 50 V – 20 V – 10
  =0
5 2 3
V[0.2 + 0.5 + 0.33] = 23.33
23.33
V= = 22.65 V
1.03
3. The current delivered by the 50 V voltage source = (50 – V) / 5
50 – 22.65
= = 5.47 A
5
4. Hence, the power delivered by the 50 V voltage source,
= 50 × 5.47 = 273.5 W
Que 1.24. What do you understand by the term ‘duality’ ? Discuss

the procedure to find out the dual of a given network having both
voltage and current sources.
OR
Draw the dual of the network shown in Fig. 1.24.1.
C2 C4
R1 L3 R5
ig
Fig. 1.24.1.
OR
What do you mean by “duality of graph of the network” ? Also
mention its utilities and drawbacks.
Answer
Duality :
1. Duality is a transformation in which currents and voltages are
interchanged. Two phenomena are said to be dual if they are described
by equations of the same mathematical form.
2. There are a number of similarities and analogies between the two circuit
analysis techniques based on loop-current method and node voltage
method.
3. The principle quantities and concepts involved in these two methods
based on KVL and KCL are dual of each other with voltage variables
substituted by current variables, independent loop by independent node-
pair, etc. This similarity is termed as ‘principle of duality’.
Dual quantities and concepts :
S. No. Quantities Dual
1. Current Voltage
2. Resistance Conductance
3. Inductance Capacitance
4. Impedance Admittance
5. Reactance Susceptance
6. Branch current Branch voltage
7. Mesh or loop Node or node-pair
8. Mesh current or loop Node voltage or node-pair
current voltage
9. Link Tree branch
10. Link current Tree branch voltage
11. Tree branch current Link voltage
12. Tie-set Cut-set
13. Short-circuit Open-circuit
14. Parallel paths Series paths
Construction of dual of a network :

1. A dot is placed inside each independent loop of the given network;
these dots correspond to the non-reference nodes of the dual network.
2. A dot is placed outside the network; this dot corresponds to the datum
node.
3. All internal dots are connected by dashed lines crossing the common
branches.
4. All internal dots are connected to the external dot by dashed lines
crossing all external branches.
5. Now replace all the crossed branch element by its dual element.
Utility of dual networks : It makes very easy to solve complex
network problems.
Limitations of dual network :
1. Power has no dual due to its non-linearity.
2. Even when linearity applies a circuit element may not have a dual like
mutual inductance.
Duality of network is shown in Fig. 1.24.3.
C2 C4
ig R1 L3 R5
Fig. 1.24.2.
R1 L3
Vg = ig L2 = C2 L4 = C4 G 5 = R5
Fig. 1.24.3.
Que 1.25. Find the dual of the network shown in Fig. 1.25.1.
20  10 V 5
+
–
+
40 V +
– 20  Vx 10  9A 10 
–
Fig. 1.25.1.
Answer
20  10 V
+
–
40 V 5
10 
+
– a 20  b 10  c 9Ad
Reference node
Fig. 1.25.2.
1. A node is placed inside each loop. In given Fig. 1.25.2, there are four
loops.
2. An extra node is placed outside the network.
3. All the nodes are joined through element of original network,
transversing only one element at a time.
4. For each element transversed in original network, dual element is
connected.
Dual network is as follows :
–1 –1 –1
a 20  b 10  c d 10 
–+
9V
–1 –1
40 A 20  10 A 5
Fig. 1.25.3.
Que 1.26. Draw the dual of the circuit shown in Fig. 1.26.1.
2A
5 10 
3F
+ 6H
2H 4H
20 V
–
7F
Fig. 1.26.1.
Answer
2A
5 3F 10 
3H
1 4F 6H +
5 S 20 V + 2F 10 S
– 2V
2H 2 –
4H
7F
20 A 7H
0
6F
(a)
1 2F 2 4F 3
3H
5S 10 S
20 A 7H 6F
+
2V
–
(b)
Fig. 1.26.2. (a) Development of the dual network,
(b) Redrawn dual network.
VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Following questions are very important. These questions
may be asked in your SESSIONALS as well as
UNIVERSITY EXAMINATION.
Q. 1. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the voltage Vx using

nodal analysis.
Iy +
40 
50  + 0.2V
0.6 A 100  Vx – x
25Iy
–
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.2.
Q. 2. Determine the current in the 5  resistor for the circuit

shown in Fig. 2.
V1 2 V2 + – V3
1 2 3
20 V
3 5
10 A 2
1 +
– 10 V
Fig. 2.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.7.
Q. 3. Explain mesh analysis briefly.

Ans. Refer Q. 1.9.
Q. 4. How do you apply mesh analysis when there is a current

source in a branch common to two loops ?
Ans. Refer Q. 1.13.
Q. 5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3, find the power delivered by

the 10 V source and the voltage across the 4  resistor
using mesh analysis.
V4
+ –
4 6
4A 6
2 2
V4/4
10 V 6V
Fig. 3.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.14.
Q. 6. Determine the mesh current I1 in the circuit shown in

Fig. 4.
10  2
+
I2 10 V
5 –
+ I1
50 V –
1
3 I3 +
5V
–
Fig. 4.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.17.
Q. 7. Discuss source transformation technique for solving

network.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.20.
Q. 8. What do you understand by the term ‘duality’ ? Discuss the

procedure to find out the dual of a given network having
both voltage and current sources.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.24.
Q. 9. Draw the dual of the circuit shown in Fig. 5.

2A
5 10 
3F
+ 6H
2H 4H
20 V
–
7F
Fig. 5.
Ans. Refer Q. 1.26.

2 Network Theorems
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Superposition Theorem ............................. 2–2C to 2–9C
Part-2 : Reciprocity Theorem ................................ 2–9C to 2–14C
Part-3 : Thevenin’s Theorem .............................. 2–14C to 2–21C
Part-4 : Norton’s Theorem ................................... 2–21C to 2–28C
Part-5 : Maximum Power Transfer .................... 2–28C to 2–34C

Theo rem
Part-6 : Compensation and Tellegen’s .............. 2–34C to 2–39C

Theorem as Applied to AC Circuits
Network Theorems 2–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
PART-1
Superposition Theorem.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.1. State and explain superposition theorem.
Answer
Statement :
If a number of voltage or current sources are acting simultaneously in a
linear network, the resultant current in any branch is the algebraic sum
of the currents that would be produced in it, when each source acts
alone replacing all other independent sources by their internal
resistances.
Explanation :
1. To apply superposition theorem in Fig. 2.1.1(a), let us first take the
source V1 alone at first replacing V2 by short circuit [Fig. 2.1.1(b)]
V1
2. Here, I1 =
R2 R3
 R1
R2  R3
R3
I2 = I1
R2  R3
and I3 = I1 – I2
R1 R2
+ R3 +
– V1 – V2
(a)
I1 I2 I1 I2
R1 R2 R1 R2
+ R3 R3 V2 +
– V1 –
I3 I3
(b ) (c )
Fig. 2.1.1.
!!!
3. Next, removing V1 by short circuit, let the circuit be energized by V2 only

Fig. 2.1.1(c).
V2 R3
Here, I2 = and I1  I2
R1 R3 R1  R3
 R2
R1  R3
also, I3 = I2 – I1.
4. As per superposition theorem,
I3 = I3 + I3
I2 = I2 – I2
I1 = I1 – I1
5. It may be noted that during application of superposition, the direction of
currents calculated for each source should be taken care.
Que 2.2. Explain why ‘‘superposition theorem’’ is not applicable

for power verifications of a given network ? Explain the following :
i. Linearity principle.
ii. Homogeneity principle.
Answer
A. Superposition theorem is applicable only when we are applying it to
linear variable such as voltage and current, whereas power, P = I2R, is
a non-linear variable and hence superposition theorem cannot be
applied.
B. Linearity principle :
1. A circuit is said to be linear if it obeys the law of superposition.
2. According to superposition theorem, current I1 due to n independent
voltage sources is given by,
I1 = I1 + I1 + I1+ ...
where I1 is component of I1 due to source 1 when all other sources are
inactive. I1 is component of I1 due to source 2 alone when all other
sources are inactive and so on.
3. This is nothing but additive property of a linear network. Hence network
must be linear for the application of superposition theorem. This is the
principle of linearity.
C. Principle of homogeneity :
1. In the result of a superposition theorem, if we multiply each component
of I1 by a constant  then the total response I1 also gets multiplied by
the same constant.
if I1 = I1 + I1 + I1 +...
then I1 = I1 + I1+ I1 +...
This is called principle of homogeneity.
Que 2.3. Consider the circuit shown in Fig. 2.3.1.
15  I
7
+ 5
2A 3V 4I
–
Fig. 2.3.1.
Obtain the voltage across each current source using superposition
theorem.
Answer
1. If 2 A source current is acting alone, then
Vx 15  3I
I
2A 7 5 4I
Fig. 2.3.2.
5 I  Vx
The equations are: 3I = ...(2.3.1)
15
Vx 5 I  Vx
and = 2+ ...(2.3.2)
7 15
Vx 30  5 I  Vx
=
7 15
15Vx = 210 + 35I – 7Vx
22Vx = 210 + 35I
35I = 22Vx – 210
22Vx – 210
I= ...(2.3.3)
35
2. Putting the value I in eq. (2.3.1)
22Vx  210
22Vx – 210 5 – Vx
3× = 35
35 15
66Vx – 630 22Vx  210 – 7Vx
 =
35 15  7
66Vx – 630 15Vx – 210
=
35 105
66Vx – 630 15Vx – 210
=
7 21
1386Vx – 13230 = 105Vx – 1470

Vx = 9.18 V
3. Putting value of Vx in eq. (2.3.3)
22Vx – 210
Now, I= = – 0.23 A ...(2.3.4)
35
4. Now if 3 V source is acting alone, then the equations are :
Vy
= I ...(2.3.5)
5
15  3I Vy

7
5 4I
+
3V
–
Fig. 2.3.3.
Vy  3
= 3I  ...(2.3.6)
22
5. Solving eq. (2.3.5) and eq. (2.3.6),
5I   3
= 3I 
22
5I – 3 = 66I 
61I  = – 3
I  = – 3 / 61 = – 0.05 A
6. The voltage across 4I current source = (– 0 .23 – 0.05) × 5 = – 1.4 V
7. The voltage across 2 A current source = 7 (2 + 3I + 3I ) + 3
= 7 (2 – 0.69 – 0.15) + 3 = 11.12 V
Que 2.4. Determine the current in capacitor by the principle of

superposition of the network shown in Fig. 2.4.1.
+ –
3 4V
j4 
3 – j4 
j2 A
Fig. 2.4.1.
AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07

Answer
1. When the voltage source is acting along as shown in Fig. 2.4.2, the
current in the capacitor branch is
+ –
I 
4V
3
j4 
3 – j4 
Fig. 2.4.2.
4 2
I=  A
(3  j 4)  (3  j4) 3
2. When the current source is acting alone as shown in Fig. 2.4.3, the
current in the capacitor branch is
3
j4 
3 – j4 
I
j2 A
Fig. 2.4.3.
(3  j4)  4 
I  = j2      j1 A
(3  j 4)  (3  j 4)  3 
3. Using superposition principle, the total current when both the sources
are acting simultaneously, is
2 4   2 
I = ( I   I  )     j1     j1
3 3   3 
= 1.2123.7 A
Que 2.5. Calculate the current I shown in Fig. 2.5.1 by using

superposition theorem.
5 2 Vx
I
–+ –
+
10 V 2 Vx 2A
–
+
Fig. 2.5.1.
Answer
1. i. When the 10 V voltage source is acting alone.
2 V x
5
–+
–
10 V +  2 V x
–
+
Fig. 2.5.2. Voltage source acting alone.
ii. By KVL,
5I  – 2Vx + 2I  = 10 with Vx = – 2I 
7I  + 4I  = 10
10
I= A
11
2. i. When 2 A current source is acting alone.
2 Vx
5 X
–+
–
 2 Vx 2A
ix
+
Fig. 2.5.3. Current source acting alone.
ii. By KCL at the node (X)
Vx
2 = Ix – I = – – I  ...(2.5.1)
2
iii. But loop analysis in the left loop gives
5i  – 3Vx = 0
3
I=Vx ...(2.5.2)
5
iv. Putting value of I  in eq. (2.5.1),
Vx 3 
2= –  Vx
2 5
20
Vx = –
11
3
I  =   ( 20)
5
12
I  = – A
11
3. So, by the superposition theorem total current, when both the sources
are acting simultaneously, is
 10 12  2
I = (I + I) =     A
 11 11  11
Que 2.6. Calculate the voltage V across the resistor R by using
the superposition theorem.
j1 
– j5 
1A R=1 1V
j4 
Fig. 2.6.1.
Answer
1. When the 1 A current source is acting alone.
j1 
+
1A 1 V
–
Fig. 2.6.2.
the voltage across the resistor R = 1  is,

j
V= V
1 j
2. When the 1 V voltage source is acting alone.
j1 
+ – j5 
1 +
V 1V
j4  –
– I2
Fig. 2.6.3.
the current through the resistor
1
I2 = 1  j A
and hence, the voltage across the resistor R = 1  is

1 1
V = I2 × 1A = V
1 j 1 j
3. So, by the superposition theorem, total voltage across the resistor when
both the sources are acting simultaneously is,
j 1
V = (V + V) =  = 1V
1 j 1  j
PART-2
Reciprocity Theorem.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.7. State reciprocity theorem in AC network.
Answer
1. For a linear, time invariant, bilateral network, the ratio of input to the
output remains constant in a reciprocal network with respect to an
interchange between the points of application of input and measurement
of output.
(1) N (2)
Fig. 2.7.1.
2. Consider a reciprocal network N, as shown in Fig. 2.7.1. Now, apply a
voltage source of emf E1 in branch 1 which produces current I2 in branch
2 as shown in Fig. 2.7.2.
I2
+ N
E1
–
Fig. 2.7.2.
3. If the E2 emf voltage source applied in branch 2 of network then the

current I1 is produced in branch 1 as shown in Fig. 2.7.3.
I1
N
+
E2
–
Fig. 2.7.3.
4. According to reciprocity theorem,
E1 E
= 2
I2 I1
Que 2.8. Consider the network shown in Fig. 2.8.1.
5
I
V = 10 90°
1 4
z1 z2
j2  –j4 
Fig. 2.8.1.
Verify reciprocity theorem for V and I for the network.

Answer
IT
5
IT
V = 10  90° 1
4
z1
– j4  z2
j2 
Fig. 2.8.2.
1. 1 + 2j = z1 = 2.23 63.43° 
4 – 4j = z2 = 5.65 – 45° 
2. z1 + z2 = 5 – 2j = 5.385 – 21.80° 
z1 z2 2.2363.43  5.65  45
3. z1||z2 = =
z1  z2 5.385  21.80
= 2.34 40.23° = (1.786 + j1.511) 
4. Zeq = 5 + [z1||z2] = 5 + 1.786 + j1.511
= 6.786 + j1.511 = 6.952 12.55° 
1090
5. Total current, IT = = 1.438 77.45° A
6.95212.55
z1 1.43877.45  2.2363.43
6. Current through z2, I = IT × =
z1  z2 5.385  21.80
= 0.59 162.7° A
7. Putting the voltage source in z2 branch, 5  and z1 are in parallel,
I
5
IT
1
4
z1
– j4 
j2  z2
10  90°
V
Fig. 2.8.3.
5  2.2363.43
so, z3 = [5 + z1 = 6.324 18.43°]
6.32418.43
= 1.763 45° = 1.246 + 1.246j 
8. This impedance is in series with z2.
Zeq = 1.246 + 1.246j + 4 – 4j = 5.924 – 27.70° 
1090
9. Total current, IT = = 1.68 117.7° A
5.924   27.70
z1 1.68117.7  2.2363.43
10. Current through 5 , I  = IT' × 5  z =
1 6.32418.43
= 0.59 162.7° A
11. Since I = I , therefore reciprocity theorem is verified.
Que 2.9. Using reciprocity theorem and superposition theorem

simultaneously, obtain current I in the network of Fig. 2.9.1, if 10 V
source acting alone produces a current of 2 A in resistor R.
2 R I
+ –
10 V 2 20 V
– +
Fig. 2.9.1.
Answer
1. It is given that in Fig. 2.9.2(a), the 10 V source alone produces a current
I = 2 A in the resistor R.
2 I R 2  I1 R I
+ V3 –
10 V V1 2 2 20 V
– +
I2
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.9.2. Circuit with only (a) 10 V source, (b) 20 V source.
2. Now, let the 20 V source be acting alone with the 10 V source reduced to
zero as shown in Fig. 2.9.2 (b).
3. Comparing Fig. 2.9.2 (a) and (b), we can observe that network in
Fig. 2.9.2 (b) is obtained by interchanging the source and response in the
network Fig. 2.9.2 (a).
4. Hence, using reciprocity theorem.
V1 V2 I 2
  I1 = V2  = 20  =4A
I  I1 V1 10
V3 8
 V3 = 2 × 4 = 8 V and I2 =  =4A
2 2
 I = I1 + I2 = 4 + 4 = 8 A
5. By superposition theorem, current I = I + I = 2 + 8 = 10 A
Que 2.10. Verify the reciprocity theorem in the circuit shown in

Fig. 2.10.1.
(2 + j3) 
C
10  0° A I
(4 + j6)  (3 + j5)  V
D
Fig. 2.10.1.
Answer
1. i. The excitation and response are in original position as shown in
Fig. 2.10.1.
ii. The voltage across the terminals CD is :
V = I × (3 + j5)
4  j6
iii. I = 10 0° × = 5.53  – 1.22° = (5.529 – j0.12) A
4  j6  3  j5
iv. V = 5.53  – 1.22° × (3 + j5) = 5.53  – 1.22° × 5.8359.03°
= 32.3457.81° V
2. i. The positions of excitation and response are interchanged as shown in
Fig. 2.10.2.
(2 + j3) 
A
I1
V1 (4 + j6)  (3 + j5)  10 0° A
B
Fig. 2.10.2.
ii. Since terminals AB are open, no current flows through (2 + j3)  and V1
is the voltage across (4 + j6) .
iii. Voltage across (4 + j6) ,
V1 = I1 × (4 + j6)
3  j5 5.8359.03
iv. I1 = 10 0° × = 10  0° ×
(3  j5)  (4  j6) 13.04 57.52
= 4.471.51° A
v. V1 = I1 × (4 + j6) = 4.47  1.51° × 7.2156.3° = 32.2057.81° V
3. In both the cases, the ratio of current to voltage is same.
I I
= 1
V V1
Hence the reciprocity theorem is verified.
PART-3
Thevenin's Theorem.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.11. State and prove Thevenin’s theorem.
Answer
Statement :
1. A linear active bilateral network can be replaced at any two of its
terminals by an equivalent voltage source (Thevenin’s voltage source),
Voc, in series with an equivalent impedance (Thevenin’s impedance), ZTh.
Linear
active ZTh
bilateral Z in V oc  ETh
network
Fig. 2.11.1. Thevenin's theorem.
2. Here, Voc is the open circuit voltage between the two terminals under
the action of all sources and initial conditions, and ZTh is the impedance
obtained across the terminals with all sources removed by their internal
impedance and initial conditions reduced to zero.
Proof :
1. We consider a linear active circuit of Fig. 2.11.2(a). An external current
source is applied through the terminals ab, where we have access to
the circuit.
a
a + Zth
+
Linear I V + Vth
I V –
circuit
– –
b b
(a) A current driven circuit. (b) A Thevenin’s equivalent circuit.
Fig. 2.11.2.
2. We have to prove that the v – i relation at terminals ab of Fig. 2.11.2(a),
is identical with that of the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of
Fig. 2.11.2(b).
3. For simplicity, we assume that the circuit contains two independent
voltage sources Vs1 and Vs2 and two independent current sources Is1 and
Is2.
4. Considering the contribution due to each independent source including
the external one, the voltage at ab, V, is given by superposition theorem,
V = K0I + K1Vs1 + K2Vs2 + K3Is1 + K4Is2
where, K0, K1, K2, K3, K4 are constants.
or, V = K0I + P0 ...(2.11.1)
where, P0 = K1Vs1 + K2Vs2 + K3Is1 + K4Is2
= total contribution due to internal independent
sources.
5. To evaluate the constants K0 and P0 of eq. (2.11.1), two conditions are :
i. When the terminals a and b are open-circuited,
I = 0, and V = Voc = Vth
Putting in eq. (2.11.1),Vth = Voc = P0
Vth = P0
ii. When all the internal sources are turned off,
P0 = 0 and the equivalent impedance is Zth
From eq. (2.11.1), V = K0I
V
or, = K0 = Zth
I
K0 = Zth
6. Thus, substituting the values of K0 and P0, the v – i relation becomes,
V = Zth I + Vth ...(2.11.2)
Eq. (2.11.2) represents the v – i relationship of Fig. 2.11.2(b). So, theorem
is proved.
Que 2.12. Give the steps to determine the Thevenin’s/Norton’s
equivalent circuit.
Answer
1. The portion of the network across which the Thevenin’s or Norton’s
equivalent circuit is to be found out is removed from the network.
2. a. The open-circuit voltage (Voc or IN) is calculated keeping all the

sources at their normal values.
b. The short-circuit current (Isc or IN) flowing from one terminal to
the other is calculated keeping all the sources at their normal values.
3. Calculation of Zth or YN :
Case I : When the circuit contains only independent sources :
a. All voltage sources are short-circuited.
b. All current sources are open-circuited.
c. Equivalent impedance or admittance is calculated looking back to the
circuit with respect to the two terminals.
Case II : When the circuit contains both dependent and independent
sources :
a. Open-circuit voltage (Voc) is calculated with all sources alive.
b. Short-circuit current (Isc) is calculated with all sources alive.
Voc 1
c. Thevenin’s impedance is obtained as, Zth = 
I sc YN
Case III : When the circuit contains only dependent sources :
a. In this case, Voc = 0.
b. We connect a test voltage (or current) source at the terminals a and b
and the current flowing through ab (voltage drop between the terminals
ab) is calculated.
Vtest 1
c.Thevenin’s impedance is obtained as, Zth = 
Itest YN
4. Finally, Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is obtained by placing Voc in series
with Zth and Norton’s equivalent is obtained by placing Isc in parallel
with YN.
Que 2.13. Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current through

load impedance ZL shown in the Fig. 2.13.1.
5 10  A
+
100  0° V
– ZL = (5 + j5)
j10 
B
Fig. 2.13.1.

Answer
1. Calculation of ZTh :
5
A
10 
j10 
Zth
B
Fig. 2.13.2.
5  (10  j10)
ZTh = 5|| (10  j10) 
5  10  j10
10(1  j)
ZTh = 
3  j2
2. Calculation of VTh :
5
A
10 
+
100  0
– j10 
B
Fig. 2.13.3.
(10  j10) 100

VTh =
15  j10
200(1  j)
VTh = V
3  j2
3. Then Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is,
ZTh
VTh ITh ZL
Fig. 2.13.4.
VTh
4. Current, ITh =
ZTh  ZL
200(1  j )
3  j2
=
10(1  j)
 5  j5
3  j2
= 200(1  j)
10(1  j)  5(1  j )(3  j 2)
200 200
= 
10  5(3  j 2) 25  j10
40
 ITh =  (6.9  j 2.75) A
5  j2
Que 2.14. Find current through 5  resistor using Thevenin’s

theorem.
10  50 V 50 V
– + 2 – +
+
100 V 5 2 3
–
Fig. 2.14.1.
Answer
Determination of Thevenin’s resistance RTh :
10  2
RTh 2 3
Fig. 2.14.2.
RTh = 10 (2 + (2 3))
 2  3  6
= 10   2   = 10   2  
 2  3 5
16
10 
 16  5  32  5
= 10    =
 5 16 66
10 
5
80
RTh = 
33
Determination of Thevenin’s voltage VTh :

10  50 V 2  50 V
– + – +
+ I2
100 V Vth I1 2 3
–
Fig. 2.14.3.
i. Applying KVL in loop 1
10I1 – 50 + 2I1 + 2(I1 – I2) = 100
14I1 – 2I2 = 150 ....(2.14.1)
ii. Applying KVL in loop 2
3I2 + 2(I2 – I1) = 50
5I2 – 2I1 = 50
– 2I1 + 5I2 = 50 ...(2.14.2)
iii. Solving both eq. (2.14.1) and (2.14.2), we get
425 500
I1 = and I2 =
33 33
425
iv. So, Vth = 100 – 10 I1 = 100 – 10 ×
33
 950
Vth =V
33
The Thevenin’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.14.4 :
RTh
IL
VTh +
–
R L= 5 
Fig. 2.14.4.
VTh  950 / 33  950

IL =  
RT h  RL 80 245
5
33
 IL = – 3.87 A
Que 2.15. Find the current through 1  resistor shown in

Fig. 2.15.1 using Thevenin’s method.
A 1 B
5A 3 2 1A
Fig. 2.15.1.
Answer
a. Calculation of VTh :
1. Load RL is open circuited.
A B
5A 3 2 1A
Fig. 2.15.2.
2. Converting current source to voltage source,
A B
3 2
15 V + + 2V
– –
Fig. 2.15.3.
VTh = VAB = 15 – 2 = 13 V
b. Calculation of RTh : To calculate RTh, the current source and load
terminal are open circuited.
A B
3 2
Fig. 2.15.4.
RTh = RAB = 5 
c. Thevenin’s equivalent network :
RTh= 5 
IL
13 V + RL = 1 
–
Fig. 2.15.5.
Current through 1  resistor is
13
IL = = 2.166 A
6
PART-4
Norton's Theorems.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.16. State and prove Norton’s theorem.
Answer
Statement :
1. A linear active bilateral network can be replaced at any two of its
terminals, by an equivalent current source (Norton’s current source),
Isc, in parallel with an equivalent admittance (Norton’s admittance), YN.
2. Here, Isc is the short-circuit current flowing from one terminal to the
other under the action of all sources and initial conditions, and YN is the
admittance obtained across the terminals with all sources removed by
their internal impedance and initial conditions reduced to zero.
Linear
active YN
YN IscIsc
bilateral
network
Fig. 2.16.1. Norton's theorem.
Proof :
1. We consider a linear active circuit of Fig. 2.16.2(a). An external voltage
source is applied through the terminals ab, where we have access to the
circuit.
I I a
a
Linear
V +
– V +
– YN Is
circuit
b
b
(a) (b )
Fig. 2.16.2. ( a) A voltage-driven circuit ( b) Norton’s equivalent circuit.
2. We have to prove that the v – i relation at terminals ab of Fig. 2.16.2(a)
is identical with that of the Norton’s equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.16.2(b).
3. For simplicity, we assume that the circuit contains two independent
voltage sources Vs1 and Vs2 and two independent current sources Is1
and Is2.
4. Considering the contribution due to each independent source including
the external one, the current entering at a, I, is, given by superposition
theorem,
I = K0V + K1Vs1 + K2Vs2 + K3Is1 + K4Is2
where, K0, K1, K2, K3, K4 are constants.
or, I = K0V + P0 ...(2.16.1)
where, P0 = K1Vs1 + K2Vs2 + K3Is1 + K4Is2
= Total contribution due to internal independent
sources.
5. To evaluate the constants K0 and P0 of eq. (2.16.1), two conditions are :
i. When the terminals a and b are short-circuited.
V = 0, and I = – Isc = IN
From eq. (2.16.1), – Isc = P0  Isc = – P0
ii. When all the internal sources are turned off
P0 = 0 and the equivalent admittance is YN.
From eq. (2.16.1), I = K0V
I
or, = K 0 = YN  K 0 = YN
V
6. Thus, substituting the values of K0 and P0, the v – i relation becomes,
I = VYN – IN ...(2.16.2)
Eq. (2.16.2) represents the v – i relationship of Fig. 2.16.2(b). So, Norton’s
theorem is proved.
Que 2.17. Explain why “Thevenin’s theorem” and “Norton’s

theorem” are dual to each other ? Consider the circuit shown in
Fig. 2.17.1.
+
2 k 3 k A
4V + Vx
–
4000 Vx
B
–
Fig. 2.17.1.
i. Find the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.17.1 across AB-
terminals.
ii. Find the Norton’s equivalent circuit from Thevenin’s equivalent
circuit of Fig. 2.17.1 across AB-terminals.
Answer
1. Thevenin’s theorem replaces a complex network by a voltage source
VTh in series with an impedance ZTh, and Norton’s theorem replaces a
complex network by a current source IN in parallel with an impedance
ZN as shown in Fig. 2.17.2 (a) and (b) respectively.
Z Th A
IL
A
ZN ZL
VTh ZL IN
B (b) B
(a)
Fig. 2.17.2. (a) Thevenin’s equivalent circuit,
(b) Norton’s equivalent circuit.
2. In Fig. 2.17.2 (a),

ZL
VAB = VTh ...(2.17.1)
ZTh  ZL
VTh
and IL = ...(2.17.2)
ZTh  ZL
3. In Fig. 2.17.2 (b),
ZN ZL
VAB = IN ...(2.17.3)
ZN  ZL
ZN
and IL = IN ...(2.17.4)
ZN  ZL
4. Let ZTh = ZN and IN = VTh/ZTh. Putting these values in eq. (2.17.3) and
eq. (2.17.4), then
ZTh ZL VTh ZL
VAB =  VTh ...(2.17.4)
ZTh  ZL ZTh ZTh  ZL
ZTh VTh VTh

Also IL =  ...(2.17.5)
ZTh  ZL ZTh ZTh  ZL
5. From eq. (2.17.1), (2.17.2), (2.17.4), and (2.17.5), we conclude that VAB
and IL are same in both the cases. Thus Norton’s and Thevenin’s
theorem are dual of each other and ZN = ZTH and IN = VTh/ZTh.
Numerical :
1. From the given circuit, Vx = VTh
 V 
2. Using KVL, Vx =  x   2000  4
 4000 
 1
Vx 1   = 4
 2
Vx = + 8 V
So VTh = 8 V
3. To find Isc, let us short circuit the terminal AB
2 k 3 k Isc
+ Vx
4V –
4000
Fig. 2.17.3.
Vx = 0
4 4
Isc =  mA
5  103 5
V 8
 RTh = T h  = 10 k
I sc 4 / 5  10 3
10 k
4 mA
10 k +
5
8V
–
Norton’s equivalent circuit Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Fig. 2.17.4.
Que 2.18. For the circuit shown in Fig. 2.18.1, determine Norton’s
equivalent circuit between output terminals AB.
4  – j6 
A
+ 6
40 0° V
–
– j8 
B
Fig. 2.18.1.
Answer
Determination of IN :
1. To find the Norton’s equivalent current source, short circuited output
terminals AB is shown in Fig. 2.18.2 and the short circuit current is IN.
4  – j6 
A
+ 6
40 0° V IN
–
– j8 
B
Fig. 2.18.2.
400 400
2. IN =  = 5.5656.31° A
4  j 6 7.2  56.31
Determination of ZN :
1. To find the Norton’s equivalent impedance ZN, replace the voltage
source by a short circuit, and find the impedance looking into terminals
AB, as shown in Fig. 2.18.3.
(6  j8)(4  j6)
2. ZN = (6  j8)||(4  j6)  = 4.19305.06° 
(6  j8)  (4  j 6)
4  – j6 
A
6
ZN
– j8 
B
Fig. 2.18.3.
Norton’s equivalent circuit : Connect IN in parallel with ZN across
terminals AB
The Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.18.4.
IN 5.56  56.31° A 4.19  305.06° 
Fig. 2.18.4. B
Que 2.19. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in

Fig. 2.19.1 at terminals a-b.
2Vx
– + a
+
6 10 A Vx 2
–
b
Fig. 2.19.1.
Answer
1. To get Norton’s equivalent circuit, we have to find Isc and RN. First to
get Isc, short circuiting terminal a and b, as shown in Fig. 2.19.2.
2Vx
– + a
+
6 10 A Vx 2 Isc
–
b
Fig. 2.19.2.
2. Converting current source to voltage source, we get Fig. 2.19.3.
6
– + a
+ 2Vx +
60 V Vx 2 Isc
–
–
b
Fig. 2.19.3.
3. As current must follow through short circuit path, thus

Vx = 0,
60
Therefore, Isc = = 10 A
6
4. Now to find RN, connecting a 1 V source across a-b and replacing active
source with their internal resistances as shown in Fig. 2.19.4.
B IN
– + a
2Vx +
6 Vx +
2 – 1V
–
b
Fig. 2.19.4.
5. Applying KCL at B, Vx = 1 V
1 (1  2)
IN =
 = 2/6 = 1/3 A
2 6
1
and RN = =3
IN
6. Thus, the Norton equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.19.5.
a
10 A 3
b
Fig. 2.19.5.
Que 2.20. Find the current in the 5  resistance for the circuit
shown in given Fig. 2.20.1 by Norton’s theorem.
3 10 
A
10 V + 6 1A 5
–
B
Fig. 2.20.1.
Answer
1. Let us first remove the 5  resistor and short the A-B terminals.
Assuming the voltage to be positive at node 1 (in Fig. 2.20.2) nodal
analysis gives
V  10 V V
 1 =0
3 6 10
0.33V + 0.17V + 0.1V = 4.33

V = 7.22 V
3 V 1 10  A
+
10 V – 1A
6
B
Fig. 2.20.2.
2. Applying KVL in the right most loop of Fig. 2.20.2.

– V + Isc × 10 = 0
– 7.22 + 10Isc = 0
Isc = IN =0.722 A
3. To find Norton’s equivalent resistance through A-B, 5  resistor is
removed and all the constant sources are deactivated as in Fig. 2.20.3.
3 10 
a
6 Rint
b
Fig. 2.20.3.
36
Rint = + 10 = 12 
36
4. Norton’s equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.20.4.
a
IN R int= 12  5
b
Fig. 2.20.4.
5. Now Norton’s equivalent current through 5  resistor
Rint 12
I5= I N  0.722  = 0.5096 A = 509.6 mA
Rint  5 12  5
PART-5
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.21. State and prove the maximum power transfer theorem
applied to the AC circuits. AKTU 2017-18, Marks 07

OR
State and prove maximum power transfer theorem with example.
Answer
Consider a simple network as shown in Fig. 2.21.1. There are three
possible cases for load impedance ZL.
Zs
+
Vs ZL
–
Fig. 2.21.1. A simple network.

Case I : When the load impedance is a variable resistance.
Vs Vs
1. IL = 
Zs  ZL Rs  jX s  RL
|Vs |
|IL| =
( Rs  RL )2  X s2
2. The power delivered to the load is
|Vs |2 RL
PL = |IL|2 RL =
( Rs  RL )2  X s2
3. For power PL to be maximum,
dPL
=0
dRL
 {( Rs  RL )2  X s2 }  2 RL ( Rs  RL ) 
|Vs |2   =0
 [( Rs  RL )2  X s2 ]2 
(Rs + RL)2 + Xs2 – 2RL(Rs + RL) = 0
Rs2 + 2RsRL + RL2 + Xs2 – 2RLRs – 2RL2 = 0
Rs2  X s2  RL2 = 0
RL2 = Rs2  X s2
RL = Rs2  X s2  | Zs |
4. Hence, load resistance RL should be equal to the magnitude of the
source impedance for maximum power transfer.
Case II : When the load impedance is a complex impedance with
variable resistance and variable reactance.
Vs
1. IL =
Zs  ZL
|Vs |
|IL| =
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
|Vs |2 RL
PL = |IL|2 RL = ...(2.21.1)
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
3. For maximum value of PL, denominator of the eq. (2.21.1) should be
small, i.e., XL = – Xs
|Vs |2 RL
PL = ...(2.21.2)
( Rs  RL )2
4. Differentiating eq. (2.21.2) for PL w.r.t RL and equating to zero, we get
2
dPL 2  ( R  RL )  2 RL ( Rs  RL ) 
= |Vs |  s 
dRL  ( Rs  RL )2 
(Rs + RL)2 – 2RL(Rs + RL) = 0
Rs2 + RL2 + 2RsRL – 2RLRs – 2RL2 = 0
Rs2  RL2 = 0
RL2 = Rs2
RL = R s
5. Hence, load resistance RL should be equal to the resistance Rs and load
reactance XL should be equal to negative value of source reactance.
6. Load impedance for maximum power transfer is :
ZL = Zs* = Rs – jXs
i.e., load impedance must be the complex conjugate of the source
impedance.
Case III : When the load impedance is a complex impedance
with variable resistance and fixed reactance.
Vs
1. IL =
Zs  ZL
|Vs |
|IL| =
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
|Vs |2 RL
PL = |IL|2 RL =
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
3. For maximum power,
dPL
=0
dRL
 ( R  RL ) 2  ( X s  X L ) 2  2 RL ( Rs  RL ) 
|Vs |2  s  =0
 {( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2 } 
(Rs + RL)2 + (Xs + XL)2 – 2RL(Rs + RL) = 0
Rs2  2 Rs RL  RL2  ( X s  X L ) 2  2 RL Rs  2 RL2 = 0
Rs2  ( X s  X L ) 2  RL2 = 0
RL2 = Rs2 + (Xs + XL)2
RL = Rs2  ( X s  X L )2
= |Rs + j(Xs + XL)|
= |(Rs + jXs) + jXL|
= |Zs + jXL|
impedance Zs + jXL, i.e., |Zs + jXL| for maximum power transfer.
Que 2.22. What should be the value of RL so the maximum power

can be transferred from the source to RL for the given Fig. 2.22.1 ?
a
– j3 
j4 
3 + 5 RL
50 30°V
b
Fig. 2.22.1.
Answer
To satisfy maximum power transfer, we have to find internal impedance
of the circuit.
1. Finding internal impedance :
i. Voltage source is removed by short circuit since it does not have any
internal resistance.
ii. Load terminal is opened.
2. Reduced network :
– j3 
3 j4  5 Zin
Fig. 2.22.2.
3. Component 3 , j4  and 5  are in parallel to each other.
Then, equivalent of these = Z1
1 1 1 1
=  
Z1 3 j4 5
1 8 1
= 
Z1 15 j4
1 j32  15
=
Z1 j 60
j60 j60  (15  j 32)

 Z1 = 
j32  15 152  322
= 1.54 + j0.72 
– j3 
(1.54 + j 0.72)  Zin
Fig. 2.22.3.
4. Zin = Z1 – j3
= 1.54 + j0.72 – j3
= (1.54 – j2.28) 
5. Then, RL = 2.75 
Que 2.23. Find the value of R in the circuit of Fig. 2.23.1 such that
maximum power transfer takes place. What is the amount of this
power ?
1 5 R
–
4V 2 1 6V
+
Fig. 2.23.1.
Answer
1. The Thevenin’s equivalent resistance of the network shown in
Fig. 2.23.2 can be calculated as,
1 5
2 1
RTh
Fig. 2.23.2.
17
 1 17
 1  2   2  3
RTh =    5  |
| 1 =   5 ||1   
 1  2  3  17
  1 20
3
2. The open circuit voltage of the network is shown in Fig. 2.23.3, can be
calculated as
1 5
+
4V 2 1
Voc
i1 i2
+ – –
6V
Fig. 2.23.3.
3. Removing the resistance R,
 3i1 – 2i2 = 4 ...(2.23.1)
and – 2i1 + 8i2 = 0 ...(2.23.2)
Solving eq. (2.23.1) and (2.23.2), we get
2
i2 = A
5
 1 × i2 + 6 = V oc
 2  32
Voc =  6    V
5 5
17
5. For maximum power transfer, R = RTh = = 0.85 
20
Voc2
Maximum power, Pmax = = 12 W
4R
PART-6
Compensation and Tellegen's Theorem as Applied to AC Circuits.
Questions-Answers
Que 2.24. Give the statement of compensation theorem. Also prove

it for linear network.
Answer
Statement : In a linear time variant network, when the resistance (R)
of an uncoupled branch, carrying a current (I), is changed by (R), the
current in all the branches would change and can be obtained by assuming
that an ideal voltage source (Vc) has been connected in series with
(R + R), when all other sources in the network are replaced by their
internal resistance.
Proof :
1. Let us assume a load RL be connected to a DC source network whose
Thevenin’s equivalent gives V0 as the Thevenin’s voltage and RTh as
Thevenin’s resistance as evident from Fig. 2.24.1.
Thevenin
RTh equivalent of
x source
x
+
I RL
Source RL  Vo
network
–
y y
Fig. 2.24.1.
2. Let the load resistance RL be changed to (RL + RL). Since the rest of the
circuit remains unchanged, the Thevenin’s equivalent network remains
the same as in Fig. 2.24.2.
I'
RTh
+ (RL +  RL)
Vo –
Thevenin’s equivalent of source

Fig. 2.24.2.
Vo
Here I =
RT h  ( RL  RL )
3. The change of current being termed as I.
We find, I = I – I
Vo Vo
= 
RTh  ( RL  RL ) RT h  RL
 Vo  RL
= 
 RT h  RL  RTh  RL  RL
I RL (Vc )
=  =
RT h  RL  RL RT h  RL  RL
4. Thus it has been proved that change of branch resistance, branch current
is changed and the change is equivalent to an ideal compensating voltage
source in series with the branch opposing the original current.
I
Rth
RL +  RL
+ Vc
–
Fig. 2.24.3.
Que 2.25. State and prove Tellegen’s theorem.

Answer
Tellegen’s Theorem :
Tellegen’s theorem states that for a network of n elements and e nodes,
if a set of current passing through various elements be i1, i2,...., i n
satisfying KCL and its set of voltages be V1, V2,....,Vn satisfying KVL for
every loop then Tellegen’s theorem is
n
V i
k 1
k k =0
Proof :
1. Let ipq (= ik) = Kth branch through current.
VK = Voltage drop in branch K = Vp – Vq, where Vp and Vq are the
respective node voltages at p and q nodes.
We have, VK ipq = (Vp – Vq) ipq = VK iK ...(2.25.1)
VK iK = (Vq – Vp) iqp, obviously, iqp = – ipq] ...(2.25.2)
Summing eq. (2.25.1) and (2.25.2)
2 VK iK = (Vp – Vq) ipq + (Vq – Vp) iqp
1
VK iK = [(Vp – Vq) ipq + (Vq – Vp) iqp]
2
n
1 n n
V i k k =   (V p  Vq )ipq
k 1 2 p 1 q1
1 n  n  1 n  n 
=  Vp   ipq    Vq   ipq 
2 p 1  q1  2 q1  p1 
Branch k
nodep nodeq
ipq
Fig. 2.25.1.
3. Following Kirchhoff’s current law, the algebraic sum of current at each
node is equal to zero.
n
i.e. i
p1
pq =0
n
i
q 1
qp =0
With this finally we get V i

k 1
k k =0
Thus, it has been observed that the sum of power delivered to a closed
network is zero.
2V
– +
2
3 1
6 + 9
4V
–
Fig. 2.26.1.
Verify the Tellegen’s theorem for the network shown in Fig. 2.26.1.
Answer
2V
– + 2
I3
3 4
6 9
4V +
–
I1 I2
Fig. 2.26.2.
1. Applying KVL in loop 1
6I1 + 3(I1 – I3) + 4 = 0
9I1 – 3I3 = – 4 ...(2.26.1)
– 4 + 4(I2 – I3) + 9I2 = 0
13I2 – 4I3 = 4 ...(2.26.2)
0 = – 2 + 2I3 + 4(I3 – I2) + 3(I3 – I1)
9I3 – 4I2 – 3I1 = 2 ...(2.26.3)
Solving eq. (2.26.1), (2.26.2) and (2.26.3)
I1 = – 0.351 A
I2 = 0.394 A
I3 = 0.28 A
2V i
+ 1 i2
–
v2
v1
i3 i4
i7 v3 v4
i6 v5
v7
4V + v6
– i5
Fig. 2.26.3.
4. For Tellegen’s theorem, vkik = 0
v1 = 2 V, i1 = 0.28 A
v2 = 2 × 0.28 = 0.56 V, i2 = 0.28 A
v3 = 3 × (I1 – I3)
= 3 × (– 0.631) = – 1.893 V
i3 = I1 – I3 = – 0.631 A
v4 = 4(I2 – I3) = 4 × 0.114 = 0.456 V
I4 = 0.114 A
v5 = 9 × I2 = 3.546 V
i5 = 0.394 A
v6 = 4 V
i6 = I1 – I2 = – 0.745 A
v7 = 6 × I1 = – 2.106 V
i7 = I1 = – 0.351 A
vk ik = v1i1 + v2i2 + v3i3 + v4i4 + v5i5 + v6i6 + v7i7
= 2(– 0.28) + (0.56) (0.28) + (– 1.893) (– 0.631)
+ (+ 0.456) (+ 0.114) + (3.546) (0.394) + 4(– 0.745)
+ (– 2.106) (– 0.351)
=0
Hence Tellegen’s theorem is verified.
Que 2.27. State and explain “compensation theorem” and
“Tellegen’s theorem” in circuit theory. Also mention their
significances and limitations. What are the advantages and
disadvantages of “Tellegen’s and reciprocity theorems”.
Answer
Compensation theorem : Refer Q. 2.24, Page 2–34C, Unit-2.
Significance of compensation theorem :
This theorem is used to calculate the incremental changes in the voltages
and currents in the branches of a circuit due to change of impedance in
one branch.
Limitations of compensation theorem :
1. This theorem is not applicable to circuits with only dependent sources.
2. This theorem is not applicable to circuits with non-linear element.
Tellegen’s theorem : Refer Q. 2.25, Page 2–35C, Unit-2.
Significance of Tellegen’s theorem :
This theorem implies that the power delivered by independent sources
of the network must be equal to the sum of the power absorbed
(dissipated or stored) in all other elements in the network.
Limitations of Tellegen’s theorem :
The only limitation is that the voltages Vr satisfy KVL and the currents
Ir satisfy KCL.
Advantages of reciprocity theorem :
This theorem is applicable to the networks comprising of linear, time-
invariant, bilateral, passive elements such as ordinary resistors,
inductors, capacitors and transformers.
Disadvantages of reciprocity theorem :
1. This theorem is inapplicable to unilateral networks, such as networks
comprising of electron tubes or other control devices.
2. This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with time varying elements.
3. This theorem is inapplicable to circuits with dependent sources.
Advantages of Tellegen’s theorem :
1. This theorem is applicable for any lumped network having elements
which are linear or non-linear, active or passive, time varying or time-
invariant.
2. This theorem is completely independent of the nature of elements and
is only concerned with graph of the network.
Disadvantages of Tellegen’s theorem :
1. This theorem is not concerned with the type of circuit elements.
2. This theorem is only based on the two Kirchhoff’s law.

Q. 1. Explain why ‘‘superposition theorem’’ is not applicable for

power verifications of a given network ? Explain the
following :
i. Linearity principle.
ii. Homogeneity principle.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.2.
Q. 2. Determine the current in capacitor by the principle of

superposition of the network shown in Fig. 1.
+ –
3 4V
j4 
3 – j4 
j2 A
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.4.
Q. 3. State reciprocity theorem in AC network.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.7.
Q. 4. Using Thevenin’s theorem, find the current through load

impedance ZL shown in the Fig. 2.
5 10  A
+
100  0° V
– ZL = (5 + j5)
j10 
B
Fig. 2.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.13.
Q. 5. Find the Norton equivalent circuit of the circuit in

Fig. 3 at terminals a-b.
2Vx
– + a
+
6 10 A Vx 2
–
b
Fig. 3.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.19.
Q. 6. State and prove the maximum power transfer theorem

applied to the AC circuits.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.21.
Q. 7. What should be the value of RL so the maximum power can

be transferred from the source to RL for the given Fig. 4 ?
a
– j3 
j4 
3 + 5 RL
50 30°V
b
Fig. 4.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.22.
Q. 8. Give the statement of compensation theorem. Also prove it

for linear network.
Ans. Refer Q. 2.24.
Q. 9. State and prove Tellegen’s theorem.

Ans. Refer Q. 2.25.
Q. 10. State and explain “compensation theorem” and “Tellegen’s

theorem” in circuit theory. Also mention their significances
and limitations . What are the advantages and
disadvantages of “Tellegen’s and reciprocity theorems” ?
Ans. Refer Q. 2.27.

3 Fourier Series
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Discrete Spectra and ................................ 3–2C to 3–10C
Symmetry of Waveform
Part-2 : Effective Values ...................................... 3–10C to 3–11C
Part-3 : Power Factor ............................................ 3–11C to 3–13C
Part-4 : Steady State Response of ...................... 3–13C to 3–17C

a Network to Non-Sinusoidal
Periodic Inputs
Part-5 : Fourier Transform and .......................... 3–17C to 3–23C

Continuous Spectra
Part-6 : Three Phase Unbalanced ...................... 3–23C to 3–33C

Circuit and
Power Calculation
Fourier Series 3–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
PART-1
Discrete Spectra and Symmetry of Waveform.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.1. Briefly explain the three forms of Fourier series.
Answer
i. Trigonometric Fourier series : The trigonometric Fourier series
representation of a periodic signal x(t) with fundamental period T0 is
given by :

x(t) = a0  
n1
(an cos n0t + bn sin n0t)
2
where, 0 =
T0
a0, ak and bk are the Fourier coefficients given by :
1
a0 =  x( t) dt
T0 T0
2
an =  x(t) cos n0t dt
T0 T0
2
bn = x(t) sin n0t dt
T0  T0
ii. Harmonic Fourier series : Another form of Fourier series
representation of a real periodic signal x(t) with fundamental period T0
is :

x(t) = c0 +  cn cos (n0 t  n ),
n 1
2
where, 0 =
T0
c0 = DC component
cn cos (k0t – n) = nth harmonic component of x(t)
2 2 1 bn
c0 = a0 , cn  an  bn , n  tan
an
iii. Exponential Fourier series :

1. The exponential Fourier series is the most widely used form of Fourier
series.
2. In this, the function x(t) is expressed as a weighted sum of the complex
exponential functions.

x(t) = C0 +  Cn e jn0t
n
n0
t0  T
1
where, Cn =  x(t)e  jn0t dt
T t0
t0  T
1
C0 =  x(t) dt
T t0
Que 3.2. Discuss waveform symmetries.

OR
Define odd and even function. Also find Fourier coefficient for odd
and even function.
Answer
1. Even symmetry :
i. A function f (t) is said to have even symmetry if f(t) = f(– t).
ii. Even function shows even symmetry.
iii. Even nature is preserved on addition of a constant.
iv. Sum of even functions remains even.
Example :
f(t) f(t)
t t
f(t) f(t)
t t
Fig. 3.2.1.
Fourier constants for even function :
T /2
2
a0 =  f (t) dt
T 0
T /2
4
an =  f (t) cos nt dt
T 0
bn = 0
2. Odd symmetry :
i. A function f(t) is said to have odd symmetry, if f(t) = – f(– t).
ii. If f(t) = – f(– t), function is an odd function.
iii. Addition of a constant removes odd nature of the function.
iv. Sum of odd functions remains odd.
Example :
f(t) f(t)
t t
f(t) f(t)
t t
Fig. 3.2.2.
Fourier constants for odd function :
a0 = 0
an = 0
T/2
4
bn =  f (t) sin nt dt
T 0
3. Half wave symmetry :
A periodic function is said to have half wave symmetry if,
f(t) = – f(t ± T/2)
Example :
f(t) f(t)
t t
f(t) f(t)
t t
Fig. 3.2.3.
Fourier constants for half wave symmetry :

n odd n even
a0 = 0 a0 = 0
T /2
4
an =  f (t) cos nt dt an = 0
T 0
T /2
4
bn =  f (t) sin nt dt bn = 0
T 0
4. Quarter wave symmetry : If signal has following both properties, it is
said to have quarter wave symmetry :
i. It is half wave symmetric.
ii. It has symmetry (odd or even) about the quarter period point.
f(t) f(t)
–L L t –L L t
(a) (b )
Fig. 3.2.4. (a) Even signal with Quarter wave symmetry.
(b) Odd signal with Quarter wave symmetry.
Que 3.3. Find the exponential Fourier series representation of

the infinite square wave shown in Fig. 3.3.1.
x(t)
1
t
0 T0 T0
2
–1
Fig. 3.3.1.
Answer
1 ; for 0  t  T0 / 2

1. x(t) =  T0
1 ; for 2  t  T0
T /2 T0
1 o 
2. C0 =   1 dt   1 dt  = 0
T0  0 T0 / 2 
T0
1 – jn0 t
3. Cn =
T0  x (t ) e dt
0
T /2 T0
1 0 – jn t – jn t

=   1 e 0   (–1) e 0 dt 
T0  0 T0 / 2 
T0 / 2 T0
1   e – jn0t   e– jn0t  
=   –  
T0   – jn0  0  – jn 0 T0 / 2 

e – jn0T0 / 2 – e0 e – jn0T0  e – jn0T0 / 2
= – ...(3.3.1)
– jn0T0 – jn 0T0
2
4. Since ω0 = , 0 T0 = 2, eq. (3.3.1) will be
T0
– jn
e – jn –1 e– jn 2  – e– jn e –1 – e– jn 2   e– jn
Cn = – =
– jn2 – jn2 – jn2
e–jn2 = cos (2n) – j sin (2n) = 1 for all n.
2 e– jn – 2 1 – e– jn
5. Hence Cn = 
– jn2  jn
6. 1 – e– jn = 1 – [cos n – j sin n] = 1 – cos n, since sin n = 0
2 ; for n  1,3,5,...odd
= 
0 ; for n  0,2,4,6,...even
 2
 ; for n  1,3,5,...odd
7. Cn =  jn
 0 ; for n  0,2,4,6,...even

8. Hence, exponential Fourier series is

jn t 2 jn0t
x(t) =  Cn e 0   e
n  – n  1, 3, 5,... jn
Que 3.4. Find the exponential form of Fourier series for a

triangular wave of maximum value 1 and time period 2 seconds.
Answer
x(t)
1
t
–2 –1 0 1 2
Fig. 3.4.1.
 t 1 ; 1 t 0
1. x(t) = 
 t  1 ; 0 t 1
1
2. A0 = C0 =
2
T
1  jn0 t
3. Cn =  x (t )e dt
T 0
0 1
1  jn 0t

=   ( t  1)e dt    (t  1) e jn0t dt
2  1 0 
0 0 1 1
1  jn 0 t

=   te dt   e jn 0 t dt    te jn0 t dt   e jn 0 t dt
21 1 0 0 
0 1
1  1 1
=   te jn 0 t dt   te jn 0 t dt   e  jn 0 t dt
2  1 0  2 1
0 1
1   e jn0 t ( jn0 t  1)   e jn0 t ( jn 0 t  1)  
=      0
2  ( jn 0 )2  1  (  j n ) 2  0 

 e nt ( nt  1) 

 nt

 te dt 
( n)2


1  1 e jn0 ( jn 0  1)  1  e jn0 ( jn0  1) 1 
=  2
    2
2  ( n 0 ) (n0 )2  2   ( n 0 ) 2
( n 0) 
1 2  e jn0  e  jn0   e jn0  e jn0  

=   jn0   
  (n0 )  
2 2 2
2  (n0 )  (n0 )
1 2 (2 j  jn0 ) 
=  sin n0  2cos n0 
2  ( n 0 )2 (n 0 )2 
1  cos n 0
=
(n 0 )2
 0 ; for even n

 Cn =  2
 (n )2 ; for odd n
 0

1 2
4. x(t) =   e jn0t
2 n  odd (n 0 )2
2 2
where, 0 =  =
T 2
Que 3.5. Write a short note on fourier spectrum.
Answer
1. The Fourier spectrum of a periodic signal x(t) is a plot of its Fourier
coefficients versus frequency .
2. It is in two parts :
a. Amplitude spectrum and
b. Phase spectrum.
3. The plot of the amplitude of Fourier coefficients versus frequency is
known as the amplitude spectra and the plot of phase of Fourier
coefficients versus frequency is known as phase spectra.
4. The Fourier spectrum exists only at discrete frequencies n, where
n = 0,1, 2,.... Hence it is known as discrete spectrum or line spectrum.
5. The magnitude spectrum is symmetrical about the vertical axis passing
through the origin and the phase spectrum is antisymmetrical about
the vertical axis passing through the origin.
6. So the magnitude spectrum exhibits even symmetry and the phase
spectrum exhibits odd symmetry.
Que 3.6. Obtain the exponential Fourier series for the waveform
shown in Fig. 3.6.1. Also draw the frequency spectrum.
x(t)
–2 – 0  2 t
–A
Fig. 3.6.1.
Answer
1. The periodic waveform shown in Fig. 3.6.1 can be expressed as :
A ; 0  t  
x(t) = 
  A ;   t  2
Fundamental frequency
2
= =1
2
T  2
1 1  
2. C0 =  x ( t ) dt    A dt    A dt   0
T 0 2  0  
T
1  jnt
3. Cn =  x(t) e dt
T 0
 2
1 

 jnt
2
 A  e jnt   e jnt  
=  Ae dt   Ae jnt dt     
2  0    
  2   jn  0   jn   
A
= [(e jn  e0 )  (e j 2 n  e jn )]
j2n
 2A
 j ; for odd n
 Cn =  n
 0 ; for even n
 
2 A jnt
4.  x(t) = C0   Cn e jnt    j e ; for odd n
n n   n
n0
2A
5.  C0 = 0, C1 = C–1 =

2A 2A
C3  C 3  , C5  C 5 
3 5
The frequency spectrum is shown in Fig. 3.6.2.
2A 2A
 
2A 2A
3 3
2A 2A
5 5
–5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Fig. 3.6.2. Frequency spectrum.
Que 3.7. Determine the exponential Fourier series for the

waveform shown in Fig. 3.7.1. Also draw the frequency spectrum.
x(t)
50
t
– 4 – 2 0 2 
Fig. 3.7.1.
Answer
50
1. The waveform shown in Fig. 3.7.1 can be expressed as x(t) = t. The
2
period T = 2. Therefore, fundamental frequency  = 2/2 = 1.
T 2 2
1 1 50 50  t2  50
2. C0 =
T  x(t) dt 
0
2 
0
2
tdt    
(2)2  2  0 2
 25
T 2
1  jnt 1 50  jnt
3. Cn =  x(t) e dt   te dt
T 0
2 0
2
50  t e jnt  2  2  e jnt 
=    dt 
42   jn  0 0
 jn 
2
50  1   e  jnt   
=   2e  j 2 n  0    
42  jn   jn  0  
50  1  1  j 2 n 
=  (2 (1)  (e  e0 )  
4  2  jn  jn 
50  1  1  50 25
=
42   jn  2  jn (1  1)    j 2n  j n
 

25 jnt 25 e jnt

4. x(t) = 25   j e  25  j 
n n  n n
n0 n0
is the exponential Fourier series. The Fourier spectrum is shown in

Fig. 3.7.2.
Cn
25
25 25
 
25 25
2 2 25
25
3 3
n
Fig. 3.7.2. Frequency spectrum.
PART-2
Effective Values.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.8. Derive expression of effective values of fourier-series.

Answer

1. If f(t) = a0 +  (a
n 1
n cos nt  bn sin nt)
by definition, the effective or rms value can be written as

2 1/ 2
 1 T    
Frms =    a0   ( an cos nt  bn sin nt)  dt 
 T
0
 n 1  
1/ 2
 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 
=  a0   a1  a2  a3  ....  b1  b2  b3  ...  
 2 
1/ 2
 2 1 2 
=  c0   c1  c2  c3  ... 
2 2
 2 
cn2 = an2  bn2 and c0 = a0
where c0 is the DC component and c1, c2, c3, .... are the amplitudes of
the harmonics.
2. In general, if the voltage and current are given by
v(t) = V0 + Vn sin (nt + n)
and i(t) = I0 + In sin (nt + n),
3. Their effective values are
1/ 2
 1  1/ 2
Vrms = V02  (V12  V22  V32  ...) = V02  V 21  V 22  V 32  ...
 2 
1/ 2
 1  1/ 2
and Irms =  I02  ( I12  I22  I32  ...)  =  I02  I 12  I 22  I 32  ...
 2 
where the rms values of the harmonic components are
It Vt
It = , Vt  ; i  1, 2, ...
2 2
PART-3
Power Factor.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.9. Derive the expression of power and power factor for
fourier series.
Answer
Power :
1. In general, if the voltage and current are given by
v(t) = V0 +  Vn sin (nt + n)
i(t) = I0 +  In sin (nt + n)
2. The general expression for average power is
1 T
P= v(t) i(t) dt
T 0
1 T
= [V0   Vn sin (nt  n )] [ I0  I n sin (nt   n )] dt
T 0
1
= V0I0 +  [Vn I n cos(n – n )]
2
= V0I0 + (Vn In cos  n )
where, n = n – n and Vn = Vn / 2 and In  In / 2
3. The total average power is the sum of the harmonic powers. The
power components result only from the corresponding harmonics of
voltage and current.
Power factor :
1. The power factor is defined as the ratio of the power to the volt-
ampere.
2. The volt-ampere is itself a product of the effective values of voltage
and current
2 2 2 2 1/ 2
VI= (V0  V 1  V 2  V 3  ...) ( I0  I 21  I 22  I 32  ....)1/ 2
V0 I0  (Vn In cos  n )
3. Power factor,  =
[(V02  V n2) (I02   I n2)]1/ 2
Que 3.10. In a two-element series network, voltage v(t) is applied,

which is given as
v(t) = 50 + 50 sin 5000t + 30 sin 10000t
The resulting current is given as
i(t) = 11.2 sin (5000t + 63.4°) + 10.6 sin (10000t + 45°)
Determine the network elements and the power dissipated in the
circuit.
Answer
1. In the expression of current i(t), the DC term is missing though it is
present in the applied voltage v(t). Hence, in the series network, there
must be a capacitor which blocks the DC components.
2. Again, from the expression of i(t), we can observe that current is

leading by an angle less than 90°. Hence, the conclusion is the presence
of a resistive element R in series with the capacitor C.
3. The impedance at 5 kHz (fundamental frequency) is
50
Z5 = = 4.47 = (R2 + Xc2)1/2 ...(3.10.1)
11.2
4. Similarly, at second harmonic i.e., at 10 kHz, is
30
Z10 = = 2.83  = (R2 + Xc2 /4)1/2 ...(3.10.2)
10.6
5. Solving eq. (3.10.1) and eq. (3.10.2), we get
R = 2  and C = 50 µF
6. The power in the circuit is
1
P= (VnIn cos n)
2
1
= (50 × 11.2 × cos 63.4° + 30 × 10.6 × cos 45°)
2
= 238 W
PART-4
Steady State Response of a Network to Non-Sinusoidal
Periodic Inputs.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.11. Discuss steady state response of network for periodic

signal.
Answer

1. The voltage (periodic) is v(t) = A0  A

n1
n cos (nt –  n )
We want to find out the steady state current, i(t).

2. Phasors corresponding to terms in right-hand side are,
V0 = A0ej0 and Vn = Ane – jn
3. Let, Z(j) = Impedance phasor of the network at any frequency .
So, the current phasors are,
V0 A e j0
I0 =  0  I0 e j 0
Z( j0) Z ( j0)
Vn A e– j n
In =  n  I n e– j  n
Z( j) Z ( j)
4. By superposition principle, the net current phasor is i(t) = I0 + I1 + I2 + ...
So, transforming from frequency domain to time domain,

i(t) = I0  I
n1
n cos (nt –  n )
Que 3.12. For the circuit of Fig. 3.12.1(a), determine the periodic
response i(t) corresponding to the forcing function shown in
Fig. 3.12.1(b) if i(0) = 0.
i(t)
t=0 2H
vs(t) +
– 4
(a)
vs(t)
10
t
– 0   3 2
2 2 2
(b)
Fig. 3.12.1.
Answer
1. The forcing function has a fundamental frequency 0 = 2 rad/s, and its
Fourier series may be written down as
20  sin 2nt
vs(t) = 5  
 n  1(odd) n
2. We will find the forced response for the nth harmonic by working in the
frequency domain. Thus,
20
vsn(t) = sin 2nt
n
20 20
and Vsn =  – 90  – j
n n
3. The impedance offered by the RL circuit at this frequency is
Zn = 4 + j(2n)2 = 4 + j4n
and thus the component of the forced response at this frequency is
Vsn – j5
Ifn = 
Zn n(1  jn)
4. Transforming to time domain, we have
5 1
ifn = cos (2nt – 90 – tan –1 n)
n 1  n2
5  sin 2nt 
=  – cos 2nt
(1  n2 ) n 
5. Since the response to the DC component is simply 5V / 4 = 1.25 A, the
forced response may be expressed as the summation

5  sin 2nt cos 2nt 
if(t) = 1.25    2
– 
 n 1(odd)  n(1  n ) 1  n2 
6. The natural response of the circuit is the single exponential term
[characterizing the single po le o f the transfe r functio n,
If / Vs = 1 / (4 + 2s)]
in(t) = Ae – 2t
7. The complete response is therefore
i(t) = if(t) + in(t)
8. Letting t = 0, we find A using i(0) = 0,
5  1
A = – if (0) = – 1.25  
 n  1(odd) 1  n2
9. The sum of the first 5 terms of  1/(1 + n2) is 0.671, the sum of the first
10 terms is 0.695, the sum of the first 20 terms is 0.708, and the exact
sum is 0.720 to three significant figures.
5
Thus, A = – 1.25 + (0.720) = – 0.104

10. i(t) = – 0.104e + 1.25
– 2t

5  sin 2nt cos 2nt 
+

  2
n  1(odd)  n(1  n )
– 
1  n2 
Que 3.13. The voltage v(t) having the waveform shown in

Fig. 3.13.1 is applied to the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13.2. Determine the
current i(t) using Fourier series.
v(t)
100
t
– 4 – 3 – 2 –  0  2 3 4
Fig. 3.13.1.
4 F i(t)
v(t) 2H 100 
Fig. 3.13.2.
Answer
1. The given waveform of Fig. 3.13.1 is periodic with period T = 2. Choose
one cycle of the waveform from –  to . Let
t0 = – , t0 + T = 
2 2
2. Then Fundamental frequency o =  =1
T 2
3. The waveform is described by
 100
  t ; for    t  0
x(t) = 
 100 t ; for 0  t  
 
4. The waveform has even symmetry
T /2
2
 a0 =  x(t) dt
T 0
T/2
4
an =  x(t) cos n 0 t dt and bn = 0
T 0
T /2 
2 2 100
5. Now, a0 =  x( t) dt  t dt
T 0
2 0 
 
100 100  t2 
= 2 
t dt  2  
 0   2 0
100   2  100
=   = 50
2  2  2
T/2 
4 4 100
6. an =  x(t) cos n 0 t dt  t cos nt dt
T 0
2 0 
 
200  t sin nt  sin nt 
= 2     dt 
   n 0 n 
0

200   cos nt   200
= 2 
( sin n  0)    (cos n  cos 0)
   n  0   2n2
2 
200
= [( 1)n  1]
n2  2
 400
 n2  2 ; for odd n
an = 
 0; for even n

7. The Trigonometric Fourier series is

x(t) = a0  a
n1
n cos n0 t  bn sin n 0 t

 400
= 50   2 
n  odd n 
cos nt
400  cos nt
= 50  
 2 n  odd n2
8. Since the capacitor in the circuit shown in Fig. 3.13.2 does not allow the
DC current, the DC term in the input can be neglected and only
harmonic components are to be considered.
400  cos nt
v(t) = – 2 
 n  odd n 2
9. So the given network can be redrawn as shown in Fig. 3.13.3.
1/4jn i(t)
v(t) 2jn 100 
Fig. 3.13.3.
v(t) v(t)
 i(t) = 
 1  100 – j
100   
 4 jn  4 n
4 n v(t) 4 n v( t)  1 
=  – tan –1  A
400n – j 1  160000 n22  400n 
PART-5
Fourier Transform and Continuous Spectra.
Questions-Answers

Que 3.14. Derive the expression of Fourier transform from Fourier

series.
Answer
1. Exponential form of the Fourier series :

f(t) =  cn e jn 0t ...(3.14.1)
n– 
1 T /2
where cn =  f (t)e – jn0t dt ...(3.14.2)
T – T/2
2
and 0 = ...(3.14.3)
T
2. We now let T 
and thus, from eq. (3.14.3), 0 must become vanishingly small. We
represent this limit by a differential
0  d
1  d
Thus = 0  ...(3.14.4)
T 2 2
3. Finally, the frequency of any “harmonic” n0 must now correspond to
the general frequency variable which describes the continuous
spectrum. In other words, n must tend to infinity as 0 approaches
zero, so that the product is finite
n0   ...(3.14.5)
4. Multiplying by T on each side of eq. (3.14.2) and putting n0  ;
T  we get

cnT   f ( t) e – jt dt ...(3.14.6)
–
5. The right-hand side eq. (3.14.6) is a function of  (and not of t), and we
represent it by F()

F() =  f ( t) e – jt dt ...(3.14.7)
–
6. Now let us apply the limiting process to eq. (3.14.1). We begin by

multiplying and dividing the summation by T,

1
f(t) =  cn Te jn 0t
n – T
next replacing cn T with the new quantity F(), and then making use of
expressions (3.14.4) and (3.14.5).
In the limit, the summation becomes an integral, and
1 
f(t) = F () e jt d ...(3.14.8)
2  – 
7. Eq. (3.14.7) and (3.14.8) are collectively called the Fourier transform
pair. The function F() is the Fourier transform of f(t) and f(t) is the
inverse Fourier transform of F().
Que 3.15. Use the Fourier transform to obtain the continuous

spectrum of the single rectangular pulse Fig. 3.15.1.
v(t)
V0

t
–T 0 t0 T 2T
Fig. 3.15.1.
Answer
1. The pulse is described by
V0 ; t0  t  t0  
f(t) = 
0 ; t  t0 and t  t0  
2. The Fourier transform of f(t) is
1
t0   sin 
F() = V0 e – j t
dt = V0  2 e – j( t0   / 2)
t0
1

2
The value of F(0) is VoI.
|F( )|
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.1
0 f / f0
–15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15
Fig. 3.15.2.
3. Plot of |F()|corresponding to the pulse with v0 = 1, T = 1 and t0 = 0.

Que 3.16. What are the different properties of Fourier transform ?
Answer
1. Linearity :
FT
If x1(t) 
 X1()
FT
and x2(t)   X2()
then according to this property,
FT
a1x1(t) + a2x2(t) 
 a1X1() + a2X2()
2. Symmetry or duality property :
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
FT
then, X(t)   2x (–)
3. Time-shifting : This property states that a shift in the time-domain
by an amount of a is equivalent to multiplication by e–ja in the
frequency-domain.
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
FT
then, x(t – a)   e–ja X()
4. Frequency-shifting : This property states that a shift in frequency
domain by an amount ‘0’ is equivalent to multiplication by ‘ej0t ’ to
time-domain function x(t).
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
FT
then, ej0tx(t) 
 X( – 0)
5. Differentiation in time-domain :
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
dx(t) FT
then,   j . X()
dt
6. Differentiation in frequency-domain :
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
FT d
then, t.x(t) 
 j X()
d
7. Time-scaling : This property states that time compression of a signal
results in its spectral (frequency-domain) expansion, whereas, time
expansion of a signal results in its spectral (frequency-domain)
compression.
FT
If x(t)   X()
FT 1
then, x(at)   X ( / a)
| a|
where a  real constant.
8. Time-integration :
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
t
FT 1
X ()
then,  x(t) dt 

j
Assuming all initial conditions equal to zero.

9. Time-reversal :
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
FT
then, x(– t) 
 X (– )
10. Conjugation :
FT
If x(t) 
 X()
FT
then, x*(t) 
 X*(– )
11. Multiplication property (frequency-convolution) :
FT
If x1(t) 
 X1()
FT
and x2(t) 
 X2()
1 FT
then, x1(t) . x2(t) 

 X ()  X 2 () 
2  1
12. Convolution (time-convolution) :
FT
If x1(t) 
 X1()
FT
and x2(t) 
 X2()
FT
then, x1(t)x2(t) 
 X1() . X2()
Que 3.17. Find the Fourier transform of the following and sketch
the magnitude and phase spectrum of x(t) = e–2t u(t).
Answer
1. The Fourier transform

X() =
 x (t) e jt dt

 
X() =
 e 2 t e  jt dt   e  (2 j )t dt
0 0
1
=–  e(2 j) t 0  1
(2  j) (2  j)
2. Now magnitude and phase are as follows :
1
|X()| =
4  2

X() = – tan–1
2
3. The amplitude spectrum |X()| and phase spectrum X () are shown
in Fig. 3.17.1 (a) and (b) respectively.
|X( )|
X(  )
/2
0.5 /4

– /4
– 0  –  /2
(a) (b )
Fig. 3.17.1. (a) Magnitude spectrum (b) Phase spectrum.
Que 3.18. Determine the Fourier transform of the rectangular

pulse :
  
 t  1 for <t<
x(t) = rect   =  2 2
  
0 otherwise
OR
Find the continuous-time Fourier transform of the gate rectangular
signal. Also plot its magnitude response.
Answer
1. The Fourier transform is given by,

 j t
X() =  x(t) e

dt
 /2
 t
 rect   e  jt dt = 1. e  j t dt
=

 
/2
/2
  jt   e  j  / 2  e  j / 2 
= e   
  j   / 2   j 
             
 2 j sin  2   2sin  2  sin 
2 
 sin 
2 

=   =   .
  j   /2 ( / 2)
= sinc (/2)
2. Since, sinc (x) = 0 for x = ± n
Therefore, sinc (/2) = 0 for (/2) = ± n
 2 n
or = n = 1, 2, 3, .........

 2  4  6   8 
or = , , , , .....
   
3. The plot of the X() is given in Fig. 3.18.1.


 X( ) =  sinc
2

2 6
– 6 – 4 – 2
 
4

  
Fig. 3.18.1.
PART-6
Three Phase Unbalanced Circuit and Power Calculation.
Questions-Answers
Que 3.19. Discuss three phase unbalanced circuits.
Answer
1. A three phase circuit is said to be unbalanced, if the loads connected
across the three phases have different magnitudes and power factors,
i.e., the loads connected across the three phases are not identical to
each other.
2. The phase current in delta and the phase currents in star differ in
unbalanced loading. In unbalanced star, current flows in neutral wire
IN = IR + IY + IB
3. There are three cases of unbalanced loads :
i. Unbalanced delta-connected load.
ii. Unbalanced four-wire star-connected load.
iii. Unbalanced three-wire star-connected load.
Que 3.20. Given expressions for phase currents and line currents
of unbalanced delta-connected load.
Answer
IR
IBR
IY
ZRY
ZBR
IRY
IB
IYB Z YB
Fig. 3.20.1. Unbalanced  -connected load.
1. Fig. 3.20.1 shows an unbalanced delta-load connected to a balanced

three-phase supply.
2. Voltage across the load is independent of the nature of the load and is
equal to the line voltage of the supply.
3. The current in each load phase is equal to the line voltage divided by
the impedance of that phase. The line current will be the phasor
difference of the corresponding phase currents taking V RY as the
reference phasor.
4. For a delta-connected load, let
VL = V ph
VRY = Vph0°
VYB = Vph– 120°
VBR = Vph– 240°
Phase currents are given by
VRY
IRY =
ZRY
VYB
IYB =
ZYB
VBR
IBR =
ZBR
Line currents are given by
IR = IRY – IBR
IY = IYB – IRY
IB = IBR – IYB
Que 3.21. A three-phase supply with a line voltage of 400 V has an

unbalanced delta-connected as shown in Fig. 3.21.1. Determine
a. Phase current,
b. Line current if phase sequence is RYB.
IR
R
R
VL = 400 V IBR
IY
0°
ZRY = 30  15° 
4
Y
35
=
IRY
BR
IB IYB
Z
B Y
B Z = 20 30° 
YB
Fig. 3.21.1.
Answer
VRY 4000
a. Phase current IRY =  = 13.33  – 15° A
ZRY 3015
VYB 400  120
IYB =  = 20  – 150° A
ZYB 2030
VBR 400  240

IBR =  = 11.428  80° A
ZBR 3540
b. Line current
IR = IRY – IBR = 13.33 – 15° – 11.428  80° = 10.891 – j14.7
= 18.295  – 53.46° A
IY = IYB – IRY = 20 – 150° – 13.33  – 15° = – 30.195 – j6.55
= 30.897 192.24° A
IB = IBR – IYB = 11.428 80° – 20  – 150° = 19.304 + j21.25
= 28.7  + 47.75° A
Que 3.22. Explain unbalanced four-wire star connected load.
Answer
1. Fig. 3.22.1 shows an unbalanced three-phase star-connected load
connected to a balanced three-phase, four-wire supply. It is the simplest
case of an unbalanced load because of the presence of the neutral wire.
2. The neutral point N of the load is connected to the neutral point O of

the supply. So, the star points of the supply O and the load N are at the
same potential.
3. It means that the voltage across each load impedance is equal to the
phase voltage of the supply. However the current in each phase will be
different.
R R IR
VRN ZR
O N IN
ZB N ZY
VYN
Y Y IY
B
VBN
B IB
Fig. 3.22.1. Three-phase supply feeding unbalanced

four-wire star connected load.
4. For a star-connected load, VL = 3 Vph

5. Phase voltages are
VRN = Vph 0°
VYN = Vph – 120°
VBN = Vph – 240°
6. Phase currents are
VRN V V
IR = ; IY = YN ; IB = BN
ZR ZY ZB
7. For a star-connected load, phase currents are equal to the line currents.
The current in neutral wire is given by
IN = IR + IY + IB
Que 3.23. A three-phase 440 V, four-wire system of Fig. 3.23.1, has a

star-connected load with ZR = (8 + j12) , ZY = (18 + j14) ,
ZB = (6 + j10) . Find the line currents and current through neutral
conductor.
IR
R R
Z R = (8 + j12) 
VL = 440 V IN
N
)
IY
j 10
Z Y = (18 + j14) 
Y
+
(6
=
B
IYB
Z
IB
B
B Y
Fig. 3.23.1.
Answer
1. For a star-connected load,
VL 440
Vph =   254 V
3 3
2. The phase sequence is assumed to be R – Y – B.
VRN = 254 0° V
VYN = 254 – 120° V
VBN = 254 – 240° V
3. Phase currents
VRN 2540
IR =  = 17.6  – 56.31° A
ZR 14.4256.31
VYN 254  120
IY =  = 11.14  – 157.87° A
ZY 22.837.87
VBN 254  240
IB =  = 21.78  – 299° A
ZB 11.6659
4. In a star-connected load, line currents are equal to the phase current.
 ILR = IR = 17.6– 56.31° A;
ILY = IY = 11.14– 157.87° A;
ILB = IB = 21.78– 299° A
5. Current through neutral conductor,
IN = IR + IY + IB = 17.6– 56.31° + 11.14– 157.87° + 21.78– 299°
= 10.051.364° A
Que 3.24. Discuss unbalanced three wire star connected load.
Answer
1. Fig. 3.24.1 shows as unbalanced three-wire star-connected load.
2. If neutral point N of the load is not connected to the neutral point O of
the supply, a voltage exists between the supply neutral point and load
neutral point.
3. The load phase voltage is not equal to the supply phase voltage, and
they are not only unequal in magnitude, but also subtend an angle
other than 120° with one another.
4. The magnitude of each phase voltage depends upon the individual
phase load. The phase voltage of the load is not 1 / 3 of the line
voltage.
ZR
O ZB N ZY
B
Fig. 3.24.1. Unbalanced three-wire, star connected load.
5. The star connected loads are replaced by an equivalent delta-connected

load.
ZR ZY
In this ZRY = ZR  ZY 
ZB
ZY ZB
ZYB = ZY  ZB 
ZR
ZB Z R
ZBR = ZB  ZR 
ZY
6. The problem is then solved as an unbalanced delta-connected load.
The line currents so calculated are equal to line currents of the original
star-connected load.
Que 3.25. Discuss two wattmeter method of power calculation in

three phase system.
Answer
1. In this method, the current coil of wattmeter W1 is inserted in phase R
and that of wattmeter W2 is inserted in phase Y and the pressure coils
of W1 and W2 are connected across R and B, and Y and B respectively.
2. Fig. 3.25.1(a) shows the schematic diagram and Fig. 3.25.1(b) shows
the phasor diagram.
VYB
W1 iR
R
iY – VBN VRB
V VYN
PC Z 30°
N 
Z Z
iB
30°
B
PC  VRN
iR
iB
iY
Y
W 2 CC VBN
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.25.1. Two-wattmeter method : (a) Schematic diagram,
(b) Phasor diagram.
3. Now, the sum of the instantaneous powers measured by W1 and W2 is

given by
W = W1 + W2
= iRVRB + iY V YB
= iR(VRN – VBN) + iY(VYN – VBN)
= iRVRN + iYVYN – VBN(iR + iY)
= iRVRN + iYVYN + iBVBN ( iR + iY + iB = 0)
Therefore, wattmeter gives total instantaneous power in the three-
phase circuits.
4. Fig. 3.25.1(b) is for a balanced load, and the current in each phase lags
the corresponding phase voltage by angle .
5. From the phasor diagram in Fig. 3.26.1(b), we can see that current IR
through the current coil of W1 lags the line voltage VRB by an angle of
30° + . Similarly, the current IY through the current coil W2 lags the
line voltage VYB by an angle of 30° – .
6. Each wattmeter measures the product of effective value of the current

through its current coil, effective value of the voltage across its pressure
coil and the cosine of the angle between them.
 W1 = VLIL cos (30° + )
and W2 = VLIL cos (30° – )
W1 + W2 = VLIL cos (30° + ) + VLIL cos (30° – )
= VLIL [cos (30° + ) + cos (30° – )]
= VLIL (2 cos 30° cos ) = 3 VLIL cos 

= Total three phase power
7. Similarly,
W2 – W1 = VLIL [cos (30° – ) – cos (30° + )]
= VLIL sin 
Measurement of power factor by two-wattmeter method :
W2  W1 VL I L sin  tan 
 = 
W2  W1 3VL I L cos  3
 W  W1 
 tan  = 3 2
 W2  W1 
  W2  W1  
  = tan– 1  3  
  W2  W1  
 1   W2  W1   
Power factor = cos  = cos tan  3   
   W2  W1   
Que 3.26. Two wattmeters are used to measure power in a three-

phase balanced load. Find the power factor, if
a. Two reading are equal and positive,
b. two reading are equal and opposite and
c. one wattmeter reads zero.
Answer
a. Power factors if two readings are equal and positive
W1 = W2
 W  W1 
tan  = 3 2  3  0  0
 W2  W1 
  = tan– 1(0) = 0°
Power factor = cos  = cos 0 = 1
b. Power factor, if two readings are equal and opposite.
W1 = – W2
 W  ( W2 )  2W2
tan  = 3 2  3 
 W2  W2  0
  = tan– 1() = 90°
Power factor = cos  = cos 90° = 0
c. Power factor, if one wattmeter reads zero
W1 = 0
 W  0
tan  = 3 2  3
 W2  0 
  = tan– 1( 3 ) = 60°
Power factor = cos  = cos 60° = 0.5.
Que 3.27. Discuss different methods of measuring three-phase

power.
Answer
a. Three-wattmeter method :
1. This method is used for balanced as well as unbalanced loads.
2. Three wattmeters one in each phase are inserted in the star-connected
or delta-connected load. Each wattmeter will give the power consumed
in that phase.
3. For balanced load, W1 = W2 = W3
For unbalanced load, W1  W2  W3
4. Total power, W1 + W2 + W3
b. One-wattmeter method :
1. This method is used for balanced load only. When the load is balanced,
total power is given by
P = 3VphIph cos 
2. Hence, one wattmeter is used to measure power in one phase. The
wattmeter reading is then multiplied by three to obtain three-phase
power. The load may be star or delta connected.
c. Two wattmeter method : Refer Q. 3.25, Page 3–29C, Unit-3.
Que 3.28. Two wattmeters A and B give readings as 6000 W and

2000 W respectively of power measurement in a three-phase, three-
wire balanced load system.
a. Calculate the power and power factor, (i) when both meters
read direct, and (ii) when the second meter B reads in the reverse.
The voltage of the circuit is 440 V.
b. What is the value of the capacitance which must be introduced

in each phase so that the whole of the power will appear on
wattmeter A. The frequency of supply is 50 Hz.
Answer
a. 1. When both meters read direct :
i. W2 = 6000 W and W1 = 2000 W
ii. Total power = W2 + W1 = 6000 + 2000 = 8000 W
 W  W1   6000  2000 
iii. tan  = 3 2  3 = 0.866
 W2  W1   6000  2000 
 = tan– 1(0.866) = 40.9°
iv.  Power factor = cos(40.9°) = 0.756
2. When the second meters B reads in reverse :
i. W2 = 6000 W and W1 = 2000 W
ii. Total power = W2 + (– W1) = 6000 – 2000 = 4000 W
 W  W1   6000  ( 2000) 
iii. tan  = 3 2  3 = 3.464
 W2  W1   6000  2000 
 = tan– 1(3.464) = 73.9°
Power factor = cos(73.9°) = 0.277 (lagging)
b. Capacitance C to be introduced in each phase :
i. The reading of wattmeter B will be zero, and whole of the power would
appear on wattmeter A when power factor cos  = 0.5 or  = 60°.
Therefore, the power factor is to be improved from 0.277 to 0.5.
ii. Load current per phase,
P 4000
Iph = IL =  = 18.95 A
3 VL cos  3  440  0.277
Vph 440 / 3
iii. Load impedance/phase, Zph =  = 13.4 
I ph 18.95
iv. Load resistance/phase, Rph = Zph cos  = 13.4 × 0.277 = 3.71 

v. Load reactance/phase, Xph = Zph sin  = 13.4 × sin(cos– 1 0.277) = 12.87 
vi. Since there is no change of resistance, the reactance per phase when
 = 60° is given by
Xph = Rph tan 60 ° = 3.71 × 3 = 6.426 

vii. Capacitive reactance introduced in each phase
XC = Xph – Xph = 12.87 – 6.426 = 6.44 
viii. Capacitance introduced in each phase,

1 1
C=  = 495.35 F
2fXC 2  50  6.426

Q. 1. Discuss waveform symmetries.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.2.
Q. 2. Obtain the exponential Fourier series for the waveform

shown in Fig. 1. Also draw the frequency spectrum.
x(t)
–2 – 0  2 t
–A
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.6.
Q. 3. Determining the exponential Fourier series for the

waveform shown in Fig. 2.
x(t)
50
t
–4 –2 0 2 
Fig. 2.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.7.
Q. 4. Derive expression of effective values of fourier-series.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.8.
Q. 5. For the circuit of Fig. 3(a), determine the periodic response

i(t) corresponding to the forcing function shown in
Fig. 3(b) if i(0) = 0.
i(t)
t=0 2H
vs(t) +
– 4
(a)
vs(t)
10
t
– 0   3 2
2 2 2
(b)
Fig. 3.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.12.
Q. 6. Derive the expression of Fourier transform from Fourier

series.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.14.
Q. 7. What are the different properties of Fourier transform ?

Ans. Refer Q. 3.16.
Q. 8. Discuss three phase unbalanced circuits.

Ans. Refer Q. 3.19.
Q. 9. Discuss two wattmeter method of power calculation in three

phase system.
Ans. Refer Q. 3.25.

4 Laplace Transform
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Laplace Transform ..................................... 4–2C to 4–7C
and Properties
Part-2 : Partial Fractions ........................................ 4–8C to 4–12C
Part-3 : Singularity Functions, ........................... 4–12C to 4–20C

Waveform Synthesis
Part-4 : Analysis of RC, RL and RLC ................ 4–20C to 4–30C

Network with and Without Initial
Condition with Laplace Transform
Part-5 : Evaluation of Initial Conditions ........... 4–30C to 4–34C

Laplace Transform 4–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
PART-1
Laplace Transform and Properties.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.1. What do you understand by “Laplace Transform” ? Also

mention its advantages and disadvantages. Enlist applications of
Laplace transform.
Answer
Laplace Transform :
1. Laplace transform of a time function f(t) is defined as :

F(s) = L[f(t)] =  f (t)e st dt ...(4.1.1)


where, s is a complex variable and is equal to  + j.
2. The Laplace transform as defined in eq. (4.1.1) with –  as the lower
limit for the integral is called the ‘two-sided’ or ‘bilateral’ Laplace
transform.
3. If the lower limit is changed to 0, we get the ‘one-sided’ or ‘unilateral’
Laplace transform.
4. Hence, we define the one-sided Laplace transform as :

 st
F(s) = L[f(t)] =  f ( t) e
0
dt
Advantages :
1. Laplace transform represents continuous time signals in terms of complex
exponentials, i.e., e– st. Hence Laplace transform can be used to analyze
the signals or functions which are not absolutely integrable.
2. Continuous time systems are also analyzed more effectively using Laplace
transform. Laplace transform can be applied to the analysis of unstable
systems also.
Disadvantages :
1. The integral representation of Laplace domain is complicated.
2. Unsuitable for the purpose of data processing in random vibrations.
!!!
Applications of Laplace Transform :

1. It is a technique mainly utilized in engineering purposes for system
modeling in which a large differential equation must be solved.
2. It can also be used to solve differential equations and is used extensively
in electrical engineering.
3. It is used in electrical circuits for the analysis of linear time-invariant
systems.
Que 4.2. Write properties of Laplace transform.
Answer
i. Multiplication by a constant :
Let F(s)  Laplace Transform of f(t)
k  Multiplication factor
L{k f(t)} = kF(s)
ii. Sum and Difference :
Let F1(s)  Laplace transform of f1(t)
F2(s)  Laplace transform of f2(t)
L{f1(t) ± f2(t)} = F1(s) ± F2(s)
iii. Time Shifting :
If F(s)  Laplace transform of f(t)
Then for t0 > 0
 st
L{f(t – t0)} = F(s) e 0
iv. Frequency Shifting :
s0 t
Then L{f(t) e } = F(s – s0)
v. Time Differentiation Property :
Then L  
df (t)
dt
= sF ( s)  f (0  )
 d n f (t )  n n 1  n 2  n 1 
and L  = s F ( s)  s f (0 )  s f (0 )  ....  f (0 )
 dt n 
vi. Time Integration Property :
t
  F ( s)
L   f ( ) d   =
 0  s
vii. Frequency Differentiation :

d F ( s)
L{t f (t)} = –
ds
viii. Frequency Integration :

L  
f (t )
t
=  F (s) ds
s
ix. Scaling :
1 s
L  f (at) = F 
a  a
Que 4.3. Write the Laplace transforms of :

i. Unit impulse
ii. Unit step
iii. Unit ramp and
iv. Parabolic functions.
Answer
i. Unit impulse :
f(t) = (t)

 st
L{f(t)} = F(s) =  (t) e dt
0
F(s) = e– st|t = 0 = 1 [  (t) = 1 only t = 0]
ii. Unit Step :
f(t) = u(t)

 st
L{f(t)} = F(s) =  u(t) e dt
0

 st
= e dt [  u(t) = 1 for t > 0]
0
t
e  st
=
s
t0
1
F(s) =
s
iii. Unit ramp :
f(t) = r(t) = t u(t)

  e st 
e st 
 st
F(s) = L{t u(t)} =  t e dt = t  s  1 dt 
 s 
0  0 0
 
1  st 1  st 1
= [0 – 0] +
s
e dt  
s2
e =
s2
0 0
iv. Parabolic function :

f(t) = kt2 u(t)

F(s) = L{kt2 u(t)} = kt
2
e  st dt
0
 e st 
e st 

2
= k t   2t dt
 s s 
 0 0 

2k  st
= k[0 – 0] +
s
t e dt
0
 t e  st 
e st 

2k 
=  1 dt
s  s s 
 0 0 

2k 2k  st
=
s
[0 – 0] + 2
s
e dt
0

2k e  st 2k
=– =
s2 s
0
s3
Que 4.4. Find Laplace transform of following functions :

i. eat ii. u(t)
iii. sin t iv. cos t
v. sinh at vi. cosh at
vii. e– at sin t viii. e– at cos t
ix. e– at cosh bt x. e– at sinh bt
xi. tn xii. Ae– at sin (bt +)
Answer
 
at  st 1
i. L {eat} = e e dt   e ( s a) t dt 
0 0
s a
 
 st  st 1
ii. L {u(t)} =  u(t) e dt   e dt  s
0 0
1
iii. L {sin t} =
2j

L e j t  e  jt 
1  1 1  
=  
2 j  s  j s  j  s2  2
1
iv. L {cos t} =
2

L e j t  e  j t 
1 1 1  s
=  
2  s  j s  j  s2   2
1  at 1
v. L {sinh at} = L  e  e  at    L  eat   L  e at  
2 2
1 1 1  a
=   = 2
2  s  a s  a  s  a2
1 1
vi. L {cosh at} =
2  2
   
L  eat  e  at    L eat  L e at 

1 1 1  s
=  = 2
2  s  a s  a  s  a2
 1 
vii.  
L e at sin t = L  e  at  ( e jt  e  jt ) 
 2 j 
 1  ( a  j ) t 
= L   e  e (a j)t  
2 j 
1  1 1  
=  =
2 j  (s  a)  j (s  a)  j  (s  a)2  2
1   ( a j)t
viii. 
L e at cos t =  L e  e  ( a j) t  
2
1 1 1  sa
=   =
2  (s  a)  j (s  a)  j  (s  a)2  2
  ebt  e bt  
ix.  
L e at cosh bt = L  e at 
 2  
1 1
= L  e(b a)t  e  (b a)t  = L  e ( a b)t  e (a b)t 
2 2
1 1 1  sa
=   =
2  s  (a  b) s  (a  b)  (s  a)2  b2
  e bt  e bt   1
  = 2 L  e  e  ( a b) t 
 ( a b) t
x. L{e– at sinh bt} = L  e  at 
  2 
1 1 1  b
=   =
2  s  (a  b) s  (a  b)  (s  a)2  b2

n
xi. L[tn] =  (t ) e st dt
0
Integrating by parts
Let u = tn
dv = e– st dt
du = ntn–1
 st  e st
v= e dt 
s
 

L[tn] =  u dv  uv 0   v du
0 0
n 
t  n
=   e st    t n1 e st dt
s  0 s
0

n n1  st n n  n  1
t e dt  L  t n1  =   L t 
n 2
s 0
=
s s s 
n (n  1) (n  2) 1
=   ..... L  t0 
s s s s
n n
= n L  u(t)  = n1
s s
xii. L[Ae– at sin(bt + )]
As, L[A sin(bt + )] = A L sin bt cos   sin  cos bt 
 b cos  s sin  
= A 2  
 s  b2 s2  b2 
 at b cos  (s  a)sin 
So, L  Ae sin(bt  )  = A A
2 2
( s  a)  b (s  a)2  b2
 bcos   (s  a)sin  
= A 
 (s  a)2  b2 
Que 4.5. What is inverse Laplace transform ? Calculate inverse
Laplace Transform of e–5s U(s).
Answer
Inverse Laplace Transform :
It is used to convert frequency-domain signal F(s) to the time-domain
signal f(t). It is given as,
f(t) = L–1 [F(s)]
  j
1
f(t) =
 F (s) e st ds
2
  j
Numerical :
 
1 1
f(t) =  e  5 s e st ds  e
(  5  t) s
ds
2 2
0 0

1  e(  5  t ) s  1  1 
=   
2  t  5  0 2  5  t 
1
f(t)=
2 (5  t)
PART-2
Partial Fractions.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.6. Discuss the different methods of partial fractions.
Answer
Real roots :
1. Consider the function
N ( s)
F(s) = ...(4.6.1)
(s – s0 ) ( s – s1 ) ( s – s2 )
where s0, s1, and s2 are distinct, real roots, and the degree of N(s) < 3.
2. Expanding F(s) we have
K0 K1 K2
F(s) =   ...(4.6.2)
s – s0 s – s1 s – s2
3. Let us first obtain the constant K0. We proceed by multiplying both sides
of the equation by (s – s0) to give
( s – s0 ) K 1 (s – s0 ) K 2
(s – s0)F(s) = K 0   ...(4.6.3)
s – s1 s – s2
4. If we let s = s0 in Eq. (4.6.3), we obtain
K0 = (s – s0) F(s)|s = s ...(4.6.4)
0
5. Similarly, we see that the other constants can be evaluated through the
general relation
Ki = (s – si) F(s)|s = s ...(4.6.5)
i
Complex roots :
1. Suppose F(s) is given by
N ( s)
F(s) =
D1 ( s)( s –  – j) ( s –   j)
K1 K2 N (s )
=   1 ...(4.6.6)
s –  – j s –   j D1 ( s)
where N1 / D1 is the reminder term.
2. Using eq.(4.6.5), we have

N (  j)
K1 =
2 j D1 (  j)
N ( – j)
K2 =
– 2 jD1 ( – j)
where we assume that s =  ± j are not zeros of D1(s).
3. It can be shown that the constants K1 and K2 associated with conjugate
roots are themselves conjugate. Therefore, if we denote K1 as
K1 = A + jB ...(4.6.7)
then K2 = A – jB = K1* ...(4.6.8)
4. If we denote the inverse transform of the complex conjugate terms as
f1(t), we see that
 K1 K1* 
f1(t) = L–1   
 s –  – j s –   j 
= et(K1ejt + K1* e– jt)
= 2et(A cos t – B sin t) ...(4.6.9)
Multiple roots :
1. Suppose we are given the function
N (s )
F(s) = ...(4.6.10)
(s – s0 )n D1 ( s)
with multiple roots of degree n at s = s0.
2. The partial fraction expansion of F(s) is
K0 K1 K2 K N (s)
F(s) =    ...  n–1  1 ...(4.6.11)
(s – s0 )n (s – s0 )n –1 (s – s0 ) n –2 s – s0 D1 (s)
where N1(s) / D1(s) represents the remaining terms of the expansion.
3. K0 = (s – s0)n F(s)|s = s ...(4.6.12)
0
d
4. K1 = F ( s) ...(4.6.13)
ds 1 s  s0
On the same basis
1 d2
K2 = F1 ( s) ...(4.6.14)
2 ds 2 ss 0
5. In general
1 dj
Kj = F1 (s) ; j = 0, 1, 2, ..., n – 1 ...(4.6.15)
j ! ds j ss 0
Que 4.7. Find the partial fraction expansion for
s 2  2s – 2
F(s) =
s( s  2)( s – 3)
Answer
s2  2s – 2 K K1 K2
1. F(s) = = 0   ...(4.7.1)
s(s  2)(s – 3) s s 2 s–3
2. Using,
K0 = sF(s)|s = 0
s2  2s – 2 1
= 
( s  2) ( s – 3) s 0
3
s2  2 s – 2 1
3. K1 = – ...(4.7.2)
s( s – 3) s  – 2 5
s2  2 s – 2 13
4. K2 = 
s( s  2) s  3 15
Que 4.8. Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following

function :
s1
F(s) =
s3  4 s2  4 s  4
Answer
s1
1. F(s) =
s3  4 s2  6 s  4
s1 A Bs  C
=  
(s  2) ( s 2  2 s  2) s  2 s 2  2 s  2
A(s 2  2s  2)  ( Bs  C) (s  2)
=
( s  2)( s 2  2s  2)
( A B) s2  (2 A  2 B  C )s  2 A  2C
=
(s  2)( s2  2 s  2)
Comparing the numerators of LHS and RHS, we get
A+B= 0A=–B
2A + 2B + C = 1  C = 1
2A + 2C = 1  2A = 1 – 2 = – 1 or A = – 1/2  B = 1/2
1 1 1 1 1
 s1  ( s  1) 
 X(s) = 2  2  2  2 2
s  2 s2  2 s  2 s  2 (s  1)2  12
1/2 1 ( s  1) 1 1
=  
s  2 2 (s  1)2  12 2 (s  1)2  12
Taking inverse Laplace transform on both sides, we get
1  2t 1 1
f(t) =  e u(t)  e  t cos tu(t)  e  t sin tu(t)
2 2 2
Que 4.9. Consider the function
s 2
F(s) =
s(s  1)3
Find the partial fraction expression.
Answer
1. We represent in expanded form as
K0 K1 K2 A
F(s) =   
(s  1)3 (s  1)2 s  1 s
2. The constant A for the simple root at s = 0 is
A = s F(s)|s = 0 = – 2
3. To obtain the constants for the multiple roots we first find F1(s).
s–2
F1(s) = (s + 1)3 F(s) =
s
4. Using the general formula for the multiple root expansion, we obtain
1 d0  s – 2 
K0 =   =3
0! ds 0  s  s–1
1 d  s – 2 2
K1 =    2
1! ds  s  s–1
s2 s–1
1 d  2  2
K2 =  2   – 3 2
2! ds s s  – 1  s  s  – 1
3 2 2 2
so that F(s) =   –
(s  1)3 (s  1)2 s  1 s
Que 4.10. Find the inverse Laplace transform of the following

function :
1  e 2 s
F(s) =
s2 ( s  1)
Answer
1  e 2s 1 e 2 s
1. F(s) = 2
 2  2
s ( s  1) s ( s  1) s ( s  1)
= F1(s) + F2(s)...(4.10.1)
1 A B C
F1(s) =   
s2 (s  1) s s 2 s  1
1
C = (s  1) F1 ( s) s   1  ( s  1)
s 2 ( s  1) s   1
1
=
s 2 (s  1) s   1
=1
2 2 1 1
B = s F1 (s) s  0  s 
s2 ( s  1) s  0 s  1 s  0
=1
1 d 2 d  2 1 
A= [ s F1 ( s)]   s s 2 ( s  1) 
1! ds s0 ds   s0
(s  1) 0  1(1)
=
( s  1)2 s0
= –1
1 1 1
 F1(s) =    ...(4.10.2)
s s2 s  1
3. Taking inverse Laplace transform on both sides, of eq. (4.10.2) we get
f1(t) = – u(t) + tu(t) + e – t u(t) = [t – 1 + e– t] u(t) ...(4.10.3)
4. Now, from the time shift theorem, we know that
 e 2s  1  1 
f2(t) = L1  2 L  2 
 s ( s  1)   s ( s  1)  t  ( t  2)
= f1(t) tt2  [ t  1  e  t ] t  ( t  2)
= [(t – 3) + e– (t – 2)] u(t – 2)

 f(t) = [t – 1 + e –t] u(t) + [(t – 3) + e – (t – 2)]u(t – 2) ...(4.10.4)
PART-3
Singularity Functions, Waveform Synthesis.
Questions-Answers

Que 4.11. Discuss briefly singularity functions.
Answer
1. Certain special forcing functions which are discontinuous or have
discontinuous derivatives are called singularity functions.
2. The commonly used singularity functions are :
i. Step function
ii. Ramp function
iii. Impulse function
i. Unit step (Step function) : Signals which start at time t = 0 and have
magnitude of unity are called unit step signals.
They are represented by a unit step function u(t).
They are defined mathematically as :
1 ; t  0
u(t) = 
0 ; t  0
u(t)
t
0
Fig. 4.11.1. Unit step.
ii. Unit ramp (Ramp function) : Signals which start from zero and are
linear in nature with a constant slope m are called unit ramp signals.
They are represented by a unit ramp function r(t).
They are defined mathematically as :
mt ; t  0
r(t) = 
 0 ; t0
r(t)
r(t) = mt
m = tan 

t
0
Fig. 4.11.2.
iii. Unit impulse (Impulse function) : Signals which act for very small
time but have large amplitude are called unit impulse functions.
They are represented by (t).

They are defined mathematically as,
0; t0
(t) = 
1 ; t0

 (t) dt = 1

x(t)
(t)
–t t
Fig. 4.11.3.
Que 4.12. Discuss the basic operations applied on signals.
Answer
i. Time shifting :
1. Mathematically, the time shifting of a continuous-time signal x(t) can be
represented by
y(t) = x(t – T) ...(4.12.1)
2. The time shifting of a signal may result in time delay or time advance.
3. In eq. (4.12.1) if T is positive the sifting is to the right and then the
shifting delays the signal, and if T is negative the shift is to the left and
then the shifting advances the signal.
4. An arbitrary signal x(t), its delayed version and advanced version are
shown in Fig. 4.12.1(a), (b) and (c).
x(t) x(t – T) x(t + T)
A A A
0 6 t 0 T T+6 t –T 0 –T+6 t
( a) (b ) (c )
Fig. 4.12.1. (a) Signal, (b) Its delayed version, (c) Its time advanced version.
ii. Time reversal :
1. Time reversal, also called time folding of a signal x(t) can be obtained by
folding the signal about t = 0. This operation is very useful in convolution.
It is denoted by x(– t).
2. It is obtained by replacing the independent variable t by (– t). Folding is
also called as the reflection of the signal about the time origin t = 0.
3. Fig. 4.12.2(a) shows an arbitrary signal x(t), and Fig. 4.12.2(b) shows its
reflection x(– t).
x(t) x(– t)
A A
0 1 2 3 4 t –4 –3 –2 –1 0 t
( a) (b )
Fig. 4.12.2.
iii. Amplitude scaling :
1. The amplitude scaling of a continuous-time signal x(t) can be represented
by y(t) = Ax(t)
where A is a constant.
x(t) y(t) = 2x(t)
2
1
0 t 0 t
–1
(a) (b ) –2
Fig. 4.12.3. Plots of ( a) x(t) = cos  t, ( b) y(t) = 2x(t).

iv. Time scaling :
1. Time scaling may be time expansion or time compression.
2. The time scaling of a signal x(t) can be accomplished by replacing t by at
in it. Mathematically, it can be expressed as :
y(t) = x(at)
3. If a > 1, it results in time compression by a factor a and if a < 1, it results
in time expansion by a factor a because with that transformation a point
at at in signal x(t) becomes a point at t in y(t).
x(t) y(t) = x(2t)
4 4
–1 0 1 2 3 t –0.5 0 1 1.5 t
(a) (b )
y(t) = x(t/2)
4
–2 0 2 4 6 t
( c)
Fig. 4.12.4. (a) Original signal, (b) Compressed signal, (c) Enlarged signal.
v. Signal addition :
1. The sum of two continuous-time signals x1(t) and x2(t) can be obtained
by adding their values at every instant of time.
2. Similarly, the subtraction of one continuous-time signal x2(t) from
another signal x1(t) can be obtained by subtracting the value of x2(t)
from that of x1 (t) at every instant.
3. Consider two signals x1(t) and x2(t) shown in Fig. 4.12.5(a) and (b).
x1(t) x2(t)
1 1
0 1 2 3 4 t 0 1 2 3 4 t
( a) ( b)
3
2 2
x1(t) – x2(t)
x1(t) + x2(t)
1 1
0 1
2 3 4 t 1 2 3 4 t
( c) ( d)
Fig. 4.12.5. Addition and subtraction of continuous-time signals.
4. Fig. 4.12.5(c) is the addition of x1(t) and x2(t) and Fig. 4.12.5(d) is the
subtraction of x2(t) from x1(t).
vi. Signal multiplication :
1. The multiplication of two continuous-time signals can be performed by
multiplying their values at every instant.
2. Two continuous-time signals x1(t) and x2(t) shown in Fig. 4.12.6(a) and
(b) are multiplied to obtain x1(t) x2(t) shown in Fig. 4.12.6(c).
For 0  t  1 x1(t) = 2 and x2(t) = 1
Hence x1(t) x2(t) = 2 × 1 = 2
For 1  t  2 x1(t) = 1 and x2(t) = 1 + (t – 1)
Hence x1(t) x2(t) = (1) [1 + (t – 1)] = 1 + (t – 1)
x1(t) x2(t) x1(t)x2(t)
2 2 2
1 1 1
0 1 2 3 t 0 1 2 3 t 0 1 2 3 t
(a) (b ) (c )
Fig. 4.12.6. Multiplication of continuous-time signals.
Que 4.13. Synthesize a triangular waveform shown in Fig. 4.13.1

in terms of ramp and step signals.
f(t)
t
0 t1
Fig. 4.13.1.
Answer
1. The waveform can be synthesized into three following waveforms as
f1 (t) A f2(t) A f3 (t)
t1
t
t t
–A
f1 (t) = Ar(t) f2 (t) = – Ar(t – t1) f3 (t) = A u(t – t1)
Fig. 4.13.2.
2. f(t) = f1(t) + f2(t) + f3(t)
= Ar(t) – Ar(t – t1) – Au(t – t1)
= At u(t) – A(t – t1) u(t – t1) – Au (t – t1)
= At u(t) – Au(t – t1) {t – t1 + 1}
= A [t u (t) – (t – t1 + 1) u(t – t1)]
Que 4.14. Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in

Fig. 4.14.1.
f(t)
t
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T
Fig. 4.14.1.
Answer
1. The waveform in Fig. 4.14.1 can be synthesized as shown in Fig. 4.14.2.
f(t)
2u(t) 2u(t – 2T) 2u(t – 4T)
2
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T t
–2 –2u(t – T) –2u(t – 3T) –2u(t – 5T)
Fig. 4.14.2.
2. From Fig. 4.16.2, waveform can be expressed mathematically in terms

of singular functions as
f(t) = 2u(t) – 2u(t – T) + 2u(t – 2T) – 2u(t – 3T) + 2u(t – 4T) – 2u(t – 5T)
+ .....
3. We know that,
1 e  t0s
L[u(t)] = and L[u(t – t0)] = . Therefore,
s s
2 e Ts e 2Ts e 3Ts e 4Ts e 5Ts
F(s) = 2 2 2 2 2
s s s s s s
2  Ts  2 Ts
= 1  e  e  e  3Ts  e 4Ts  e 5Ts  ... 
s
2  Ts 1 2  1 
= 1  e    1  e Ts 
s s  
Que 4.15. Find the Laplace transform of the waveform shown in

Fig. 4.15.1.
f(t)
A
0 T 3T 4T 5T 7T 8T t
Fig. 4.15.1.
Answer
1. The waveform in Fig. 4.15.1 can be synthesized as shown in Fig. 4.15.2.
f(t)
A tu(t) A (t – 5T)u(t – 5T) A (t – 7T)u(t – 7T)
T T T
t
0 T 3T 5T 7T 8T
A (t – T)u(t – T) A (t – 3T)u(t – 3T) A (t – 8T)u(t – 8T)

– – –
T T T
Fig. 4.15.2.
2. Waveform can be expressed mathematically in terms of singular
functions as
f(t) = A tu(t)  A (t  T )u (t  T )  A (t  3T ) u (t  3T )
T T T
A A
 ( t  5T ) u (t  5T )  (t  7T ) u ( t  7T )
T T
A
 (t  8T ) u (t  8T )
T
A  1 e Ts e  3Ts e 5Ts e 7Ts e 8 Ts 
 f(s) =   2  2  2  2  2 
T  s2 s s s s s 
A
= [1  e  Ts  e  3Ts  e  5Ts  e  7Ts  e  8Ts ]
Ts2
Que 4.16. Express the following waveforms by standard signals :
f(t)
f(t)
+K K
t t
0 t1 t2 t3 0 1 2
–K
(a) (b)
f(t)
+1
2 f(t)
t t
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
–2
–1
(c) (d)
– t
f(t) = (e )
t
0 a 2a 3a 4a 5a
(e)
Fig. 4.16.1.
Answer
i. f (t) = Kt u (t) – 2K (t – t1) u (t – t1) + K (t – t2) u (t – t2) – K (t – t2)
[– u(t – t2) + u (t – t3)]
ii. f (t) = t [u (t) – u (t – 1)] + (t – 1) [u (t – 1) – u (t – 2)]
= tu(t) – 1 u (t – 1) – (t – 1) u (t – 2)
iii. f (t) = (t – 1) [u (t) – u (t – 2)] + (– 1) (t – 3) [u (t – 2) – u (t – 4)]
= (t – 1)u (t) – 2 (t – 2)u (t – 2) + (t – 3) u (t – 4)
iv. f (t) = 1 [u (t) – u (t – 2)] + (– 2) [u (t – 2) – u (t – 3)] + 2 [u (t – 3)]
= u (t) – 3u (t – 2) + 4u (t – 3)
v. f (t) = e–t [u (t) – u (t – a)] + e–t (u (t – 2a) – u (t – 3a)]
+ e–t [u (t – 4a) – u (t – 5a)].
PART-4
Analysis of RC, RL and RLC Network with and Without
Initial Condition with Laplace Transform.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.17. Discuss step response of series RL network.
Answer
1. Fig. 4.17.1 shows a network consisting of resistance (R) and inductance
(L). They are connected in series. It is connected to a DC supply E0.
2. The network connected with a switch as shown in Fig. 4.17.1. The
switch is closed at t = 0.
SW R
E0 +
– i(t) L
Fig. 4.17.1.
3. Using loop equations we get
di(t)
Ri ( t)  L = E0 ...(4.17.1)
dt
4. Taking Laplace transform of both sides
E0
L [sI (s) – i(0 –)] + RI(s) = ...(4.17.2)
s
5. The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously, and
the current before t = 0 is zero.
 i(0 –) = 0 ...(4.17.3)
6. Using the conditions of eq. (4.17.3) in eq. (4.17.2), we get
E0
Ls I (s) + RI(s) =
s
E0
(sL + R)I(s) =
s
E0 E 1
I(s) =  0 ...(4.17.4)
s (sL  R) L  R
s s  
 L
7. Putting R/L = , we get from eq. (4.17.4)
E0 1
I(s) =
L s( s   )
E0 1 1 1 
=  –  ...(4.17.5)
L  s s   
8. Taking inverse Laplace transform of both sides of eq. (4.17.5), we get
E0 L
i(t) =  {1 – e– t }
L R
E0  –  R 
i(t) = 1 – e   t  ...(4.17.6)
R   L 
Eq. (4.17.6) is the complete solution of eq. (4.17.1).
9. It may be noted here that E0/R is the steady state response while
 R
E0 –  L  t
e is the transient response.
R
Que 4.18. Determine the current i(t) for t  0 if initial current

–
i(0 ) = 2 A for the circuit in Fig. 4.18.1.
6
i(t)
24 V +
– 3H
Fig. 4.18.1.
Answer
1. The transformed version of Fig. 4.18.1 is shown in Fig. 4.18.2.
6
+ 3s
24 I(s)
s – – –
Li(0 ) = 6 V
+
Fig. 4.18.2.
2. KVL around the single loop in Fig. 4.18.2, we have
24
= 6I(s) + 3sI(s) – 6
s
24 6 s  24
3I(s)[s + 2]= +6=
s s
6[ s  4] 2(s  4) 4 2
I(s) =   
3s (s  2) s( s  2) s s  2
3. Taking inverse Laplace transform, we get
i(t) = (4 – 2e– 2t)u(t)
Que 4.19. A series RL circuit with R = 20  and L = 10 H has a

constant voltage V = 40 V applied at t = 0 as shown in Fig. 4.19.1.
Determine the current i, the voltage across resistor and the voltage
across the inductor.
S 20 
40 V i L 10 H
Fig. 4.19.1.
Answer
1. By applying KVL
di
10 + 20 i = 40
dt
di
 2i = 4 ...(4.19.1)
dt
2. The general solution for a linear differential equation is
 pt  pt pt
i = ce  e  ke dt
where p = 2, k = 4
 i = ce– 2t + 2 ...(4.19.2)
3. At t = 0 the switch is closed. Since the inductor never allows to a sudden
change in current,
so at t = 0+, i = 0
 0=c+2
c= –2
4. Substituting the value of c in the current eq. (4.19.2), we have
i = 2 (1– e – 2t) A
5. Voltage across resistor
VR = iR = 2 (1 – e – 2t) × 20 = 40 (1 – e – 2t) V
6. Voltage across inductor
L di
VL =
dt
d
= 10  2(1  e  2 t ) = 20 × 2e – 2t
dt
= 40 e – 2t V
Que 4.20. Explain step response of series RC circuit.
Answer
1. Fig. 4.20.1 shows a network consisting of resistance (R) and
capacitance (C). They are connected in series. It is connected to a DC
supply E0.
R
Eo +
– i(t) C
Fig. 4.20.1.
2. The network is connected to a switch as shown in Fig. 4.20.1. The switch
was initially kept open. The switch is closed at t = 0.
3. Using loop equations, we get
t
1
Ri (t)   i(t) dt = E0
C –
Applying Laplace transform on both sides

1  I ( s) q(0  ))  E0
    RI (s) = ...(4.20.1)
C s s  s
4. Let q(0 – )) is charge on the capacitor just before closing the switch. If the
capacitor was initially uncharged then q(0 – )) = 0.
5. Hence eq. (4.20.1) becomes
1 I (s ) E
 RI (s) = 0
C s s
1  C Rs  E
 I ( s)  = 0
 Cs  s
E0 C E /R
I(s) =  0 ...(4.20.2)
1  C Rs s  1
RC
6. Taking inverse Laplace transform of eq. (4.20.2)
 1 
E0 –  RC 
t
i(t) = e
R
Que 4.21. Determine the current i(t) for t  0 if vC(0) = 2 V for the
circuit shown in Fig. 4.21.1.
5
i(t)
+ 1
32 V – F
10
Fig. 4.21.1.
Answer
5
i(t) 10
32 +
– s
s vc(0) 2
+ =
– s s
Fig. 4.21.2.
1. KVL around the single loop in Fig. 4.21.2, we have
32 10 2
= 5 I (s)  I (s) 
s s s
 10  30
I(s) 5  
 s  s
30 6
I(s) = 
5s  10 s  2
i(t)= 6 e – 2t
Que 4.22. Determine the voltage vC(t) and the current ic(t) for t  0
for the circuit shown in Fig. 4.22.1.
iC(t)
4 +
vC(t) 1F
3A –
t=0
Fig. 4.22.1.
Answer
1. The switch is opened at t = 0. So at t = 0 –, the switch was closed.
2. Let us assume that steady state has been reached at t = 0 –. So we have
to find the initial voltage across the capacitor.
3. For DC, the capacitor acts as open and the circuit shown in Fig. 4.22.2
results for t = 0 –.
–
i1(0 )
4 + –
2 vc(0 )
–
3A
Fig. 4.22.2.
34
i1(0 – ) = 4  2 = 2 A
 v0(0 – ) = 2i1(0 – ) = 2 × 2 = 4 V
4. Since the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
vc(0 – ) = vc(0) = v0(0 + ) = 4 V
5. Fig. 4.22.3 represents frequency domain equivalent circuit.
Vc(s)
Ic(s)
3 4 2 1
s s Cvc(0) = 4 A
Fig. 4.22.3.
Vc ( s) Vc ( s) 3
 = 4
2 1/ s s
1  3
Vc ( s)   s  =  4
2  s
3  4 s 1  2 s 2(3  4 s) 3  4s
Vc(s) = /  
s 2 s(1  2s)  1
s s  
 2
6. Taking inverse Laplace transform, we
1
  t 
vc(t) = 6  2e 2
 u(t) V
Vc (s)
7. Also Ic(s) = 4
1/s
3  4s
 1
s s  
 2  4  3  4 s  4  1
=
1/ s 1 1
s s
2 2
1
 t
ic(s) = e 2
u(t) A
Que 4.23. Discuss step response of series RLC network.
Answer
1. Fig. 4.23.1 shows a network consisting of resistance (R), capacitance (C)
and inductance (L) are connected in series.
2. It is provided with a switch as shown in Fig. 4.23.1. Initially switch was
kept open. Switch was closed at t = 0.
SW R L
+ E i(t) C
– 0
Fig. 4.23.1.
3. Applying loop equation, we get
t
di (t) 1
Ri(t) + L   i(t)dt = E0 ...(4.23.1)
dt C –
4. Taking Laplace transformation of both sides of eq. (4.23.1)

1  I ( s) q(0 )  E0
L{sI (s) – i (0+)} + RI(s) +   = ...(4.23.2)
C s s  s
5. At t = 0+, inductance acts as previous current source and capacitance
acts as previous voltage source.
 i(0 +) = 0 and q(0 + ) = 0
6. Hence, eq. (4.23.2) reduces to
I (s) E0
sL I (s)  RI ( s)  =
Cs s
 1  E0
I (s)  sL  R  =
 Cs  s
 1
I (s)  s2 L  Rs   = E0
 C
7. If a and b are the roots of equation s2 L + Rs + 1 / C = 0
We have s2L + Rs + 1 / C = (s – ) (s – )
L
– R R2 – 4
where = C
2L
L
– R– R2 – 4
= C
2L
E0
8.  I(s) =
(s – ) (s – )
E0  1 1 
=  –  ...(4.23.3)
( – )  (s – ) ( s – ) 
9. Taking inverse Laplace transform of both sides, we get
E0
i(t) = {e  t – e  t }
–
Que 4.24. Consider a series RL circuit shown in Fig. 4.24.1. The

switch is closed at time t = 0, find the current i(t) using Laplace
transform.
t=0 K R = 10 
+ i(t)
20 V 5H
–
Fig. 4.24.1.
Answer
1. Initial condition, i(0) = 0
2. Using KVL,
di
R i(t) + 5 = 20
dt
3. Taking Laplace transform,
20
10I(s) + 5[sI(s) – i(0)] =
s
20
10I(s) + 5sI(s) = ( i(0) = 0)
s
20 / s 20 4
I(s) =  
10  5s s(5 s  10) s( s  2)
4. Using partial fraction,
2 2
I(s) = 
s s2
5. Taking inverse Laplace,
2 2 
i(t) = L–1 [I(s)] = L1  
 s s  2 
= 2(1 – e–2t)
Que 4.25. An R-L-C series circuit is as shown in Fig. 4.25.1. The

switch is moved from position 1 to 2 at t = 0. Initially it remained in
position 1 for a long time. The initial current at (t = 0–) in the inductor
is 2 A and the voltage across the capacitor at that instant is 4 volts.
Find the expression for the inductor current i(t) for t > 0.
1
2 L=2H
+
V volts
– 10 V
+ C=2F
– R=2
Fig. 4.25.1.
Answer
1. For switch position 2,
i(t)
L 2H
+
V1 = 10 V – C 2F
R 2
Fig. 4.25.2.
2. Using KVL
t
di 1
Ri  L idt  VC (0  ) = V1
dt C 0

3. Taking Laplace transform,
1 I (s) VC (0  ) V1
RI (s)  L sI ( s)  Li(0 )   =
C s s s
 1   VC (0  ) V1
 R  Ls  Cs  I (s)  Li(0 )  s
=
s
 1 10 4
 2  2s  2s  I ( s) = 4
s s
8 s  12
I(s) = 2
 1
4 s  
 2
 3 
1 –1  8 s  12  –1  s 2 
4.  i(t) = L–1{I(s)} = L   2L 
4 2 2
  s  1   
 s 
1 

  2     2  
 1   1 
s  1  s 2
= 2L  –1  2 –1 1 
2
 2L  2
 2
 1   1  1 
  s  2     s  2   s   
2 
 1 1   1 t  1 t
= 2 L–1   2
 2e 2  2te 2 A
 1
  s    s  1  
  2  2  
Que 4.26. In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.26.1, determine the current
i(t) when the switch is at position 2. The switch S is moved from
position 1 to position 2 at t = 0. Initially the switch has been at
position 1 for a long time.
S 5
1
t=0
2
10 V 5 2H
i(t)
Fig. 4.26.1.
Answer
1. When switch S is in position 1,
Steady state current
i(0 – ) = 10 / 5 = 2 A
2. When switch is at position 2, for t > 0, we have
di(t)
2  5i(t) + 5i(t) = 0
dt
di(t)
2 + 10i(t) = 0
dt
di(t)
+ 5i(t) = 0
dt
3. Taking Laplace transform, we obtain
s I(s) – i(0 – ) + 5 I(s) = 0
s I(s) – 2 + 5 I(s) = 0
2
I(s) =
s5
i(t) = 2e– 5t u(t)
PART-5
Evaluation of Initial Conditions.
Questions-Answers
Que 4.27. Discuss procedure for evaluating initial condition.
Answer
1. Draw the equivalent network at = 0–. Before switching action takes
place, i.e., for t = –  to t = 0–, the network is under steady-state
conditions. Hence, find the current flowing through the inductors
iL(0–) and voltage across the capacitor vC(0–).
2. Draw the equivalent network at t = 0+, i.e., immediately after switching.
Replace all the inductors with open circuits or with current sources
iL(0+) and replace all capacitors by short circuits or voltage sources
vC(0+). Resistors are kept as it is in the network.
3. Initial voltages or currents in the network are determined from the
equivalent network at t = 0+.
di  dv  d 2i  d 2v 
4. Initial conditions i.e., (0 ), (0 ), 2 (0 ), 2 (0 ) are determined
dt dt dt dt
by writing integro-differential equations for the network t > 0. i.e.,
after the switching action by making use of initial conditions.
Que 4.28. In the network shown in Fig. 4.28.1, switch K is closed

at t = 0 with the capacitor uncharged. Find the values of
di d 2 i
i, , at t = 0+, for element values as follows ; V = 100 V,
dt dt 2
R = 1000 , C =1 F.
K
R
t=0
V +
– C
i
Fig. 4.28.1.
Answer
1. At t = 0–, switch K is open.
Here current in the circuit will be zero. It is given that capacitor is
initially uncharged. So voltage across capacitor is zero.
 vC(0–) = 0 = vC(0+) ...(4.28.1)
2. For all t  0+, switch K is closed.
Applying KVL,
t
1
iR  i dt = V
C 
0 t
1 1
 iR  i dt  C  i dt = V ...(4.28.2)
C  0
0
1
3. Here,
C  i dt represents initial voltage on capacitor. From eq. (4.28.1)

it is equal to zero.
4. Hence eq. (4.28.1) becomes
t
1
i R i dt = V ...(4.28.3)
C 0
+
5. At t = 0 , eq. (4.28.3) becomes
0
1
i(0  ) R 
i dt = V
C 0
 i(0+) (1000) + 0 = 100
 i(0+) = 0.1 A
6. Differentiating eq. (4.28.3) with respect to t,
di 1
 i= 0
R ...(4.28.4)
dt C
+
7. At t = 0 , eq. (4.28.4) becomes,
di  1
R (0 )  i(0 ) = 0
dt C
di   1 
(1000) (0 )   (0.1) = 0
dt  1  10  6 
di 
 (0 ) = – 100 A/sec
dt
d 2 i 1 di
R  =0 ...(4.28.5)
dt 2 C dt
+
9. At t = 0 , eq. (4.28.4) becomes
d 2i  1 di 
R (0 )  (0 ) = 0
dt2 C dt
d2i  1
(1000) (0 )  ( 100) = 0
dt 2 1  10 6
 d 2i  = 105 A / sec2
(0 )
dt 2
Que 4.29. The s witch is closed t = 0. Find values of
di d 2 i
i, , at t = 0+. Assume initial current of inductor to be zero.
dt dt 2
K
R = 10 
+ t=0
100 V – L=1H
Fig. 4.29.1.
Answer
1. At t = 0–, switch K is open. Here current in the circuit is zero. Hence,
current through inductor is given by,
i(0–) = 0 = i(0+) ...(4.29.1)

Because current through inductor cannot change instantaneously.
2. For all t  0+, switch K is closed. The circuit can be drawn as shown in
Fig. 4.29.2.
K closed R = 10 
+
V = 100 V L=1H
– i
Fig. 4.29.2.
3. Applying KVL,
di
i R L =V ...(4.29.2)
dt
4. At t = 0+, eq. (4.29.2) becomes,
di 
i(0  ) R  L (0 ) = V
dt
Substituting values
di 
(0) R  1 (0 ) = 100
dt
di 
 (0 ) = 100 A / sec
dt
di d 2i
R L 2=0 ...(4.29.3)
dt dt
6. At t = 0+, eq. (4.29.3) becomes,
di  d 2i
R (0 )  L 2 (0  ) = 0
dt dt
d 2i  R di 
(0 ) =  (0 )
dt 2 L dt
10
=  (100)
1
d 2i 
 (0 ) = – 1000 A/sec2
dt 2
Que 4.30. In the circuit shown in Fig. 4.30.1, V = 10 V, R = 10 ,

L = 1 H, C = 10 F, and vc(0) = 0. Find i(0+), di/dt(0+), and d2i/dt2(0+).
K R
L
+
V i C
–
Fig. 4.30.1. RLC network.
Answer
1. Using the Kirchhoff voltage law,
di 1
V= L  Ri   i dt ...(4.30.1)
dt C
–
2. At t = 0 ,
i(0 +) = 0
3. The last term in eq. (4.30.1), (1/C)  i dt, represents the voltage across
the capacitor, which is zero at t = 0.
4. Eq. (4.30.1) becomes t = 0 +,
di 
V= L (0 )  R(0)  0
dt
di  V
(0 ) =  10 amp / sec
dt L
5. Differentiating eq. (4.30.1)
d 2i di 1
L R  i=0 ...(4.30.2)
dt 2 dt C
d 2i R di 
(0  ) =  (0 )   100 amp / sec2
dt 2 L dt

Q. 1. Write properties of Laplace transform.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.2.
Q. 2. Find the partial fraction expansion for

s 2  2s – 2
F(s) =
s( s  2)( s – 3)
Ans. Refer Q. 4.7.
Q. 3. Discuss briefly singularity functions.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.11.
Q. 4. Express the following waveforms by standard signals :

f(t)
f(t)
+K K
t t
0 t1 t2 t3 0 1 2
–K
(a) (b)
f(t)
+1
2 f(t)
t t
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
–2
–1
(c) (d)
– t
f(t) = (e )
t
0 a 2a 3a 4a 5a
(e)
Fig. 1.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.16.
Q. 5. Discuss step response of series RL network.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.17.
Q. 6. Discuss step response of series RLC network.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.23.
Q. 7. An R-L-C series circuit is as shown in Fig. 2. The switch is

moved from position 1 to 2 at t = 0. Initially it remained in
position 1 for a long time. The initial current at (t = 0–) in the
inductor is 2 A and the voltage across the capacitor at that
instant is 4 volts.
Find the expression for the inductor current i(t) for t > 0.
1
2 L=2H
+
V volts
– 10 V
+ C=2F
– R=2
Fig. 2.
Ans. Refer Q. 4.25.
Q. 8. Discuss procedure for evaluating initial condition.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.27.
Q. 9. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3, V = 10 V, R = 10  ,

L = 1 H, C = 10 F, and vc(0) = 0. Find i(0+), di/dt(0+), and
d2i/dt2(0+).
K R
L
+
V i C
–
Fig. 3. RLC network.

Ans. Refer Q. 4.30.

5 Transient Behaviour
CONTENTS
Part-1 : Transient Behavior .................................... 5–2C to 5–2C
Part-2 : Concept of Complex Frequency ............... 5–2C to 5–4C
Part-3 : Driving Points and ...................................... 5–4C to 5–7C

Transfer Functions
Part-4 : Poles and Zeros of Immittance .............. 5–8C to 5–12C

Functions
Part-5 : Sinusoidal Response from ..................... 5–12C to 5–16C

Pole Zero Locations
Part-6 : Convolution Theorem ............................ 5–16C to 5–17C
Part-7 : Two Port Network .................................. 5–17C to 5–21C

and Interconnections
Part-8 : Behaviour of Series and Parallel ........ 5–21C to 5–29C

Resonant Circuits
Part-9 : Introduction to Band Pass, ................... 5–29C to 5–30C

Low Pass, High Pass and
Band Reject Filter
Transient Behaviour 5–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
PART-1
Transient Behaviour.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.1. Discuss transient behaviour of electrical circuits.
Answer
1. In a network containing energy storage elements, with change in
excitation, the currents and voltages change from one state to other
state.
2. The behaviour of the voltage or current when it is changed from one
state to another is called the transient state.
3. The time taken for the circuit to change from one steady state to another
steady state is called the transient time.
4. The application of KVL and KCL to circuits containing energy storage
elements results in differential, rather than algebraic, equations.
5. When we consider a circuit containing storage elements which are
independent of the sources, the response depends upon the nature of
the circuit and is called the natural response.
6. Storage elements deliver their energy to the resistances. Hence the
response changes with time, gets saturated after some time, and is
referred to as the transient response.
7. When we consider sources acting on a circuit, the response depends on
the nature of the source or sources. This response is called forced
response.
8. In other words, the complete response of a circuit consists of two parts :
the forced response and the transient response.
PART-2
Concept of Complex Frequency.
Questions-Answers
!!!
Que 5.2. Explain the concept of complex frequency.
Answer
1. Complex frequency is a generalised frequency whose real part  describes
growth or decay of the amplitudes of signals and whose imaginary part
j is the angular frequency.
2. This complex frequency is applicable for cisoidal signals where
r(t) = Ae jt
3. The angular frequency  can be taken as a velocity at the end of the
phasor r (t) [since the velocity is also at right angles to the phasor.]
4. Next, let us consider a general case when the velocity (symbolised as s)
is inclined with an angle  as shown in Fig. 5.2.1(b).
5. Here s = –  + j
[s is composed of a component  at right angles to r and another
component –  parallel to r. –  component reduces magnitude of r as it
rotates counter clockwise towards origin]
6.  Re [r (t)] = Ae–t cos t
Im [r (t)] = Ae–t sin t [as shown in Fig. 5.2.2(a) and (b)]
Im(r)
j
j Imaginary
–
r

Re (r)
r
Real
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.2.1.
7. On the other hand, if s =  + j as shown in Fig. 5.2.2(c), the phasor
increases exponentially in magnitude.
8. Then, in general, for a cisoidal signal,
r (t) = Aest = Ae( + j) t
9. If  is + ve, signal amplitude increases,
 is zero, sinusoid is undamped,
 is –ve sinusoid is damped,
j is zero, signal is exponential,
j = 0 = , signal is constant.
Re[r(t)] Im[r(t)]
– t – t
Ae Ae
0 0
t t
(a) (b)

Im
Imaginary t
j  Ae
t
Ae
Real Real
(c) (d)
Fig. 5.2.2.
PART-3
Driving Points and Transfer Functions.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.3. Explain the following terms :

i. Network functions
ii. Driving point functions
iii. Transfer functions
Answer
i. Network functions : The network function H(s) of a linear,
time-invariant network is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform
of the response to the Laplace transform of the excitation, while all the
initial conditions are zero.
L (Response with zero initial conditions)
Network function =
L (Excitation)
Y (s )
H(s) =
X (s) all initial conditions = 0
ii. Driving point function : When the excitation and response are
defined at a single port, these network functions are called driving
point function.
There are two types of driving point function :
a. Driving point impedance function : It is defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of a voltage at any port to the Laplace transform of a
current at the same port.
V11 (s)
Z11(s) =
I11 (s)
b. Driving point admittance function : Driving point admittance
function is defined as the reciprocal of driving point impedance function.
1 I ( s)
Y11(s) =  11
Z11 (s) V11 ( s)
iii. Transfer function : Transfer function, in general, relates a quantity
at one port to a quantity at another port. It is used to describe networks
which have at least two ports. The transfer function may have the
following forms :
a. Voltage transfer function : This is the ratio of voltage at one port to
voltage at another port.
V2 ( s) V ( s)
G21(s) = ; G12(s) = 1
V1 ( s) V2 (s)
b. Current transfer function : This is the ratio of the current at one
port to the current at another port.
I2 ( s) I (s)
21(s) = ; 12(s) = 1
I1 ( s) I2 (s)
c. Transfer impedance function : This is the ratio of voltage at one port
to current at another port.
V2 ( s) V (s )
Z21(s) = ; Z12(s) = 1
I1 ( s) I2 ( s)
d. Transfer admittance function : This is the ratio of current at one
port to voltage at another port.
I2 ( s) I (s)
Y21(s) = ; Y12(s) = 1
V1 (s) V2 ( s)
Que 5.4. Explain properties of driving point function.

Answer
1. The coefficients in the polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of network functions
P ( s)
N(s) = must be real and positive.
Q( s)
2. Poles and zeros must be conjugate; if imaginary or complex.
3. The real part of all poles and zeros must be negative or zero. If the real
part is zero then the pole or zero must be simple.
4. The polynomial P(s) and Q(s) may not have missing terms between that
of highest and lowest degree, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
5. The degrees of P(s) and Q(s) may differ by either zero or one only.
6. The terms of lowest degree in P(s) and Q(s) may differ in degree by one
at most.
Que 5.5. Explain properties of transfer function.
Answer
P ( s)
1. The coefficients in polynomials P(s) and Q(s) of N(s) = must be
Q( s)
real and those for Q(s) must be positive.
2. Poles and zeros must be conjugate; if imaginary or complex.
3. The real part of poles must be negative or zero. If the real part is zero,
then the pole must be simple.
4. The polynomial Q(s) may not have any missing terms between that of
highest and lowest degree, unless all even or all odd terms are missing.
5. The polynomial P(s) may have terms missing between the terms of
lowest and highest degree, and some of the coefficients may be negative.
6. The degree of P(s) may be as small as zero, independent of the degree of
Q(s).

Determine the transfer function.
R1 R2
+ +
VIN C1 C2 VOUT
– –
Fig. 5.6.1.
Answer
R1 R2
+ +
I1 I2
V IN C2 VOUT
C1
– –
Fig. 5.6.2.
1. In 1st loop
1
VIN = I1(s)R1 + (I1(s) – I2(s))
sC1
I1 ( s) I2 (s)  1  I
= I1(s)R1 +   I1  R1   2 ...(5.6.1)
sC1 sC1  sC1  sC1
2. In 2nd loop
1  1 
(I (s) – I1(s)) +  R2  I =0
sC1 2  sC2  2
I2 I I
 1  R2 I2  2 = 0 ...(5.6.2)
sC1 sC1 sC2
I2
3. VOUT =
sC2
 1 1   C 
4. From eq. (5.6.2) I1 = sC1I2   R2  = I2  1  sC1 R2  1 
 sC1 sC2   C2 
5. Substituting value of I in eq. (5.6.1)
 C  1  I
I2  1  sC1 R2  1   R1   2 = VIN
 C2   sC1  sC1
 C1 R1 1 
VIN = I2  R1  sC1 R1 R2  R2  C  sC 
 2 2
6. But I2 = VOUT sC2
 CR 1 
VIN = VOUT sC2  R1  sC1 R1 R2  R2  1 1 
 C2 sC2 
VOUT 1
7. =
VIN  C R 1 
sC  R  sC R R  R  1 1  
2 1 1 1 2 2 C sC 
 2 2
1
=
2
s C C R R  s( R C  R C  R C )  1
1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 1 1
PART-4
Poles and Zeros of Immitance Functions.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.7. Explain poles and zeros of network functions.
Answer
1. Any network function may be expressed in the form of a quotient of
polynomial in s.
P ( s) a0 s n  a1n 1 s n 1  ....  an 1 s  an
N(s) =  ...(5.7.1)
Q( s) b0 s m  b1 s m1  ....  bm1 s  bm
where coefficients a0 to an and b0 to bm are real and positive for a network
containing passive elements only and containing no controlled sources.
( s  Z1 )( s  Z2 )....(s  Zn )
N(s) = H ...(5.7.2)
(s  P1 )( s  P2 )....(s  Pm )
H is a constant and called scale factor.
2. When the variable s has value equal to any of roots Z1, Z2 .... Zn, the
network function N(s) becomes zero. Hence these complex frequencies
Z1, Z2, .... Zn, are called the zeros of the network function.
3. When the variable s has any of the values P1, P2, .... Pm, the network
function N(s) becomes infinite. Hence these complex frequencies
P1, P2 ..... Pm, are called the poles of the network function.
4. Partial fraction of eq. (5.7.2) is
K1 K2 Km
N(s) = s  P  s  P  ....  s  P
1 2 m
5. For the stability of the network, the poles should lie only in left half and
not in right half of s-plane.
Que 5.8. Obtain the relationship between various pole locations

in s-plane and stability.
Answer
i. Poles on the negative real axis :
1. If the network has a simple pole on the negative real axis,
K
F(s) =
s
2. Corresponding impulse response for t > 0
f (t) = Ke–t
j
– × +
– 0
– j
Fig. 5.8.1.
3. As t increases, the value of f (t) decreases.
f (t)
K
0 t
Fig. 5.8.2.
As the time t tends to increase, the response f (t) approaches zero hence
the system is stable.
ii. Complex poles in the left half of the s-plane :
1. Let the transfer function has a complex conjugate poles at s = – ± j as
sho wn in
Fig. 5.8.3.
K1 K1
F(s) = 
s    j s    j
The time response f(t) = L–1 {F(s)}
 2 K1 ( s  ) 
= L1  2 2
= 2K1 e –t cos t
 (s   )   
j
–  + j
– +
–  – j
Fig. 5.8.3.
3. The time response is shown in Fig. 5.8.4.
f(t)
2K1
0 t
Fig. 5.8.4.
As t increases, f (t) tends to zero. Hence system is stable.
iii. Poles on the positive real axis :
1. Let the transfer function has a simple pole on positive real axis at s = ,
as shown in Fig. 5.8.5.
j
– × +

– j
Fig. 5.8.5.
K
F(s) =
s
2. The time response f (t) = Ket
f(t)
K
t
0
Fig. 5.8.6.
As time t increases, f (t) increases exponentially as shown in
Fig. 5.8.6. Hence the system is unstable.
iv. Complex poles in the right half of the s-plane :
1. Let the transfer function has a complex conjugate pole at s =   j as
K K
F(s) = 
s    j s    j
j
×  + j
– +
×  – j
j
Fig. 5.8.7.
2. Time response
1  K K  1  2 K ( s   ) 
f(t) = L    = L  2 2
 s    j s    j   (s  )   
f(t) = 2K et cos t
As t increases, f (t) increases sinusoidally and exponentially. Hence
system is unstable.
f(t)
2K
t
0
Fig. 5.8.8.
v. Pole at the origin :
1. Consider a pole at origin,
F(s) = K/s
j
– +
0
– j
Fig. 5.8.9.
2. Time domain response f (t) = K.
f(t)
t
0
Fig. 5.8.10.
Hence system is marginally stable.

3. If there is multiple order poles at origin,
K
i.e., F(s) =
sr
then in time domain
K Kt r 1
f (t) = L1  r  
s  r!
Hence the system is unstable.
vi. Poles on j axis :
1. If the network has complex poles on j axis as shown in Fig. 5.8.11.
2Ks K K
F(s) =  
s2  2 s  j s  j
j

– +
0
–
– j
Fig. 5.8.11.
2. The time response of given network is
 K K 
f (t) = L–1 {F(s)} = L1  
 s  j s  j 
 2Ks 
= L–1  2 2  = 2K cos t
s   
f(t)
2K
0 t
–2K
Fig. 5.8.12.
Hence the system is marginally stable.
PART-5
Sinusoidal Response from Pole Zero Locations.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.9. Explain time response and stability from pole-zero

diagram.
Answer
Time response :
1. For the given network function, a pole-zero plot can be drawn which
gives useful information regarding the critical frequencies.
2. The time domain response can also be obtained from pole-zero plot of a
network function.
3. Consider an array of poles as shown is Fig. 5.9.1.
s1 j
s3

s4 s2
s 3* s1*
Fig. 5.9.1.
4. In Fig. 5.9.1, s1 and s3 are complex conjugate poles, whereas s2 and s4
are real poles. The quadratic function is
s2+ 2 ns + n2 = 0 for  > 1
where,  is the damping ratio and n is the undamped natural frequency.
s2, s4 = – n ± n  2  1 ;  > 1

5. For these poles, the time domain response is given by
i(t) = k2es2t + k4 es4t
6. The response due to pole s4 dies faster compared to that of s2 as shown
in Fig. 5.9.2.
i(t) i(t)
due to s 4 due to s 2
t t
Fig. 5.9.2.
7. s1 and s3 constitute complex conjugate poles. If the poles are complex

conjugate, then quadratic function is
s2 + 2 n s + n2 = 0 for  < 1
The roots are s1, s1* = – n ± jn 1   2 for  < 1

8. For these poles, the time domain response is given by
1 –  2 )t 1 –  2 )t
i(t) = k1e–nt+j (n + k1* e –nt– j (n
= ke–  nt sin ( n 1 –  2 )t .
Stability :
1. For a linear system to be stable, all of its poles must have negative real
parts, i.e., they must lie within left-half of the s-plane.
2. A system having one or more poles lying on the imaginary axis of
s-plane has non-decaying oscillatory components in its natural response,
and is defined as a marginally stable system.
3. The location of the poles in the s-plane therefore defines the n
components in the homogenous response and stability of the system as :
i. A real pole pi = – in the left-half of the s-plane defines an exponentially
decaying component, K e–t, in the homogenous response. The rate of
decay is determined by the pole location; poles far from the origin in the
left-half plane correspond to components that decay rapidly, while poles
near the origin correspond to slowly decaying components. In this case,
the system is a stable system.
ii. A pole at the origin pi = 0 defines a component that is constant in
amplitude and defined by the initial conditions. In this case, the system
is marginally stable system.
iii. A real pole in the right-half s-plane corresponds to an exponentially
increasing component Ket in the homogenous response; thus defining
the system to be unstable. In this case, the system is an unstable system.
iv. A complex conjugate pole-pair ( ± j) in the left-half of the s-plane
combine to generate a response component that is decaying sinusoid of
the form A e–t sin (t +) where, A and  are determined by the initial
conditions. The rate of decay is specified by , the frequency of oscillation
is determined by . The system is a stable system.
v. An imaginary pole-pair, i.e., a pole-pair lying on the imaginary axis, ± j,
generates an oscillatory component with constant amplitude determined
by the initial conditions. The system is marginally stable system.
vi. A complex pole-pair in the right-half plane generates an exponentially
increasing component. The system is an unstable system.
Que 5.10. A two terminal network consisting of a coil having

inductance L and resistance R shunted by a capacitor C. The poles
and zeros of the driving point impedance function Z(s) of this

network are shown in Fig. 5.10.1. Find the values of L, R and C.
+ j
– 1 + j 3 + j 3
2 2 2
– 
–1 – 1/2
– 1 – j 3 – j 3
2 2 2
– j
Fig. 5.10.1.
Answer
1 sL  R
(sL  R) 
1. Z(s) = sC  2 sC
1 s LC  RsC  1
sL  R 
sC sC
sL  R
= ...(5.10.1)
s2 LC  RCs  1
sL
1
sC
R
Fig. 5.10.2.
Given zeros are at –1
1 3 1 3
Poles at j and  j
2 2 2 2
s  (1)
2. Transfer function =
  1 3     1 3
s    j   s   j 
  2 2     2 2  
s1
=
 1 3  1 3
s 2  j 2  s  2  j 2 
  
s1 s1
=  ...(5.10.2)
2 1 3 s2  s  1
s  s
4 4
3. Comparing eq. (5.10.1) and (5.10.2), we get

R = 1 L = 1 H and C = 1 F
PART-6
Convolution Theorem.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.11. State and prove convolution theorem.
Answer
Statement : Let F1 (s) and F2 (s) be the Laplace transform of functions
f1 (t) and f2 (t) respectively, then the inverse Laplace transform of
product F1(s). F2 (s) may be obtained from the convolution of f1(t) and
f2(t) as given by the equation :
t
f (t) = L1  F1 (s). F2 (s) =  f1 (t  ). f2 ()d  f1 (t)  f 2 (t)
0
F1(s).F2(s) = L{f1(t)  f2(t)}
Proof :
1. By the definition
 t
L[f1(t)  f2(t)] =  e st  f1 (t  ) f2 () d  dt
0  0 
2. From the definition of the shifted step function
1 ;   t
u(t – ) = 
0 ;   t
3. As we know
t 
 f (t   ) f2 ( ) d  =  f1 (t  )u( t  ) f2 d
0 1 0
 
L[ f1 (t)  f2 (t)] =  e st  f1 (t  )u(t  ) f2 () d dt
0 0
4. Let x = t – , e– st = e– s(x+)
then
 
L  f1 (t)  f2 (t) =  f1 ( x)u( x) f2 e  s e sx d dx
0 0
 
=  f1 ( x)u( x)e  sx dx  f2 e s d
0 0
= F1(s). F2 (s)
Que 5.12. Find the convolution of two rectangular pulses of width

T and amplitude A.
Answer
1. A rectangular pulse of width T and amplitude A is shown in Fig. 5.12.1.
x(t)
t
T
Fig. 5.12.1.
2. We can write x(t) = A [u(t) – u(t – T)]. Laplace transform of this pulse
can be determined as,
A
X(s) = A  1  e sT 1  = [1  e  sT ] ...(5.12.1)
 s s  s
3. Now let y(t) = x(t)  x(t)
A2
Y(s) = X(s) · X(s) = [1  e sT ]2
s2
A2
Y(s) = [1  e2sT  2e sT ] ...(5.12.2)
s2
4. Taking inverse Laplace transform of eq. (5.12.2) we get
y(t) = A2 [tu(t) + (t – 2T) u (t – 2T) – 2 (t – T) u (t – T)]
= A2 [tu(t) – 2 (t – T) u (t – T) + (t – 2T) u (t – 2T)]
PART-7
Two Port Network and Interconnections.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.13. Discuss linear time-invariant two-port network.
Answer
1. A two-port network is illustrated in Fig. 5.13.1.
I1 I2
1 2
Two-port
V1 V2
network
1
Fig. 5.13.1. Two-port network with standard reference

directions for voltages and currents.
2. By analogy with transmission networks, one of the ports (normally the
port labelled 1-1) is called the input port 1, while the other (labelled port
2-2) is termed the output port 2.
3. The port variables are port currents and port voltages, with the standard
references shown in Fig. 5.13.1.
4. External networks that may be connected at the input and output ports
are called terminations.
5. In order to describe the relationships among the port voltages and
currents of a linear multi-port, as many linear equations are required as
there are ports.
6. Thus, for a two-port, two linear equations are required among the four
variables.
7. However, the choice of two ‘independent’ and two ‘dependent’ variables
is a matter of convenience in a given application.
Que 5.14. Explain in detail the interconnection of all two-port

networks.
Answer
i. Series connection :
Series connection of two port network Na and Nb with open circuit
parameters Za and Zb.
I1 I1a I2a I2
+ Na +
+ + V
– V1a [Z a] – 2a
V1 I2b V2
I1b
Nb +
+
V1b [Zb] V 2b
– –
– –
Fig. 5.14.1.
 V1   Z11 Z12   I1 
V  = Z  
 2  21 Z22   I2 
where, Z11 = Z11a + Z11b
Z12 = Z12a + Z12b

Z21 = Z21a + Z21b
Z22 = Z22a + Z22b
Z-parameter matrix of a series two-port network is the sum of the
Z-parameter matrices of each individual two port network connected in
series.
ii. Parallel connection :
I1 I1a I2a I2
+ Na +
+ +
V1 V1a [Y a] V V2
– – 2a
– –
I1b I2b
+ Nb +
V1b V
– [Y b] – 2b
Fig. 5.14.2.
 I1   Y11 Y12   V1 
 I  = Y  
 2   21 Y22  V2 
where, Y11 = Y11a + Y11b
Y12 = Y12a + Y12b
Y21 = Y21a + Y21b
Y22 = Y22a + Y22b
Y-parameters matrix of parallel connected two-port network is the sum
of the Y-parameter matrices of each individual two-port network.
iii. Cascade connection :
I1 I1a – I2a I1b – I2b – I2
+ +
+ + + +
Na Nb
V1 V1a V2a V1b V2b V2
– [Ta] – – [T b] –
– –
Fig. 5.14.3.
 V1   A B   V2 
I  =   
 1  C D    I2 
A B  Aa Ba   Ab Bb 
where, C D  C Db 
C
 D  =  a a b
A= Aa Ab + Ba Cb
B= Aa Bb + Ba Db
C= Ca Ab + Da Cb
D= Ca Bb + Da Db
T matrix for cascade connected two-port network is the matrix product

of T-parameter of each individual two-port network.
iv. Series-parallel connection :
I1 I1a I2a I2
+ +
+ Na +
V V
– 1a [h a] – 2a
V1
V2
I1b I2b
+ Nb +
V V
– 1b [h b] – 2b
– –
Fig. 5.14.4.
 V1   h11 h12   I1 
 I  = h   
 2   21 h22   V2 
where, h11 = h11a + h11b
h12 = h12a + h12b
h21 = h21a + h21b
h22 = h22a + h22b
The h-parameters matrix for series-parallel connected two-port network
is the sum of individual h-parameter of each two-port network connected.
v. Parallel-series connection :
I1 I1a I2a I2
+ +
+ Na +
V V
– 1a [ga] – 2a
V1 V2
I1b I2b
+ Nb +
V V
– 1b [gb] – 2b
– –
Fig. 5.14.5.
 I1   g11 g12  V1 

V  =  g g22   I2 
 1  21
where, g11 = g11a + g11b
g12 = g12a + g12b

g21 = g21a + g21b
g22 = g22a + g22b
The g-parameter matrix for parallel-series connected two-port network
is sum of g-parameter matrices of each individual two-port network
connected.
PART-8
Behaviour of Series and Parallel Resonant Circuits.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.15. Explain resonance in a series RLC circuit with the help
of impedance v/s frequency diagram and derive an expression for
resonant frequency. Write properties and applications of series
resonance circuit.
Answer
A.
1. Consider an AC circuit containing a resistance R, inductance L and a
capacitance C connected in series, as shown in Fig. 5.15.1.
2
1 
2. Impedance of the circuit, Z = R2  ( X L – XC )2  R2   L – 
 C 
3. If resonant frequency is denoted by fr, then
XL = L = 2fr L
I
R L C
VR VL VC
v
Fig. 5.15.1.
1
and XC =
2fr C
4. Since for resonance XL = XC
1
 2fr L =
2fr C
1
fr =
2 LC
r = 1 / LC ...(5.15.1)
5. From eq. (5.15.1) it is obvious that the value of resonance frequency
depends on the parameters of the two energy-storing elements.
VL
VL
XL < XC XL = XC
VR
 I
VR
VC – VL I
V
VC
VC
(a) ( b)
VL
XL > XC
VL – VC V

I
VR
VC
(c )
Fig. 5.15.2. Phasor diagram.
B. Property : At resonance,
1. Net reactance is zero, i.e., X = 0.
2. Impedance of the circuit, Z = R.
3. The current flowing through the circuit is maximum and in phase with
the applied voltage. The magnitude of the current will be equal to V/R.
4. The voltage drop across the inductance is equal to the voltage drop
across capacitance.
5. The power factor is unity.
C. Impedance v/s frequency diagram :

Z
Current, I
 fL
=2
XL
Resistance, R
fr
–1
XC =
2  fC
C
X
~
L
X
Frequency, f
=
X
Fig. 5.15.3.
D. Applications of resonance :
1. Resonance circuits are used in tuning applications for radio and TV.
2. These circuits are also used in oscillators.
Que 5.16. Derive the expression of half power frequencies in terms

of resonant frequency fr. Also derive the expression for bandwidth.
Answer
A. Derivation of half power frequencies and bandwidth :
1. Consider resonance curve as shown in Fig. 5.16.1.
I
Im
Im/ 2
f1 fr f2
f f
Fig. 5.16.1.
2. Cut off frequency or half power frequency is the frequency where
current in the circuit is 1/ 2 times to maximum value of the current.
 At f1, XL < X C whereas at f2, XC < XL
3. Impedance at resonance (fr) frequency
V
Z= R=
Im
V V V
At f 1 impedance, Z1 =   2
I1 Im / 2 Im
Z1 = 2R ...(5.16.1)
V V V
Similarly at f2, Z2 =   2
I2 Im / 2 Im
Z2 = 2R ...(5.16.2)
4. At f1, impedance
Z1 = R2  ( X L  X C ) 2
5. Let XL – XC = X
 R2  X 2
Z1 = ...(5.16.3)
6. From eq. (5.16.1) and (5.16.3),
 2R= R2  X 2
 R=X
7. But since XL < XC, X is negative.
 R= –X
– R = XL – XC
1
– R =  1L –
1C
 12LC – 1 = – RC1
12LC + RC1 – 1 = 0
RC 1
 12 + 1  =0
LC LC
R 1
12 +   1  =0 ...(5.16.4)
 L LC
R R2 4
  
 1 =
L L2 LC
2
R R2 1
i.e., 1 = –  
2L 4 L2 LC
R
8. Let = ...(5.16.5)
2L
1
And = r ...(5.16.6)
LC
 1 = –  ± 2  r 2 ...(5.16.7)
9. Similarly at f2,
R=X
XL – XC = R
1
 2L – =R
 2C
22LC – 1 – RC2 = 0
R 1
 22 – 2  =0
L LC
R R2  1 
  4 
L L2  LC 
2 =
2
R R2 1
2 =  
2L 4 L2 LC
From eq. (5.16.5) and (5.16.6)
2 =  ± 2  r 2 ...(5.16.8)
 R R
10.  = 2 – 1 = 2 = 2  
2L  L
 R
11.  Bandwidth, f = 
2 2L
f
 From Fig. 5.16.1 f1 = fr – ...(5.16.9)
2
f
and f2 = fr + ...(5.16.10)
2
eq. (5.16.9) and (5.16.10) are the expressions for upper and lower cut
off frequencies, respectively.
Que 5.17. Explain quality factor. Also give relationship between

bandwidth and quality factor of the circuit.
Answer
A. Quality factor :
1. The Q-factor of an RLC series circuit is the voltage magnification that
the circuit produces at resonance.
2. Since current at resonance is maximum, supply voltage, V = ImaxR
3. Voltage across inductance or capacitance = Imax XL = Imax XC
I max X L X L
4. Voltage magnification = 
Imax R R
r L
=
R
Q factor at resonance,
 r L 2 f r L 2 L 1 1 L
Qr =    
R R R 2 LC R C
1
 fr =
2 LC
B. Relation between bandwidth and Quality Factor :
Q factor is also defined as the ratio of resonant frequency to bandwidth,
i.e.,
1
f 1 L
Qr = r  2 LC 
f R / 2L R C
R
where, f = = Bandwidth.
2 L
Que 5.18. Derive as expression for parallel resonance and mention
its salient features.
Answer
A. Derivation :
1. Consider a coil in parallel with a condenser, as shown in Fig. 5.18.1.
2. Let the coil be of resistance R ohms and inductance L henrys and the
condenser of resistance R ohms and capacitance C farads.
IR – L R L
I
R1 C
IR – C
V
Fig. 5.18.1.
3. Such a circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the reactive (or
wattless) component of line current becomes zero. The frequency at
which this happens is known as resonant frequency.
4. Circuit will be in electrical resonance if reactive component of R-L branch
current, IR–L sin R–L = Reactive component of R-C branch current, IR–C
sin R–C.
V
5. Now since IR – L =
R  (r L)2
2
XL r L
and sin R – L = 
ZR – L R  (r L)2
2
V V
IR – C = 
ZR – C 2
 1 
R12   
 r C 
XC 1 / rC
and sin R – C = 
ZR – C 2
 1 
R12   
 r C 
V r L V 1 / r C
  = 
2 2 2 2 2 2
R  (r L) R  (r L)  1   1 
R12   R12  
  r C    r C 
r L 1 / r C
=
2
R  (r L) 2
R12  (1 / r C )2
IR–Csin  R–C
IR–C
 R–C IR–Lcos  R–L

V
 IR–C cos R–C I
R–
L
IR–L sin  R–L IR–L

Fig. 5.18.2.
r L r C
=
R  2
2r 2
L 2r R12 C 2  1
L(2r R12 C 2  1) = C( R2  2r L2 )
2r L C( R12 C – L) = CR2 – L
1 CR2 – L
r =
LC CR12 – L
1
Resonant frequency, fr = r
2
1 CR2 – L
= ...(5.18.1)
2 LC CR12 – L
6. If resistance of capacitor is negligible, i.e., R1 = 0, as is usually the
case,
1 CR2 1 1 R2
Resonant frequency, fr = 1– = – 2 ...(5.18.2)
2 LC L 2 LC L
7. If resistance of coil R is zero
1 1
Resonant frequency, fr = ...(5.18.3)
2 LC
B. Features of current or parallel resonance :
1. Net susceptance is zero.
2. The admittance is equal to conductance.
3. Reactive or wattless component of line current is zero, hence circuit
power factor is unity.
V
4. Line current is minimum and is equal to in magnitude and is in
L / CR
phase with the applied voltage.
1 1 R2
5. Frequency is equal to  Hz.
2 LC L2
Que 5.19. Derive the quality factor of the parallel RLC circuit at
resonance.
Answer
1. Consider a current excited RLC parallel network
1
I = I  0° Vo G j C
j L
Fig. 5.19.1.
2. Let, i(t) = Im cos ot
3. At resonance condition, the currents in inductance and capacitance
cancel themselves out and the circuit current I flow in the conductance.
4. The corresponding voltage is (at resonance)
i(t) Im
v(t) = cos ot
G G
5. The instantaneous energy stored in the capacitance is
1 I2 C
Cv2  m 2 cos2 ot
wC(t) =
2 2G
6. The instantaneous energy stored in the inductor is
2
1 2 1 1 L 
wL(t) = Li  L   vdt
2 2 L 0 
2
Im C
= sin 2  o t
2G 2
7. Total instantaneous energy stored in C and L is
2
Im C I2 C
w(t) = wC(t) + wL(t) = 2
cos2  o t  m 2 sin2 ot
2G 2G
2
Im C
=
2G 2
8. Average power dissipated by the conductance
2
Im C
PG =
2G 2
9. Energy dissipated in one cycle
2 2
1 Im 2 I m
PGT = 
f0 2G  o 2G
 Maximum energy stored per period 
10. Quality factor, Q0 = 2  
 Total energy lost per period 
 I 2 C   2 I 2  
Q0 = 2  m 2    m

 2G    o 2G  
 oC
Q0 = = oRC
G
PART-9
Introduction to Band Pass, Low Pass, High Pass and
Band Reject Filter.
Questions-Answers
Que 5.20. Define low pass, high pass, band pass and band reject
filters.
Answer
a. Low pass filter : These filters reject all frequencies above a specified
value called the cut-off frequency. The attenuation characteristic of an
ideal LP filter is shown in Fig. 5.20.1.
Gain
Pass Stop
band band
f
0 fc
Fig. 5.20.1.
b. High pass filter : These filters reject all frequencies below the cut-off
frequency. The attenuation characteristic of a high pass filter is shown
in Fig. 5.20.2.
Gain
Stop Pass
band band
f
0 fc
Fig. 5.20.2.
c. Band pass filter : A band pass filter passes or allows transmission of a
band of frequencies and reject all frequencies beyond this band. As
Gain
Stop Pass Stop

band band band
f
0 fc1 f c2
Fig. 5.20.3.
d. Band reject filter : A band stop filter rejects or disallows transmission
of a limited band of frequencies but allows transmission of all other
frequencies and is shown in Fig. 5.20.4.
Gain
Pass Stop Pass

band band band
f
fc1 f c2
Fig. 5.20.4.

Q. 1. Explain the concept of complex frequency.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.2.
Q. 2.Explain the following terms :

i.Network functions
ii.Driving point functions
iii.Transfer functions
Ans. Refer Q. 5.3.
Q. 3. Obtain the relationship between various pole locations in

s-plane and stability.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.8.
Q. 4. State and prove convolution theorem.

Ans. Refer Q. 5.11.
Q. 5. Explain in detail the interconnection of all two-port

networks.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.14.
Q. 6. Explain resonance in a series RLC circuit with the help of

impedance v/s frequency diagram and derive an expression
for resonant frequency. Write properties of series resonance
circuit.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.15.
Q. 7. Explain quality factor. Also give relationship between

bandwidth and quality factor of the circuit.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.17.
Q. 8. Derive the quality factor of the parallel RLC circuit at

resonance.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.19.
Q. 9. Define low pass, high pass, band pass and band reject filters.
Ans. Refer Q. 5.20.

Network Analysis and Synthesis SQ–1 C (EC-Sem-3)
1 Node and Mesh

Analysis
(2 Marks Questions)
1.1. Write Kirchhoff’s law.

Ans. Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) : The algebraic sum of the branch
currents at a node is zero at all instant of time.
i = 0
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) : The algebraic sum of all branch
voltages around any closed loop of a network is zero at all instant of
time.
V=0
1.2. What is duality and write any two limitations of dual

network ?
Ans. Duality is a transformation in which currents and voltages are
interchanged. Two phenomena are said to be dual if they are
described by equations of the same mathematical form.
Limitations :
1. Power has no dual network due to its non-linearity.
2. Even when linearity applies, a circuit element may not have a
dual network like mutual inductance.
1.3. Define ideal voltage and current source.

Ans. Ideal voltage source : A constant voltage source is an ideal
source element capable of supplying any current at a given voltage.
If the internal resistance of a voltage source is zero, the terminal
voltage is equal to the voltage across the source and is independent
of the amount of load current.
Ideal current source : A source that supplies a constant current
to a load even if its impedance varies is called ideal current source.
The current supplied by such a source should remain constant
irrespective of the load impedance.
1.4. What information is obtained from the loop ?

Ans. Algebraic sum of potential differences is obtained from loop.
1.5. Define node.

2 Marks Questions SQ–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
Ans. A node being defined as a connection of two or more circuit

elements.
1.6. Explain mesh in electrical network.

Ans. A mesh is defined as a closed path around a circuit that does not
contain any other closed path within it.
1.7. What are the utilities of duality of network ?

Ans. It makes very easy to solve complex network problems.
1.8. What is a loop ?

Ans. A loop is a closed path drawn starting at a node and tracing the path
such that we return to the original node without passing an
intermediate node more than once.
1.9. When is mesh analysis preferred over nodal analysis ?

Ans. Mesh analysis is preferred over nodal analysis :
1. When the circuit contains only voltage sources or a large number
of voltage sources.
2. When the circuit contains fewer meshes than nodes.
3. When several currents are to be determined.
1.10. When is nodal analysis preferred over mesh analysis ?

Ans. Nodal analysis is preferred over mesh analysis :
1. When the circuit contains only current sources or more current
sources.
2. When the circuit contains fewer nodes than meshes.
3. When node voltage are required.
4. When the network is non-planar only nodal analysis can be used.
1.11. If a circuit has B branches and N nodes including reference

node, how many meshes are there ?
Ans. Number of meshes = Branches – (Nodes – 1),
M = B – (N – 1)
1.12. What is planar circuit ?

Ans. A planar circuit is a circuit which can be drawn on a plane surface
without crossovers.
1.13. What is non-planar circuit ?

Ans. A non-planar circuit is a circuit which cannot be drawn on a plane
surface without crossovers.
1.14. When are two networks said to be duals of each other ?

Ans. Two networks are said to be duals of each other, if they are governed
by the same set of equations.
1.15. Write pairs of dual terms for electrical networks.

Ans. Some dual terms for electrical circuits are : current-voltage,
resistance-conductance, inductance-capacitance, loop-node,
series-parallel, open-short, KCL-KVL.

2 Network Theorems
(2 Marks Questions)
2.1. State superposition theorem.

Ans. The response in any element of a linear bilateral RLC network
containing more than one independent voltage and current source
is the algebraic sum of the response produced by the source each
acting alone.
2.2. Write the application of superposition theorem with its

statement. AKTU 2016-17, Marks 02
Ans.
1. This theorem is valid for all types of linear circuits having time-
varying or time-invariant elements.
2. This theorem is used to find the current or voltage in a branch
when the circuit has a large number of independent sources.
2.3. Give limitations of superposition theorem.

Ans.
1. Not applicable for the network containing non-linear elements or
unilateral elements.
2. Not applicable for the non-linear parameters such as power.
3. This theorem is not valid for power relationship.
2.4. Write the statement of Thevenin’s theorem.

Ans. Any two terminal linear network containing sources (generators)
and impedances can be replaced with an equivalent circuit consisting
of a voltage source Vth in series with impedance Zth. Vth is the open-
circuit voltage between the terminals of the network and Zth is the
impedance measured between the terminals of the network with
all energy sources eliminated.
2.5. What are the limitations of Thevenin’s theorem ?

Ans.
1. This theorem is inapplicable to loads which are magnetically coupled
to other branch in the circuit.
2. This theorem is inapplicable for non-linear and unilateral networks.

3. This theorem is inapplicable for active load.
4. The load should not contain any dependent source.
2.6. State the reciprocity theorem and write its advantages.

Ans. It states that in any linear time-varying network, the ratio of
response to excitation remains same for an interchange of the
position of excitation and response in the network.
Advantages :
1. Applicable to the network comprising of linear, time-invariant,
bilateral, passive elements, and transformers.
2. To apply this theorem, we have to consider only the zero-state
response by taking all the initial conditions to be zero.
2.7. Mention the important points of Norton’s theorem.

Ans.
1. Applicable to any linear, bilateral, active network.
2. Inapplicable to non-linear and unilateral networks.
3. This theorem is inapplicable for active load.
2.8. What do you understand by maximum power transfer

theorem ?
Ans. Maximum power is absorbed by one network from another
connected to it at two terminals, when the impedance of one is the
complex conjugate of the other.
2.9. What do you understand by compensation theorem ?

Ans. In any linear, bilateral, active network, if any branch carrying a
current I has its impedance Z changed by an amount Z, the resulting
changes that occur in the branches are same as those which would
have been caused by the injection of a voltage source of – IZ in the
modified branch.
2.10. State Tellegen’s theorem.

Ans. Tellegen's theorem states that for a network of n elements and e
nodes, if a set of current passing through various elements be
i1, i2, .... , ie satisfying KCL and its set of voltages be V1, V2, .... ,Ve
satisfying KVL for every loop, then Tellegen's theorem is
e
V i
k 1
k k =0
2.11. What is the condition for maximum power transfer in

network ? Also mention any two applications of maximum
power transfer theorem.
Ans. Condition for maximum power transfer : Maximum power
will be transferred when the load resistance is equal to the source
resistance i.e.,
Rs = RL
Applications of maximum power transfer theorem :
1. In communication system.
2. In car engines.
2.12. Where is compensation theorem mainly used ?

Ans. In bridge and potentiometer circuits.
2.13. What is the limitation of reciprocity theorem ?

Ans. It is applicable only to single source networks and not multi source
networks. Also the network should not have any time varying
elements and dependent sources.
2.14. Why superposition principle cannot be applied directly to

find power ?
Ans. Superposition principle cannot be applied directly to find power
because current and power are not linearly related.
2.15. If a circuit contains no independent energy sources, what

are the values of VTh and IN ?
Ans. Both VTh and IN are zero, and the circuit has only the equivalent
Thevenin resistance.
2.16. What is the efficiency of the circuit under the condition of

maximum power transfer ?
Ans. Under maximum power transfer condition, the efficiency of the
circuit is 50 %.

3 Fourier Series
(2 Marks Questions)
3.1. What is Fourier series ?

Ans. The representation of signals over a certain interval of time in
terms of the linear combination of orthogonal functions is called
Fourier series.
3.2. Write Dirichlet’s conditions for the existence of Fourier

series.
Ans. The conditions under which a periodic signal can be represented
by a Fourier series are known as Dirichlet’s conditions. They are
as follows :
In each period,
i. The function x(t) must be a single valued function.
ii. The function x(t) has only a finite number of maxima and minima.
iii. The function x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities.
iv. The function x(t) is absolutely integrable over one period, that is
T
| x(t)| dt   .
0
3.3. Discuss even symmetry and odd symmetry.

Ans. A function x(t) is said to have even symmetry, if x(t) = x(– t).
A function x(t) is said to have odd symmetry, if x(– t) = – x(t).
3.4. What is half wave symmetry ?

Ans. A function x(t) is said to have half wave symmetry, if
 T
x(t) =  x  t  
 2
When it exists, only odd harmonics will be present.
3.5. What do you understand by Fourier transform ?

Ans. Fourier transform is a transformation technique which transforms
signals from the continuous-time domain into frequency domain
and vice versa.
3.6. Mention the merits of Fourier transform.

Ans.
1. The original time function can be uniquely recovered from it.
2. Convolution integrals can be evaluated using the Fourier transform.
3.7. Differentiate between Fourier series and Fourier transform.

Ans.
S. No. Fourier series Fourier transform
1. The representation of a signal Fo urie r transfo rm is a
over a certain interval of time transformation technique which
in terms of linear combination transforms signals from the
of orthogonal functions is co ntinuo us time do main to
called Fourier series. corresponding frequency domain
and vice-versa.
2. It is only applicable for periodic It is applicable for both periodic
signals. and non-periodic signals.
3. The spectrum is discrete in The spectrum is continuous in
nature. nature.
3.8. Give the applications of Fourier transform.

Ans.
1. Analysis of LTI systems
2. Cryptography
3. Signal analysis
4. Signal processing
3.9. What is frequency spectrum ?

Ans. The plot of |H()| versus  is known as magnitude spectrum and
the plot of H() versus  is known as phase spectrum. The
amplitude spectrum and phase spectrum together is called the
frequency response.
3.10. What are the cases of unbalanced load in a three-phase

system ?
Ans.
1. Unbalanced delta-connected load
2. Unbalanced three-wire, star-connected load
3. Unbalanced four-wire, star-connected load
3.11. Find the Fourier transform of x(t – t0).

Ans. Let the function is x(t – t0).

 jt
 F[x(t – t0)] =  x (t  t ) e
0 dt

Let t – t0 = p

 j ( p  t0 )
 F[x(t – t0)] =  x( p) e dp


 jt  jp
= e 0  x( p) e dp = e jt0 X()

 F(t – t0) = e jt0 X()
3.12. What are the methods to solve three-phase, three-wire, star-

connected unbalanced loads ?
Ans.
1. Star-delta transformation
2. Millman’s method.
3.13. Which method is used to measure the power in balanced

and unbalanced load ?
Ans. Both three-wattmeter method and two-wattmeter method are used
to measure power in both balanced and unbalanced loads, whereas
one-wattmeter method is used to measure power in only balanced
loads.
3.14. How are powers in a three-phase balanced load calculated ?

Ans. Active power, P = 3VphIph cos  = 3 VLIL cos 
Reactive power, Q = 3VphIph sin  = 3 VLIL sin 
Apparent power, S = 3VphIph = 3 VLIL
3.15. What is the relation between line and phase voltages in a

star-connected system ?
Ans. VL = 3 Vph
3.16. What is the relation between line and phase current in a

delta-connected system ?
Ans. IL = 3 Iph

4 Laplace Transform
(2 Marks Questions)
4.1. Give the advantages of Laplace transform.

Ans.
1. Signals which are not convergent in Fourier transform are
convergent in Laplace transform.
2. Convolution in time domain can be obtained by multiplication in
s-domain.
3. Integro-differential equations of a system can be converted into
simple algebraic equations. So LTI systems can be analysed easily
using Laplace transforms.
4.2. Write the disadvantages of Laplace transform.

Ans.
1. The integral representation of Laplace domain is complicated.
2. Frequency response of the system cannot be drawn or estimated.
Instead only the pole-zero plot can be drawn.
3. s = j is used only for sinusoidal steady-state analysis.
4.3. Compare Laplace transform and Fourier transform.

Ans.
S. No. Fourier transform Laplace transform
1. It do es not have any It has a convergence factor.
convergence factor.
2. It cannot be used to analyse It can be used to analyse even
unstable systems. unstable system.
4.4. Mention the applications of Laplace transform.

Ans.
1. For system modeling.
2. Used to solve differential equations.
3. Used in electrical circuits for the analysis of linear time invariant
systems.
4.5. How are resistance (R), inductance (L) and capacitance (C)
transformed into s-domain ?
Ans. R remains as R in s-domain,

L transforms to Ls in s-domain,
C transforms to 1 / Cs in s-domain.
4.6. What are the basic elements in electrical circuits ?

Ans.
1. Resistor,
2. Inductor and
3. Capacitor.
4.7. Write the v-i relationship in the case of

i. Pure resistance,
ii. Pure inductance
iii. Pure capacitance.
Ans.
i. v(t) = i(t)R
di(t)
ii. v(t) = L
dt
1
iii. v(t) = i(t)dt
C
4.8. Define the transfer function of a system.

Ans. The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input when the initial conditions are neglected.
4.9. State initial value theorem.

Ans. The initial value theorem states that lim
t0
f(t) = f(0) = lim s F(s).
s 
4.10. State final value theorem.

Ans. The final value theorem states that lim
t
f(t) = f() = lim
s 0
s F(s).
4.11. When does the Laplace transform of a function f(t) exist ?

Ans. The Laplace transform of a function f(t), i.e., F(s) exists only if

 st
 | f (t )e | dt   . That means, f(t) e – t must be absolutely

integrable.
4.12. What is the relation between Laplace transform and Fourier

transform ?
Ans. The relation between the Laplace transform and the Fourier
transform is that the Laplace transform of f(t), i.e., F(s) is the
Fourier transform of f(t)e– t or fourier transform is the Laplace
transform evaluated along the imaginary axis of s-plane, i.e.,
F(j) = F(s)|s = j.

5 Transient Behaviour
(2 Marks Questions)
5.1. Write system stability condition.

Ans.
1. For a linear system to be stable, all of its poles must have negative
real parts, i.e., they must lie within the left-half of the s-plane.
2. A system having one or more poles lying on the imaginary axis of
the s-plane has non-decaying oscillatory components in its natural
response, and is defined as a marginally stable system.
5.2. What are the advantages of transfer function ?

Ans.
1. It gives simple mathematical algebraic equation.
2. It gives poles and zeros of the system directly.
3. Stability of the system can be determined easily.
4. The output of the system for any input can be determined easily.
5.3. What are the disadvantages of transfer function ?

Ans.
1. It is applicable for LTI system.
2. It does not take initial condition into account.
3. Applicable only for single input and single output.
4. Controllability and observability cannot be determined.
5.4. What are poles and zeros ?

Ans. Poles are critical complex frequencies at which the network function
has infinite value and zeros are critical complex frequencies at
which the network function has zero value.
5.5. What do complex frequencies corresponding to system poles

and excitation poles reveal ?
Ans. Complex frequencies corresponding to system poles yields the
system’s natural or transient response and depends on the system
function while complex frequencies corresponding to excitation
poles reveal the forced or steady response and depends on the
driving force.
5.6. For a two-port network define the driving point functions

and transfer functions
Ans. Driving point functions :
V1 (s) V ( s)
1. Driving point impedances are Z11(s) = and Z22(s) = 2
I1 (s) I 2 (s )
I1 (s) I (s )
2. Driving point admittances are Y11(s) = and Y22(s) = 2
V1 (s) V2 (s)
Transfer functions :
V2 (s) V ( s)
1. Voltage gains are G21(s) = and G12(s) = 1
V1 (s) V2 (s)
I2 (s) I (s)
2. Current gains are 21(s) = and 12(s) = 1
I1 (s) I2 (s)
V2 (s) V (s )
3. Transfer impedances are Z21(s) = and Z12(s) = 1
I1 (s) I2 (s)
I2 (s) I (s)
4. Transfer admittances are Y21(s) = and Y12(s) = 1
V1 (s) V2 (s)
5.7. What is a filter ?

Ans. A filter is a frequency selective network that freely passes the
desired bands of frequencies, while almost totally suppressing all
other bands.
5.8. How are filters classified ?

Ans. Filters are classified into four common type low-pass, high-pass,
band-pass and band-elimination.
5.9. What is a low-pass filter ?

Ans. A low-pass filter is one which passes without attenuation all
frequencies up to the cut-off frequency fc and attenuates all other
frequencies greater than fc.
5.10. What is a high-pass filter ?

Ans. A high-pass filter is one which attenuates all frequencies below a
designated cut-off frequency fc and passes all frequencies above fc.
5.11. What is a band-pass filter ?

Ans. A band-pass filter is one which passes all frequencies between two
designated cut-off frequencies and attenuates all other frequencies.
5.12. What is a band-stop filter ?

Ans. A band-stop filter is one which passes all frequencies lying outside
a certain range, while it attenuates all frequencies between the
two designated frequencies.
5.13. Why z-parameters are called open circuit impedance

parameters ?
Ans. z-parameters are called open circuit impedance parameters because
they are defined under open circuit conditions and have the units
of impedance.
5.14. Why ABCD-parameters are called trans miss ion

parameters ?
Ans. ABCD-parameters are called transmission parameters because they
are widely used in transmission line theory and cascade network.
5.15. Where are hybrid parameters mostly used ?

Ans. Hybrid parameters are extensively used in transistor circuits.
5.16. What is the transmission matrix of a cascade of two-part

networks ?
Ans. The transmission matrix of a cascade of two-port networks is the
product of transmission matrices of the individual two-port
networks.

Network Analysis and Synthesis SP–1 C (EC-Sem-3)
B.Tech.
(SEM. III) ODD SEMESTER THEORY
EXAMINATION, 2019-20
NETWORK ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
Time : 3 Hours Max. Marks : 100
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Explain the concept of complex frequency.
b. Define ‘Transfer function’ of a network.
c. State two properties of the R-C driving point impedance

function.
d. Find the laplace transform of

X(t) = e – at sin  ot
e. Find current in 10 ohm resistor as shown in Fig. 1.

10 
2
2A 5 4A
Fig. 1.
f. Draw the dual circuit of parallel RLC circuit with current

source.
g. What are the dependent and independent terms in the

Z-parameter ?
h. State compensation theorem.
i. Give examples of active and passive elements in a network.

Solved Paper (2019-20) SP–2 C (EC-Sem-3)
j. Draw the frequency response curve of parallel resonance

R-L-C circuit.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three questions in brief : (10 × 3 = 30)

a. Find Y and Z parameters of the network as shown in Fig. 2.
I1 2 3 I2
+ +
V1 4 +
– 4I1 V2
– –
Fig. 2.
b. Explain low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass filter,
band reject filter.
c. Find the current i2 for t > 0 in the circuit as shown in Fig. 3.

i i2
i1
+ 4
24 V 12 
– 8H
Fig. 3.
d. Explain maximum power transfer theorem related to AC

circuits.
e. Calculate the inverse laplace transform h(t) of given

transfer function.
s 2  5s – 9
H(s) =
( s  1) (s2 – 2 s  10)
SECTION-C
3. Attempt any one part of the following : (10 × 1 = 10)

a. A series R-L circuit has constant voltage V applied at t = 0.
At what time does VR = VL happens.
b. A periodic waveform whose one period is shown in Fig. 4.

Determine the trigonometric fourier series coefficients.
x(t)
1
–
t

–1
Fig. 4.

a. Calculate the inverse laplace transform using convolution
integral.
1
F(s) =
(s  a) (s  b)
b. For the continuous time periodic signal

2 5
x(t) = 1  cos t  4 cos t
3 3
Determine the fundamental frequency  0 and exponential
fourier series coefficients.

a. For the given circuit in Fig. 5, the value of given voltage V0
across 4 ohm resistance.
2k 
10 mA 3k  4I0
+
V0 I0
4k 
–
Fig. 5.
b. Calculate the fourier transform of cos  0t. Also sketch its

spectrum.

a. Calculate the short circuit admittance parameter of the
given circuit in Fig. 6.
2 1
1
2
1 1/2 
Fig. 6.
b. Prove that for a symmetric network Z11 = Z22, where Z11

and Z22 are Z-parameters.

a. Calculate the impedance Z(s), if driving point impedance
Z(s), of a network has pole-zero location as shown in Fig. 7.
Also Z(0) = 3.
j

–3 –1
–1
Fig. 7.
b. A practical DC current source provides 20 kW to a 50 load

and 20 kW to a 200 load. Calculate the maximum power that
can draw from it.

SOLUTION OF PAPER (2019-20)
Note : Attempt all sections. If require any missing data; then choose
suitably.
SECTION-A
1. Attempt all questions in brief : (2 × 10 = 20)

a. Explain the concept of complex frequency.
Ans. Complex frequency is a generalised frequency whose real part 
describes growth or decay of the amplitudes of signals and whose
imaginary part j is the angular frequency.
b. Define ‘Transfer function’ of a network.

Ans. The transfer function of a system is defined as the ratio of the
Laplace transform of the output to the Laplace transform of the
input when the initial conditions are neglected.
c. State two properties of the R-C driving point impedance

function.
Ans. Properties of the R-C driving point impedance function are :
1. Poles and zeros lie on the negative real axis.
2. Poles and zeros must alternate on the negative real axis.
d. Find the laplace transform of

X(t) = e – at sin  ot
Ans. Given, X(t) = e – at sin ot
Taking laplace transform,
o
X(s) =
(s  a)2  2o
e. Find current in 10 ohm resistor as shown in Fig. 1.
10 
2
2A 5 4A
Fig. 1.
Ans.
10 
– +
1
+ –
+ +4A
I1 2
2A 5 4A
– + –
–
2A
Fig. 2.
Apply KVL in loop 1
5(I1 + 2) + 2(I1 – 4) + 10I1 = 0
5I1 + 10 + 2I1 – 8 + 10I1 = 0
17I1 = – 2
2
I1 = – = – 0.117 A
17
f. Draw the dual circuit of parallel RLC circuit with current

source.
Ans.
I 1 2 3 C
R L
Fig. 3.
Dual network,
1 G 2 C
3
V +
– L
Fig. 4.
g. What are the dependent and independent terms in the

Z-parameter ?
Ans. Dependent terms in the Z-parameter are V1 and V2.

Independent terms in the Z-parameter are I1 and I2.
h. State compensation theorem.

Ans. In any linear, bilateral, active network, if any branch carrying a
current I has its impedance Z changed by an amount Z, the resulting
changes that occur in the branches are same as those which would
have been caused by the injection of a voltage source of – IZ in the
modified branch.
i. Give examples of active and passive elements in a network.

Ans. Examples :
A. Active elements :
1. Voltage source
2. Current source.
B. Passive elements :
1. Resistor
2. Inductor
3. Capacitor.
j. Draw the frequency response curve of parallel resonance

R-L-C circuit.
Ans.
Z(f)
Z=R
Inductive Capacitive
XC > XL XL > X C
Dynamic
impedance
0 fr Frequency
Fig. 5. Frequency response of parallel resonance R-L-C circuit.
SECTION-B
2. Attempt any three questions in brief : (10 × 3 = 30)
a. Find Y and Z parameters of the network as shown in Fig. 6.
I1 2 3 I2
+ +
V1 4 +
– 4I1 V2
– –
Fig. 6.
Ans.
1. Redrawing the network as shown in Fig. 7.
2. The loop equations are
V1 = 2I1 + 4(5I1 + I2)
V1 = 22I1 + 4I2 ...(1)
and V2 = 3(4I1 + I2) + 4(5I1 + I2)
or V2 = 32I1 + 7I2 ...(2)
I1 2 3 4I1 + I2 I2
+ +
5I1 + I2
V1 4 +
– 4I1 V2
– –
Fig. 7.
3. For Z-parameter, the equations are :
V1 = Z11 I1 + Z12 I2 ...(3)
V2 = Z21 I1 + Z22 I2 ...(4)
4. On comparing eq. (1), (2), (3) and (4) then we get
Z11 = 22, Z12 = 4
Z21 = 32, Z22 = 7
5. For Y-parameter,
Z = Z11 Z22 – Z12 Z21
= 22 × 7 – 4 × 32 = 26
Z22 7 –1
Y11 =  
Z 26
Z12 4 2 –1
Y12 = – – – 
Z 26 13
Z21 32 16 –1
Y21 = – – – 
Z 26 13
Z11 22 11 –1
Y22 =   
Z 26 13
b. Explain low pass filter, high pass filter, band pass filter,
band reject filter.
Ans.
a. Low pass filter : These filters reject all frequencies above a specified
value called the cut-off frequency. The attenuation characteristic
of an ideal LP filter is shown in Fig. 8.
Gain
Pass Stop
band band
f
0 fc
Fig. 8.
b. High pass filter : These filters reject all frequencies below the
cut-off frequency. The attenuation characteristic of a high pass
filter is shown in Fig. 9.
Gain
Stop Pass
band band
f
0 fc
Fig. 9.
c. Band pass filter : A band pass filter passes or allows transmission
of a band of frequencies and reject all frequencies beyond this
band. As shown in Fig. 10.
Gain
Stop Pass Stop

band band band
f
0 fc1 fc2
Fig. 10.
d. Band reject filter : A band stop filter rejects or disallows
transmission of a limited band of frequencies but allows transmission
of all other frequencies and is shown in Fig. 11.
Gain
Pass Stop Pass

band band band
f
fc1 fc2
Fig. 11.
c. Find the current i2 for t > 0 in the circuit as shown in Fig. 12.
i i2
i1
+ 4
24 V 12 
– 8H
Fig. 12.
Ans. Case 1 : At t < 0 switch will be open circuited at that time iL (0 –) = 0
Case 2 : At t > 0
i i2
i1 2
1 +
+ – 4
24 V + 12 
–
– +
8H
i i2 –
Fig. 13.
1. Apply KVL in loop (1) and (2)
– 24 + 12 i1 = 0
– 24 + 12(i – i2) = 0 ( i1 = i2 – i) ...(1)
di
12(– i1) + 4i2 + 8 2 = 0
dt
di2
12(i2 – i) + 4i2 + 8 =0 ...(2)
dt
2. Taking laplace transform of eq. (1)
24
– + 12I(s) – 12I2(s) = 0
s
– 24  12sI ( s) – 12s I2 (s)
=0
s
12sI(s) – 12s I2(s) = 24 ...(3)
3. Taking laplace transform of eq. (2)
12I2(s) – 12I(s) + 4I2(s) + 8[sI2(s) – 0] = 0
16I2 – 12I(s) + 8sI2(s) = 0
(16 + 8s) I2(s) – 12I(s) = 0 ...(4)
4. Adding eq. (3) and (4)
12s I(s) – 12s I2(s) = 24
– 12s I(s) + (16 + 8s)s I2(s) = 0
[(16 + 8s)s – 12s]I2 (s) = 24

(16s + 8s2 – 12s)I2 (s) = 24

(4s + 8s2)I2(s) = 24
24
I2(s) =
(4 s  8 s 2 )
24
=
 1
8s   s  
 2
3
I2(s) =
1
s  s  

 2
5. Taking partial fraction
3 A B
I2(s) =  
 1 s 1
s s   s
 2 2
6 6
I2(s) = –
s s 1
2
6. Taking inverse laplace transform,
i2(t) = 6 – 6 e–1/ 2t = 6[1 – e – 1/2t]
d. Explain maximum power transfer theorem related to AC

circuits.
Ans. Consider a simple network as shown in Fig. 14. There are three
possible cases for load impedance ZL.
Zs
+
Vs ZL
–
Fig. 14. A simple network.

Case I : When the load impedance is a variable resistance.
Vs Vs
1. IL = 
Zs  ZL Rs  jX s  RL
|Vs |
|IL| =
( Rs  RL )2  X s2
|Vs |2 RL
PL = |IL|2 RL =
( Rs  RL )2  X s2
3. For power PL to be maximum,
dPL
=0
dRL
 {( Rs  RL )2  X s2 }  2 RL ( Rs  RL ) 
|Vs |2   =0
 [( Rs  RL )2  X s2 ]2 
2 2
(Rs + RL) + Xs – 2RL(Rs + RL) = 0
Rs2 + 2RsRL + RL2 + Xs2 – 2RLRs – 2RL2 = 0
Rs2  X s2  RL2 = 0
RL2 = Rs2  X s2
RL = Rs2  X s2  | Zs |
source impedance for maximum power transfer.
Case II : When the load impedance is a complex impedance
with variable resistance and variable reactance.
Vs
1. IL =
Zs  ZL
|Vs |
|IL| =
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
|Vs |2 RL
PL = |IL|2 RL = ...(1)
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
3. For maximum value of PL, denominator of the eq. (1) should be
small, i.e., XL = – Xs
|Vs |2 RL
PL = ...(2)
( Rs  RL )2
4. Differentiating eq. (2) for PL with respect to RL and equating to
zero, we get
dPL 2  ( Rs  RL ) 2  2 RL ( Rs  RL ) 
= |Vs |  
dRL  ( Rs  RL )2 
(Rs + RL)2 – 2RL(Rs + RL) = 0
Rs2 + RL2 + 2RsRL – 2RLRs – 2RL2 = 0
Rs2  RL2 = 0
RL2 = Rs2
RL = R s
5. Hence, load resistance RL should be equal to the resistance Rs and
load reactance XL should be equal to negative value of source
reactance.
6. Load impedance for maximum power transfer is :
ZL = Zs* = Rs – jXs
i.e., load impedance must be the complex conjugate of the source

impedance.
Case III : When the load impedance is a complex impedance
with variable resistance and fixed reactance.
Vs
1. IL =
Zs  ZL
|Vs |
|IL| =
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
|Vs |2 RL
PL = |IL|2 RL =
( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2
3. For maximum power,
dPL
=0
dRL
 ( R  RL ) 2  ( X s  X L ) 2  2 RL ( Rs  RL ) 
|Vs |2  s  =0
 {( Rs  RL )2  ( X s  X L )2 } 
(Rs + RL)2 + (Xs + XL)2 – 2RL(Rs + RL) = 0
Rs2  2 Rs RL  RL2  ( X s  X L ) 2  2 RL Rs  2 RL2 = 0
Rs2  ( X s  X L ) 2  RL2 = 0
RL2 = Rs2 + (Xs + XL)2
RL = Rs2  ( X s  X L )2
= |Rs + j(Xs + XL)|
= |(Rs + jXs) + jXL|
= |Zs + jXL|
impedance Zs + jXL, i.e., |Zs + jXL| for maximum power transfer.
e. Calculate the inverse laplace transform h(t) of given

transfer function.
s 2  5s – 9
H(s) =
( s  1) (s2 – 2 s  10)
Ans.
s 2  5s – 9
1. Given, H(s) =
(s  1) (s 2 – 2s  10)
2. By taking partial fraction,
s2  5 s – 9 A B C
H(s) =   
(s  1) ( s 2 – 2s  10) s  1 s – 1 – 3i s – 1 – 3i
s2  5s – 9 13
A= – –1
(s 2 – 2s  10) s  – 1 13
s 2  5s – 9 1
B= 1– i
(s  1) ( s – 1  3i) s  1  3i 2
s2  5 s – 9 1
C = (s  1) ( s – 1 – 3i) 1 i
s  1 – 3i
2
1
 C = B* = 1  i
2
1 1
1– i 1 i
1 2 2
H(s) = –  
( s  1) (s – 1 – 3i) ( s – 1  3i)
1 1i 3 1 1 3
s  1  3i  si    s  1  3i  si  i 
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
H(s) = 
s1 (s  1)2  9
1 2s  2  3
= 
s  1 ( s  1)2  32
1 2(s  1) 3
=  
s  1 ( s  1)2  32 ( s  1)2  32
3. Taking inverse laplace,
h(t) = – e–t + 2et cos 3t + 3et sin 3t
SECTION-C

a. A series R-L circuit has constant voltage V applied at t = 0.
At what time does VR = VL happens.
Ans.
1. The current in an RL circuit is a continuous function, starting at
zero in this case, and reaching the final value V/R. Thus, for t > 0
V
i= (1  e t /  )
R
and vR = Ri = V(1 – e – t/ )
where  = L/R is the time constant of the circuit. Since vR + vL = V,
the two voltages will be equal when
1
vR = V
2
1
V(1 – e – t/) = V
2
– t/ 1
e =
2
t
= ln 2

that is, when t = 0.693.
Note : This time is independent of V.
b. A periodic waveform whose one period is shown in Fig. 15.

Determine the trigonometric fourier series coefficients.
x(t)
1
–
t

–1
Fig. 15.
Ans.
1. The waveform shown in Fig. 15 can be expressed as x(t) = t / . The
time period, T = 2.
2. The trigonometric fourier series representation is,

x(t) = a0   (a
n1
n cos n  0 t  bn sin n  0 t)
2
where 0 =
T0
a0, an and bk are the fourier coefficient.
1
3. a0 = x(t) dt
T0 T0
1  t
a0 = dt
2   
1
a0 =  t    1 2 [  ( )]
2 2 2
1 1
=  2 
2 2 
2
4. an = x(t) cos n 0 t dt
T0 T0
2 2
where 0 =  1
T0 2
2  t
an = cos nt dt
2   
1 2
an = 2  t cos nt dt
 0
2
1  sin n t  2   sin nt  
an = 
2 
 t   1  dt 
  n 0 0  n  
2
1   2 sin 2n   0   cos nt  
= 2 
   2  
   n   n 0 
1  2 sin 2n  cos 2n 1
=    2
 2  n n2 n 
1  1 1 
an =
2 0  n2  n 2  = 0
2
5. bn = x(t) sin n 0 t dt
T0 T0
2  t
bn = sin nt dt
2   
2 2
bn = t sin nt dt
2 2 0
1    t cos nt 2  2  cos nt 
=    0 dt 
2   n 0 n 
2
1    2 cos 2 n    sin nt  
=   0 
  n2  
 2   n 0 
1   2 cos 2 n sin 2n sin 0 

=  
 2  n n2 n2 
1  2  2  2
bn =   
2 n n n

a. Calculate the inverse laplace transform using convolution
integral.
1
F(s) =
(s  a) (s  b)
Ans.
1
1. Given, F(s) =
(s  a) ( s  b)
1 1
2. Here, F1(s) = , F2 ( s) 
(s  a) (s  b)
 f1(t) = e– at; f2(t) = e– bt
3. By convolution integral,
t
=  f (t – ) f
0
1 2 () d
t t
– a( t –  ) – b
= e e d = e – at  e( a – b)  d
0 0
t
 e( a – b)  
= e – at  
 a – b 0
( a – b) t
– at  e – 1  e– at – e– bt
= e  
 a–b  b– a
b. For the continuous time periodic signal

2 5
x(t) = 1  cost  4 cos t
3 3
Determine the fundamental frequency  0 and exponential
fourier series coefficients.
Ans.
2 5
1. Given, x(t) = 1  cos t  4 cos t
3 3
1 1
x(t) = 1 + e j (2  / 3) t  e j (2 / 3) t
2 2
1 1 
+ 4  e j (5  / 3) t  e j (5  / 3) t 
2 2 
1 j (2  / 3) t 1  j (2 / 3) t
x(t) = 1 +
e  e + 2ej5 (2/6)t
2 2
+ 2e – j5 (2/6)t ...(1)
2. From eq. (1), we may conclude that the fundamental frequency of
x(t) is 2/6 = /3.
3. Thus, the exponential fourier series coefficients are :
1
C0 = 1, C2 = C – 2 = , C5 = C – 5 = 2
2

a. For the given circuit in Fig. 16, the value of given voltage V0
across 4 ohm resistance.
2k 
10 mA 3k  4I0
+
V0 I0
4k 
–
Fig. 16.
Ans.
– – 1 I0 2
2 k
+ +
+ +
10 mA + 3 k 4I0
– –
– –
4 k
10 m A + + I1 4I0
–
Fig. 17.
1. Apply KVL in loop (1)
4(I1 + 10) + 2(I1 + 10) + 3(I1 + 4I0) = 0
9I1 + 12 I0 = – 60 ...(1)
2. Apply KVL in loop (2)
3(4I0 + I1) = 0
12I0 + 3I1 = 0 ...(2)
3. Solving eq. (1) and (2) then we get,
I1 = – 10 Amp
I0 = 2.5 Amp
4. Voltage across 4 k,
= 4(10 + I1) = 4[10 – 10] = 0 V
b. Calculate the fourier transform of cos  0t. Also sketch its

spectrum.
Ans. Given x(t) = cos  0t
1
Then, X() = F[x(t)] = F[cos 0t] =  ( e j0t  e – j0t ) 
2 
1
= [ F (e j0t )  F ( e– j0t )]
2
1
[2( – 0 )  2(  0 )]
=
2
= [( + 0) + ( – 0)]
Fig. 18 shows the cosine wave and its amplitude and phase spectra.
|X( )| X(  )
x(t)
 
– 0  
0 t 0 0 – 0 0 0
(a) Cosine wave (b) Its magnitude (c) Its phase

spectrum spectrum
Fig. 18.

a. Calculate the short circuit admittance parameter of the
given circuit in Fig. 19.
2 1
1
2
1 1/2 
Fig. 19.
Ans.
1. Let top network is A and bottom network is B, then
–1
2  1 1 
YA =  ZA–1  =  
 1 1  1
–1
3 1 
=  
1 2 
 2 / 5  1 / 5
= 
 1 / 5 3 / 5 
1  2 – 2 
and YB =  
 – 2 1  2
 2 
 3 –2
=  
 – 2 5 / 2
2. Therefore, the required Y-parameters are
 2 / 5  1 / 5  3  2
Y = YA + YB =  
 1 / 5 3 / 5    2 5 / 2
 
 17 / 5  11 / 5 
= 
  11 / 5 31 / 5 
b. Prove that for a symmetric network Z11 = Z22, where Z11

and Z22 are Z-parameters.
Ans.
1. A two port network is said to be symmetrical if the ports can be
interchanged without changing the port voltages and currents.
2. Mathematically,
Vs Vs
=
I1 I2  0 I2 I1  0
I1 I2 = 0
+
Vs + Two port V2
– network
–
(a)
(V1 = Vs, I1 = I 1, I 2 = 0, V2 = V 2)
I1 = 0 I2
+
V1 Two port Vs +
network –
–
(b)
(V2 = Vs, I2 = I 2, I1 = 0, V1 = V1)
Fig. 20. Determination the condition for symmetry.

Condition for symmetry :
From Fig. 20(a), V1 = Vs, I1 = I1, I2 = 0, V2 = V2.
Vs = Z11I1
Vs
= Z11
I1 I2  0
From Fig 20(b), V2 = Vs, I2 = I2, I1 = 0, V1 = V1.

Vs = Z22I2
Vs
= Z22
I2 I1  0
Vs Vs
From the definition of symmetry, = leads to
I1 I2  0
I2 I1  0
Z11 = Z22

a. Calculate the impedance Z(s), if driving point impedance
Z(s), of a network has pole-zero location as shown in Fig. 21.
Also Z(0) = 3.
j

–3 –1
–1
Fig. 21.
Ans.
1. For any pole-zero plot, function Z(s) is given by,
N (s )
Z(s) = k
D( s)
2. From the pole-zero plot of Fig. 21, we have
zeroes s= –3
Therefore, N(s) = (s + 3)
3. Poles s= –1±j
Therefore, D(s) = (s + 1 + j) (s + 1 – j)
( s  3) k( s  3)
4. Z(s) = k 
( s  1  j) ( s  1 – j) ( s  1) 2  1
5. Given, Z(0) = 3
k(0  3) 3k
Z(0) = =3= 3  k=2
(0  1)2  1 2
2( s  3)
6. Z(s) =
(s  1)2  1
b. A practical DC current source provides 20 kW to a 50 load

and 20 kW to a 200 load. Calculate the maximum power that
can draw from it.
Ans.
1. Let us assume i current pass through the circuit.
The circuit shown in Fig. 22.
i r RL
Fig. 22.
2. For 50  load, power is,

2
 ir 
 r  50  50 = 20 × 1000 ...(1)
 
3. For 200  load, power is,
2
 ir 
 r  200  200 = 20 × 1000 ...(2)
 
4. On comparing eq. (1) and (2) then we get
2 2
(r  50) (r  200)
=
50 200
4(r + 50)2 = (r + 200)2 ...(3)
5. After solving the eq. (3) then we get
r = 100 
i = 30 A
30 2  100
6. Pmax = = 22.5 kW
4
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Network Analysis & Synthesis

Amrit Kumar Mandal

QUANTUM PAGE PVT. LTD.

PUBLISHED BY : Apram Singh

© ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Information contained in this work is derived from

Network Analysis & Synthesis (EC : Sem-3)

Price: Rs. 85/- only

Printed Version : e-Book.

KEC 303 : Network Analysis & Synthesis

UNIT-1 : NODE AND MESH ANALYSIS (1–1 C to 1–32 C)

UNIT-2 : NETWORK THEOREMS (2–1 C to 2–41 C)

UNIT-3 : FOURIER SERIES (3–1 C to 3–34 C)

UNIT-4 : LAPLACE TRANSFORM (4–1 C to 4–36 C)

UNIT-5 : TRANSIENT BEHAVIOUR (5–1 C to 5–31 C)

SHORT QUESTIONS (SQ-1C to SQ-15C)

SOLVED PAPERS (2019-20) (SP–1 C to SP–16 C)

Unit Topics Lectures

1 Node and Mesh

Part-2 : Mesh Analysis ............................................ 1–9C to 1–16C

Part-3 : Matrix Approach of Network ............... 1–16C to 1–22C

Part-4 : Source Transformation and .................. 1–22C to 1–30C

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.1. Discuss nodal analysis.

Que 1.4. Using nodal analysis, determine the power supplied by

2. The KCL equation at node 2 is

Que 1.5. Write nodal equations for the circuit shown in

2. The KCL equation at node 1 is :

Que 1.6. Explain the concept of supernode analysis.

4. Solving eq. (1.7.1), eq. (1.7.2) and eq. (1.7.3), we obtain

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.9. Explain mesh analysis briefly.

Que 1.12. Using mesh analysis, determine what value of vs in

1. In Fig. 1.12.2, loop current I1 = 4 A and loop current I2 = 6 A.

Fig. 1.13.1. Circuit with supermesh.

5. Using supermesh for Fig. 1.13.1,

1. Since the 4 A current source is in a branch common to meshes 1 and 2,

7. Power delivered by the 10 V source, Pd = 10I2 = 10 × 3 = 30 W

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.15. Using mesh analysis, determine the voltage Vs which

= 4{8(6 Vs) + 2(– 2Vs – 250)} + 1{– 1(6Vs)} – 60 {– 1(– 30)}

Que 1.17. Determine the mesh current I1 in the circuit shown in

Que 1.18. Determine the power dissipation in the 4  resistor of

5. The current in the 4  resistor = (I2 – I3)

1.83 6.67 – 0.5

8. The power absorbed or dissipated = I62 R6

Long Answer Type and Medium Answer Type Questions

Que 1.20. Discuss source transformation technique for solving

Que 1.23. Using source transformation, find the power delivered

2. Apply KCL at node A,

Que 1.24. What do you understand by the term ‘duality’ ? Discuss

Construction of dual of a network :

VERY IMPORTANT QUESTIONS

Q. 1. For the circuit shown in Fig. 1, find the voltage Vx using

Q. 2. Determine the current in the 5  resistor for the circuit

Q. 3. Explain mesh analysis briefly.

Q. 4. How do you apply mesh analysis when there is a current

Q. 5. In the circuit shown in Fig. 3, find the power delivered by

Q. 6. Determine the mesh current I1 in the circuit shown in