Construction and Building Materials
Construction and Building Materials
Construction and Building Materials
Review
h i g h l i g h t s
Concrete with cement replaced with waste materials fosters sustainable development.
High volume replacement of PC with pozzolans greatly enhances concrete durability.
The particle size of pozzolans significantly affects its performance in concrete.
GGBS and POFA have superior performance as PC substitutes at high percentages.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Increasing urban development has increased the demand for cement and cement production significantly
Received 7 July 2019 contributes to CO2 emissions. These emissions are reduced when high volumes of cement are replaced
Received in revised form 30 July 2020 with materials that do not give of high emissions. Sustainable development and considerations for a cir-
Accepted 31 July 2020
cular economy fuel the need to find alternative binders in concrete production that reduce the amount of
Available online 30 August 2020
carbon dioxide emissions and utilizes waste materials. Certain industrial wastes (fly ash and ground
granulated blast furnace slag), municipal wastes (glass powder and ceramic waste powder) and agricul-
Keywords:
tural wastes (palm oil fuel ash) have been used as a Portland cement (PC) substitute due to their poz-
Sustainable concrete
Compressive strength
zolanic properties. This article discusses the high volume replacement of PC in concrete with these
Durability waste materials in terms of the strength development of concrete, its effect on the hydration mechanism,
Waste materials the environmental impact of its use and its relation to alkali cement.
Hydration mechanism Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Fly ash
GGBS
Palm oil fuel ash
Alkali cement
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. The waste problem. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
3. Cement hydration mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
4. Supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1. Fly ash . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.1. Generation and utilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
4.1.2. Fly ash as an SCM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.2. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4.3. Glass powder (GP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.4. Ceramic waste powder (CWP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
4.5. Palm oil fuel ash (POFA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
5. Concrete durability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
6. Environmental impact associated with SCMs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
7. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: chinyere.nwankwo@covenantuniversity.edu.ng (C.O. Nwankwo), gideon.bamigboye@covenantuniversity.edu.ng (G.O. Bamigboye), davies.iyinoluwa@
lmu.edu.ng (I.E.E. Davies), temitopemichaels@gmail.com (T.A. Michaels).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120445
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 C.O. Nwankwo et al. / Construction and Building Materials 260 (2020) 120445
Many structures today are not built with environmentally The construction industry consumes 40–75% of virgin materials
friendly materials because of the urgency arising from the increas- extracted and generates proportional waste [22]; this demand for
ing rate of urbanization and global housing deficit [1]. Global natural resources increases yearly [23]. The demand for cement
cement production has increased from 0.94 billion tons in 1970 is also on the increase with the global rise of urbanization, chal-
to 2.284 billion tons in 2005, to 4.05 billion tons in 2017 and to lenging the environment, natural resources and energy [24]. The
4.1 billion tons in 2018 [2,3]. Also, 45% more cement will be pro- availability and quality of the conventional materials used in con-
duced by 2050 than what is presently produced [3]. Cement man- crete production are increasingly uncertain, and the use of recycled
ufacture is energy-intensive and this energy in the form of grinding materials would help preserve virgin materials [10]. Sustainability
materials and production of cement clinker is responsible for also puts waste management in view as active waste management
20–40% of total cement production [3]. Cement production is aims at reducing the waste going into landfills [23]. Landfills are
responsible for 5–7% of global carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions increasingly costly to maintain and difficult to site [25]; the use
and CO2 makes up 65% of greenhouse gases [4–6]. The current state of waste materials in concrete production can reduce the amount
of concrete production should not continue on inherited conven- of waste going into landfills [17,24]. Also, new considerations for
tional PC technology of the twentieth century [7]. The emissions a circular economy and corresponding environmental regulations
from PC production can be reduced by using an alternative binder make it necessary to develop new sustainable materials in the con-
for concrete production or partially replacing cement in concrete struction industry through recycling [11,25].
production [8–10]. Given the present global attention on environ- In a region, industrialization accompanies development, manu-
mental awareness, industries today should strive to attain sustain- facturing accompanies industrialization and waste generation
ability through input maximization or the effective management of accompanies manufacturing. The aim of manufacturing most times
generated wastes [11]. Goals nine and eleven of the United Nations is profit-making and little thought is put in the effect of the by-
sustainable development goals aim to ‘‘build resilient infrastruc- products on the environment. Many of the by-products generated
ture, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster from manufacturing industries are not bio-degradable hence; they
innovation” and to ‘‘make cities and human settlements inclusive, need to go through a secondary process to make them fit for either
safe, resilient and sustainable” respectively [12]. These call the direct use or disposal. Waste materials increase as the population
players in the construction industry to review the current con- increases and these wastes may contain toxic elements. The impro-
struction materials in use and invest in sustainable construction; per disposal of these wastes can cause a range of environmental
construction that is both environmentally and economically sus- pollution which opposes sustainable development and is haz-
tainable [13]. The partial or total replacement of PC with waste ardous to health. Aside from environmental implications, the
materials in concrete production can lead to the development of non-utilization of wastes results in the loss of valuable resources
a more sustainable concrete; concrete that is both environmentally [26]. Waste materials have inherent properties that can be used
and economically sustainable. in different industries other than which they were produced.
With concrete as the most used construction material [14], Waste materials that exhibit certain characteristics by their chem-
there is an ongoing search for environmentally friendly materials ical composition can be used in concrete production.
that can effectively substitute the constituents of concrete without
compromising its strength and durability. This search has led to 3. Cement hydration mechanism
the use of various agricultural, industrial and municipal waste
materials in concrete production as either a supplementary cemen- Incorporating secondary materials in concrete production leads
titious material (SCM) or an alternative aggregate [10,15,16]. to more complicated mix design and understanding the cement
Though there is uncertainty in the use of some waste materials hydration mechanism serves as a basis for this design [27]. PC con-
leading to their non-utilization in concrete production [17], the tains four main phases: Alite (an impure C3S), belite (an impure
need for environmental protection has caused continuous research C2S), tricalcium aluminate (C3A) and tetracalcium aluminoferrite
in this area and led to more use of waste materials in concrete pro- (C4AF) [28]. Each of these phases has its rates and hydration mech-
duction [18]. There is also a need for cost reduction in building pro- anisms. A holistic outlook of PC hydration is a complex process that
jects as a large percentage of the people in developing countries involves the interconnectedness of all these phases with each other
cannot afford the conventional construction using PC [19]. Cement [27]. A basic understanding of PC hydration is attainable by under-
constitutes 45% of the total cost of concrete [20,21]; it then standing the hydration of alite. Alite makes up 50–70% mass of PC
becomes paramount to find materials that can substitute cement and its hydration majorly controls the hydration of PC [28]. It con-
in concrete production not only for environmental protection but trols the setting and hardening of the PC mix and it occurs in four
to produce cheaper concrete. This paper aims to identify waste stages [27,29–31];
materials that have been used to partially replace PC in concrete
production in high volumes, identify problems associated with Stage 1: Rapid dissolving of the cement particles upon wetting
their improper disposal and discuss the strength development of Stage 2 (induction period): a thin layer of calcium silicate
concrete with high volume replacement of PC (40% and above) hydrate commonly denoted by C-S-H(m) coats the alite surface
with relation to its hydration mechanism. reducing its access to water and its dissolution rate.
C.O. Nwankwo et al. / Construction and Building Materials 260 (2020) 120445 3
Stage 3 (acceleration period): the cement paste changes state materials like automobile engine parts foundry sand waste [35],
from plastic to solid. This stage is characterised by a quick rate elephant grass ash [36], granite sludge [37], clay brick [38] and vol-
of hydration of alite to calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) and cal- canic ash [39] have been used as SCMs usually at replacement
cium hydroxide or portlandite. levels <20%. Increasing dosages of SCMs in concrete compromises
Stage 4 (post-acceleration period): there is a gradual reduction its compressive strength though this can be improved through
in the rate of hydration owing to the change of the rate- mechanical and chemical means [16].
controlling mechanism from the growth of C-S-H to the diffu- Since the mineral constituents of pozzolans determine their
sion of hydrates through the C-S-H layer, encasing the hydrating reactivity [39], it then becomes imperative to classify them based
alite particles. This deceleration also occurs due to the interfer- on their chemical components. Pozzolans have been classified as
ence and entanglement of growing C-S-H layers with each either class F fly ash or class C fly ash based on their chemical com-
other, the lack of water to continue hydration process and the position according to the American Society for Testing and Materi-
slower reaction rate of larger particles as smaller particles have als (ASTM) C618-15 standard [40]. For class F fly ash, the
been consumed. SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 content should be a minimum of 70% while
that of class C is a minimum of 50%. Class C fly ash also has some
With time, the cement paste will continue to increase in cementitious properties based on their CaO content. Most fly ash
strength and harden at a reduced rate as long as unhydrated concretes are produced with class F fly ash because they are more
cement particles and free water are present [32]. The primary abundant [41]. Table 1 outlines the chemical compositions of some
hydration reaction of alite is represented in the equation below; commonly used SCMs.
Table 1
Chemical compositions of some SCMs.
Due to its availability, fly ash should not be treated as an envi- ment level of fly ash in concrete to 40% [4] but that limits the
ronmental pollutant only but as a valuable resource [4]. Coal ash potential of fly ash as 75% of ashes generated are not currently used
for decades has been used in construction as grout, lightweight [59]. Though high volume replacement of fly ash in concrete is
aggregate, asphalt filler, embankment filler, subgrade and to make associated with slow strength development, it improves concrete
aerated and non-aerated blocks [57]. Fly ash specifically, has been durability, reduces alkali-aggregate reaction, reduces the potential
used as raw material to produce fly ash bricks and fly ash-based for cracking and the use of class F fly ash improves the resistance to
ceramics [52]. It has also been used in agriculture as fertilizer alkali-silica reactivity (ASR) and sulphate attack [46,58].
and pesticide [49] but the largest single economic use of fly ash The sizes of the constituents of concrete can affect its reaction
is in concrete production as a cement substitute [47]. Fly ash is rate as earlier stated. Hemalatha et al. [58] improved the compres-
similar to volcanic ash that has long been used in ancient Roman sive and tensile strength of fly ash concrete with nano calcium car-
construction; the difference is that fly ash is artificially generated bonate (NC). The nanosize of the calcium carbonate affected the
from coal [48]. The durability that can be obtained by using this formation of hydration products; the high surface area of the NC
ash in construction is seen in the 2000-year-old Roman Colosseum particles resulted in a faster reaction rate. It was found that when
built in AD 100 [52] before the invention of PC. There is also an eco- micro or nanosized calcium carbonate is used in fly ash concrete,
nomic case for the use of fly ash in concrete production as a cement extra energy is needed to prepare the samples, but this extra
substitute; when fly ash is used in place of some proportion of energy cannot be compared to the energy saving in replacing
cement there is a reduction in the cost of concrete production cement hence, high volume fly ash cement can be classified as
[58,59]. green cement.
4.1.2. Fly ash as an SCM 4.2. Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS)
The composition of fly ash varies depending on the grade of coal
its generated from but generally, fly ash consists of mainly SiO2, Molten slag is a by-product of the iron production process got-
Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO and other components in smaller proportions ten from the blast furnaces; the product obtained when it is cooled
[51]. Fly ashes derived from lignite and sub-bituminous coals have and ground into very a fine powder is called GGBS [63]. The global
cementitious properties with a CaO content greater than 20% and output of GGBS was estimated at 300 million to 360 million tons in
are classified as class C fly ash by the ASTM C618-15 standard 2018 [2]. Due to the environmental, economic and technical bene-
while fly ashes derived from bituminous and sub-bituminous coals fits GGBS possesses, it is one of the most commonly used SCM in
with lower CaO content are classified as class F fly ash [50]. The sil- the construction industry [24]. GGBS essentially consists of SiO2,
ica and alumina in both classes of fly ash in the presence of lime CaO, MgO and Al2O3 and there are strong correlations between
and water form a cementitious compound (C-S-H), the same pro- the quantities of these constituents and the physical and chemical
duct of cement hydration. Fly ash is the most globally generated properties of GGBS [64]. Also, the specific chemical composition of
and widely used SCM because of its abundance, compatibility with GGBS from different sources depends on the raw materials of the
cement and relatively low cost [14,58]. Its availability also iron production process [25]. Amongst the SCMs considered in
increases with the world’s consumption of energy [4]. The use of Table 1, GGBS has the most hydraulic property owing to its high
fly ash in concrete has taken traction in various countries; in the CaO content; this reinforces its potential as an SCM.
United States, 50% of all ready-mixed concrete has fly ash in it [60]. GGBS mixed with PC and water produces C-S-H, the same
Fly ash behaves like an inert filler in within the first two weeks hydration product as PC but they have different hydration mecha-
of PC hydration. This filler effect enhances the hydration of PC nisms. The hydration of GGBS in the presence of PC depends on the
when the water/cement (w/c) ratio is kept constant; the spherical cement alkali content and the hydroxyl ions that are released dur-
shape of fly ash particles enhances the packing and workability of ing the hydration of PC which breakdown and dissolve the glassy
the PC mix and it has a seeding effect, providing more space for the slag structure [64]. As a result, the pozzolanic reaction of GGBS is
precipitation of hydrates [61]. At later hydration ages of PC, the relatively slow and the early strength of GGBS cement hardened
pozzolanic reaction of fly ash with calcium hydroxide takes place. paste mainly occurs due to the hydration of the PC clinker. The
The C-S-H produced due to the pozzolanic reaction contains key to using high volume GGBS then becomes improving its early
defects due to the reduced Ca content. These defects boost the strength [24]. The early strength of GGBS concrete can be improved
uptake of aluminium to tie the silicate chains forming C-A-S-H by mechanically reducing the size of the GGBS particles; this
[41]. The pozzolanic reaction takes place at later ages because increases the surface area of the particles and creates surface
the reaction is highly dependent on the alkalinity of the pore solu- defects, improving the material reactivity. Adding ultra-fine poz-
tion. The alkalinity of the pore solution becomes sufficiently high zolans like metakaolin can also improve the early strength of GGBS
enough to dissolve the fly ash particles after one or two weeks concrete [65]. In terms of durability, GGBS concrete has good water
[62]. The pozzolanic reaction also slows down due to the precipita- permeability characteristics and improved resistance to corrosion
tion of the products of PC hydration on the fly ash particles. Fur- and sulphate attack [66].
thermore, the reaction rate of fly ash concrete is also dependent The fineness of slag particles determines its reactivity in con-
on the particle sizes of fly ash. The strength development rate of crete, water requirement and early strength development
fly ash concrete increases with the reduction of fly ash particle size [43,64]. Gupta [43] studied the strength development of ultra-
[61]. high performance mortar when 60% of the PC was replaced with
The slow rate of pozzolanic reaction causes a slower strength GGBS of different fineness. The strength activity index of the GGBS
development in fly ash concrete but significant strength gain is mortar at 28 days was 88%, 118% and 98% when slags with Blaine
usually observed from 28 to 90 days [14]. Usually, replacement fineness of 400 m2/kg, 556 m2/kg and 750 m2/kg respectively were
levels greater than 20% affects the hydration mechanism causing used. The increased fineness of the GGBS mortar with fineness of
a slower strength gain; this negatively affects the compressive, 556 m2/kg allowed for faster hydration reaction and the fine parti-
split tensile and flexural strengths [58]. With increasing dosages cles acted as a micro-filler within the mortar. It was also deter-
of fly ash (usually more than 50%) in concrete and mortars, there mined that the slag particles had increased cohesion at higher
is excess silica and alumina to form cementitious compounds in fineness of 750 m2/kg which caused its poor dispersion in the
the mix; this compromises the workability and strength of the matrix resulting in the formation of localized voids. Dai et al.
mix [58]. Most standards for specifying materials limit the replace- [67] carried out a similar study using six different grades of GGBS
C.O. Nwankwo et al. / Construction and Building Materials 260 (2020) 120445 5
with specific surface areas ranging from 310 m2/kg to 1000 m2/kg medium to simulate its behaviour in a PC mix due to its high con-
at 50% PC replacement. The compressive strength of the mortar tent of elements that accelerate ASR (K, Na, Pb and Si) and its low
consistently increased as GGBS particles with higher specific sur- content of glass stabilizers (CaO + MgO).
face areas were used. Wan et al. [68] found that the particle size
distribution and shape of slag particles also influence the hydration 4.4. Ceramic waste powder (CWP)
mechanism of GGBS cement. Four samples of GGBS having similar
a surface area were milled using different grinding techniques and Ceramic waste can be gotten from brick, block and roof tiles
it was found that when more of the GGBS particles are <3 mm in manufactured from red pastes or from sanitary ware, wall and floor
size, the higher its early strength. Extra energy might be needed tiles manufactured as stoneware [21,80]. Large quantities of cera-
in utilizing GGBS as an SCM because of the need for mechanical mic materials are generated from either its manufacture process
activation but this extra energy does not compare to the energy as 15–30% of produced materials end up being discarded [81] or
saving from the reduced cement requirement [24]. from demolition sites [80]. Ceramics are highly durable and they
are resistant to degradation by the action of chemical, biological
4.3. Glass powder (GP) and physical forces [20,81]. CWP is gotten from either the final pol-
ishing process of ceramic tiles [23,82] or gotten from crushed
Glass in whatever form it is produced has a limited life, whether waste tiles [20]. Ceramics contain large amounts of clay minerals
as bottles or jars (container glass), flat glass such as windows, bulbs including kaolinite and alumina [83] and though clays do not
or cathode ray tube glass. Its unique nature enables it to be behave like pozzolans in their raw form, they exhibit pozzolanic
crushed, melted and reused without causing significant changes properties when they are calcined and ground to suitable fineness
to its chemical properties [69]. Container glass is the most explored [84]. Based on the chemical composition of CWP (Table 1), it can be
due to the large amount disposed of and it can be effectively reused classified as a class F pozzolan.
when sorted by colour. They become unsuitable for reuse to make When CWP is used in concrete, lower percentages (10% 20%)
consumer goods when different colours of glass are mixed, there- have been reported to be more effective for cement substitute
after are sent to landfills. Mixed colour glass could be used in con- [23,85]; 10% for early ages and 20% for later ages [86]. Heidari
crete as coarse aggregate (4.75–12 mm), fine aggregate (0.15– and Tavakoli [20] replaced cement with varying percentages up
4.75 mm) or as an SCM when ground to form glass power to 40% of CWP. It was observed that the ceramic powder interfered
(<10 mm) [69]. with the growth of C–S–H gel in the concrete, and this negatively
Glass has a high silica content which coupled with its amor- affected its compressive strength. This strength decrease was more
phous nature gives it a basis to be used in concrete production at early ages but reduced with increasing curing time (i.e. 48.7%,
[70]. The reactivity of GP is largely dependent on its particle size 41.1%, 32.1% and 19.9% at 7, 28, 56 and 91 days respectively). It
[18,71]. When used as aggregate, the reaction between the silica might be suggested by the decrease in compressive strength with
in the glass and alkali in cement (alkali-silica reaction) is detrimen- increasing replacement percentages that the CWP acts as an inert
tal but this ASR tendency is suppressed when fine ground glass is filler instead of a pozzolan. Kannan et al. [82] examined the poz-
used as an SCM [69]. When GP is used as an SCM, pozzolanic reac- zolanic activity of CWP concrete using the Frattini test and the test
tion rather than ASR occurs at the glass-paste interface. Rajabipour result indicated pozzolanic activity at 28 days in concrete with
et al. [72] observed that ASR does not occur at the glass-paste inter- with PC replaced with CWP up to 40%. It was deduced that though
face but in micro-cracks within the glass particles formed during there was sufficient silica to convert the CH to C–S–H, the reduced
the glass grinding process. They found that since the sizes of these compressive strength was as a result of the reducing binding
cracks are directly related to the sizes of the glass particles, the ASR cement content. El-Dieb et al. [23] observed that at 40% replace-
is minimal when smaller glass particles are used because the alkali ment of cement with CWP, there is a diluting of PC because of
pore solution cannot penetrate the smaller cracks within them. the CWP. Since a significant amount of the hydraulic binder is
The strength development of GP concrete has been found to being replaced with a non-hydraulic one, there is insufficient CH
depend on the water/binder ratio [73], the size of glass particles to react with the large quantity of silica present in the mix. The
[74,75] and the type of glass used [76,77]. Optimum replacement micro filling capacity of the CWP is an advantage in the concrete
level in terms of compressive strength ranges from 5% 20% mix but is not enough to compensate for the reduced cement con-
depending on the factors above [71,78,79]. Du and Tan [18] tent. It was also concluded that concrete with CWP has slower
observed a continuous decline in the CH content of cement pastes strength development; strength targets were not reached for
with GP. This decline was more pronounce with increasing doses of 20%, 30% and 40% replacement levels at 28 days but were reached
GP whereas, the cement paste without any GP showed a fairly con- at 90 days.
stant CH content throughout the curing duration. The drop in the
CH content was due to the dilution of the PC and its consumption 4.5. Palm oil fuel ash (POFA)
by the pozzolanic reaction. It was also concluded that beyond a
30% replacement level, GP acts like an inert filler. Waste generated from palm oil production includes a liquid
The reactivity of GP is also dependent on its mineral con- effluent known as palm oil mill effluent (POME), solid wastes
stituents. Cathode ray tube glass from television screens and mon- (comprising of empty fruit bunches, potash, palm kernel, fibre
itors, crystal displays, fluorescent and bulb glass are some and shell) and gaseous emissions [87]. As the production of palm
unpopular sources of glass powder to be used in concrete produc- oil rises yearly, the need to properly manage the residues from
tion. There is an increased interest in their use because they con- its production becomes more pressing [5]. POFA is gotten from
tain heavy metals and if disposed in landfill will contaminate the the combustion of palm fibre and palm kernel shell in palm oil mill
environment through the action of leaching [70]. Bignozzi et al. boilers. When POFA is used as an SCM just after burning it is ter-
[70] investigated the use of various glass types (crystal glass, fun- med unground POFA or crude POFA and when it is grounded it is
nel glass and fluorescent lamps) containing heavy metals com- called ground POFA (G-POFA). Grinding POFA reduces the particle
pared to the conventional soda lime glass as an SCM. It was size and increases the surface area, thus increasing the rate of
concluded that the chemical composition of the glass used affects the pozzolanic reaction [9]. The pozzolanic properties of POFA
the pozzolanic reaction and/or the ASR. Crystal glass exhibited can be improved by heat treatment. Loss on ignition (LOI) is the
the highest expansivity indicating ASR when cured in an alkali measure of unburnt carbon in fly ash [46] and this is quite high
6 C.O. Nwankwo et al. / Construction and Building Materials 260 (2020) 120445
the highest percentage of fly ash had the lowest environmental through weathering and erosion [42]. Buildings have a propensity
impact. The break-even distance (BKD) is the maximum distance to become obsolete therefore, adequate knowledge of the degrada-
in which the LCA results for concrete containing fly ash equals tion of the material and its components then becomes imperative
the LCA result of the general use concrete containing no fly ash. to also design buildings for deconstruction [22]. Since extensive
Though concrete with 50% fly ash as shown in Table 3 had the research has been carried out in search of an alternative binder
highest BKD in the three categories, concrete with 25% fly ash for concrete, there is also a need to learn about the degradation
had higher BKDs than concrete with 35% fly ash. It was concluded of any substitute material to really achieve a sustainable solution.
that though the percentage of cement replacement is vital in deter-
mining if the SCM is environmentally sustainable, it should not be
7. Discussion
the only governing factor.
When SCMs such as fly ash is reused, the toxic elements it con-
The ASTM C311 [98] standard defined the strength activity
tains may ultimately be released back into the environment
index (SAI) with PC as the ratio of the compressive strength of
the samples containing an SCM to the control sample without
Table 3
BKD of 25%, 35% and 50% fly ash concrete for specified impact categories [96]
the SCM [5]. Table 4 gives the SAI of concretes and mortars con-
taining high levels of SCMs as reported in various literature.
25% fly ash 35% fly ash 50% fly ash
The general trend observed is that the SAI reduces with increas-
Ecotoxicity (km) 1006 833 1394 ing percentage replacement of cement with the different SCMs. The
Human toxicity (km) 1680 1406 2308 silica and alumina in the SCMs react with CH in cement through a
Resources and fossils (km) 5780 4654 7500
pozzolanic reaction. With increasing replacement levels of SCMs,
Table 4
Activity index of various SCMs.
SCM PR (%) Mix ratio W/B ratio S + A + F (%) CaO(%) SAI, 7 days (%) SAI, 28days (%) SAI, 90 days (%) Additives Source
FA 40 1:0.78:2.33 0.30 94.30 1.07 83 69 74a SP [99]
40 1:1.69:3.09 0.41 91.40 1.61 106 90 87 – [100]
40 1:1.69:3.09 0.41 91.40 1.61 153 138 137 1% NC [100]
40 1:3 0.47 3.61 64 64 65 – [58]
40 1:3 0.47 3.61 71 103 113 1% NC [58]
45 1:1.45:2.47 0.33 84.65 6.75 79 57 91 SP [14]
45 1:1.01:1.46 0.24 90.30 <3 71 92 97 SP [101]
45 1:0.90:1.37 0.19 90.30 <3 68 81 95 SP [101]
45 1:1.19:2.72 0.36 87.90 3.80 55 58 70b SP [102]
50 1:1.70:2.75 0.40 81.88 9.60 51 71 78 – [96]
50 1:0.78:2.33 0.30 94.30 1.07 79 62 60a SP [99]
50 1:2:11:3.17 0.55 86.83 3.45 45 77 85 SP [103]
50 1:2.40:3.85 0.50 93.59 1.28 27 47 89 SP [104]
50 1:2.11:2.96 0.48 50.71 37.68 36 48 64d SP [105]
55 1:1.19:2.72 0.36 87.90 3.80 50 52 61b SP [102]
60 1:1.22:1.15 0.30 84.80 2.63 54 64 74b SP [106]
60 1:0.78:2.33 0.30 94.30 1.07 78 50 57a SP [99]
60 1:1.69:3.09 0.41 91.40 1.61 82 69 63 – [100]
60 1:1.69:3.09 0.41 91.40 1.61 82 79 68 1% NC [100]
60 1:3 0.49 3.61 36 34 41 – [58]
60 1:3 0.49 3.61 34 67 75 1% NC [58]
60 1:2.11:2.96 0.48 50.71 37.68 24 32 57 d SP [105]
60 1:2.25:1.98 0.40 57.10 27.30 52 51 62a SP [107]
65 1:1.19:2.72 0.36 87.90 3.80 42 39 50b SP [102]
70 1:1.26:1.18 0.30 84.80 2.63 34 42 58b SP [106]
70 1:2:11:3.17 0.55 86.83 3.45 23 51 65 SP [103]
70 1:2.11:2.96 0.48 50.71 37.68 12 22 50 d SP [105]
80 1:2.25:1.98 0.40 57.10 27.30 33 59 71a SP [107]
90 1:2:11:3.17 0.55 86.83 3.45 4 10 23 SP [103]
90 1:2.25:1.98 0.40 57.10 27.30 6 16 40c SP [107]
GGBS 40 1:2.00:4.00 0.50 46.00 43.00 79 104 115 – [65]
40 1:1.09:2.81 0.35 40.00 ~52 87 104 116a SP [108]
40 1:2.36:3.40 0.30 51.89 32.61 93 107 105 P [109]
40 1:2.26:3.25 0.40 51.89 32.61 77 94 105 P [109]
40 1:2.14:3.08 0.50 51.89 32.61 69 91 100 – [109]
40 1:1.50:2.50 0.28 50.37 39.72 99 101 104 SP [110]
50 1:2:11:3.17 0.55 47.12 42.83 92 106 112 SP [103]
50 1:1.09:2.81 0.35 40.00 ~52 80 99 104a SP [108]
50 1:2.40:3.85 0.50 55.31 31.46 64 92 127 – [104]
50 1:2.40:2.13 0.40 49.91 34.56 87 105 SP [111]
50 1:2.11:2.96 0.48 50.71 37.68 52 80 92 d SP [105]
60 1:2.25:1.98 0.40 43.80 46.70 76 78 93c SP [107]
60 1:2.00:4.00 0.50 46.00 43.00 76 100 118 – [65]
60 1:2.40:2.13 0.40 49.91 34.56 77 102 SP [111]
60 1:2.11:2.96 0.48 50.71 37.68 47 74 83 d SP [105]
60 1:2.36:3.40 0.30 51.89 32.61 83 97 97 P [109]
60 1:2.26:3.25 0.40 51.89 32.61 73 87 102 P [109]
60 1:2.14:3.08 0.50 51.89 32.61 54 73 88 – [109]
Table 4 (continued)
SCM PR (%) Mix ratio W/B ratio S + A + F (%) CaO(%) SAI, 7 days (%) SAI, 28days (%) SAI, 90 days (%) Additives Source
60 1:1.50:2.50 0.28 50.37 39.72 77 100 102 SP [110]
70 1:2:11:3.17 0.55 47.12 42.83 78 103 105 SP [103]
70 1:2.40:2.13 0.40 49.91 34.56 66 92 SP [111]
70 1:2.11:2.96 0.48 50.71 37.68 40 61 68 d SP [105]
80 1:2.25:1.98 0.40 43.80 46.70 73 86 104c SP [107]
80 1:2.00:4.00 0.50 46.00 43.00 60 66 64 – [65]
80 1:2.40:2.13 0.40 49.91 34.56 61 81 SP [111]
80 1:2.36:3.40 0.30 51.89 32.61 66 83 84 P [109]
80 1:2.26:3.25 0.40 51.89 32.61 58 71 81 P [109]
80 1:2.14:3.08 0.50 51.89 32.61 41 49 58 – [109]
90 1:2:11:3.17 0.55 47.12 42.83 72 92 97 SP [103]
90 1:2.25:1.98 0.40 43.80 46.70 45 56 73c SP [107]
CWP 40 1:1.33:2.00 0.43 88.43 1.24 83 85 [82]
40 1:1.24:1.90 0.34 86.40 1.70 85 81 88 SP [23]
40 1:1.39:2.00 0.43 86.40 1.70 81 83 86 – [23]
40 1:2.03:3.53 0.61 86.40 1.70 85 100 101 – [23]
40 1:2.63:3.25 0.50 92.19 1.57 51 59 80 SP [20]
40 1:1.68:1.88 0.33 82.82 8.18 60 69 – P [112]
40 1:1.74:1.74 0.35 86.40 1.70 76 99 107 SP [113]
40 1:2.65 0.48 95.40 1.13 96 107 109 – [114]
40 1:1.13:2.40 0.40 52 78 78 a SP [115]
40 1:1.50:3.00 0.50 85.90 4.46 67 – [116]
40 1:1.80:3.84 0.52 85.90 4.46 70 65 – [117]
40 1:1.80:3.38 0.48 85.90 4.46 71 75 – [117]
40 1:2.75 0.50 79.90 11.06 58 60 60 – [118]
45 1:1.50:3.00 0.50 85.90 4.46 65 – [116]
50 1:1.50:3.00 0.50 85.90 4.46 61 – [116]
a
50 1:1.13:2.40 0.40 52 61 62 SP [115]
50 1:1.80:3.84 0.52 85.90 4.46 63 60 – [117]
50 1:1.80:3.38 0.48 85.90 4.46 63 71 – [117]
60 1:1.68:1.88 0.33 82.82 8.18 34 36 – P [112]
60 1:1.74:1.74 0.35 86.40 1.70 63 88 94 SP [113]
60 1:2.65 0.48 95.40 1.13 70 75 81 – [114]
GP 40 1:3.00 0.50 >76.36 11.36 43 62 56 – [76]
40 1:3.00 0.50 >74.79 12.35 45 57 71 – [76]
40 1:3.00 0.50 >76.64 11.53 43 54 58 – [76]
40 1:1.49:2:99 0.38 74.49 10.45 49 – [119]
40 1:1.49:2:99 0.38 74.49 10.45 46 – [119]
40 1:3.00 0.50 71.30 12.30 64 77 89 – [75]
40 1:1.00:2.00 0.50 79 80 [120]
40 1:1.58:2.23 0.44 79 81 [120]
40 1:2.35:4.47 0.50 73.10 9.70 61 70 70 SP [121]
45 1:2.47:2.17 0.49 74.49 10.45 89 96 96b – [18]
45 1:2.43:2.17 0.49 74.49 10.45 83 111 119b WR [122]
45 1:2.43:2.17 0.49 74.49 10.45 65 96 112e SP [123]
45 1:1.00:2.00 0.50 77 76 [120]
45 1:1.58:2.23 0.44 78 77 [120]
50 1:1.05 0.40 71.48 10.00 35 40 45 P [74]
50 1:1.05 0.35 71.48 10.00 45 51 57 P [74]
50 1:3.00 0.50 74.89 11.50 50 66 [77]
50 1:3.00 0.50 74.08 11.26 61 71 [77]
50 1:3.00 0.50 74.15 11.57 58 72 [77]
50 1:1.00:2.00 0.50 70 74 [120]
50 1:1.58:2.23 0.44 71 75 [120]
55 1:1.00:2.00 0.50 67 68 [120]
55 1:1.58:2.23 0.44 70 71 [120]
60 1:2.46:2.17 0.49 74.49 10.45 76 81 85b – [18]
60 1:2.40:2.17 0.49 74.49 10.45 65 96 103b WR [122]
60 1:2.40:2.17 0.49 74.49 10.45 82 111 119e SP [123]
60 1:1.00:2.00 0.50 65 65 [120]
60 1:1.58:2.23 0.44 69 68 [120]
POFA 40 1:3 0.50 72.83 5.84 82 90 95a – [5]
40 1:1.35:1.88 0.27 59.21 6.93 91 105 101 SP [124]
40 1:1.35:1.88 0.27 75.14 8.19 98 111 109 SP [124]
40 1:2.75 0.50 69.84 6.42 75 83 88 – [125]
40 1:2.75 0.58 69.84 6.42 75 80 83 – [125]
40 1:2.75 0.65 69.84 6.42 69 73 78 – [125]
40 1:3.00:3.55 0.74 65.70 6.60 79 84 – [126]
40 1:1.35:1.88 0.27 75.14 8.19 98 114 109 SP [89]
50 1:1.95:2.69 0.45 75.37 5.70 71 87 89 SP [127]
50 1:1.93:1.58 0.35 73.69 5.21 85 99 107 SP [128]
50 1:1.70:0.65 0.30 77.52 5.61 55 67 92 SP [129]
50 1:1.93:1.58 0.35 77.25 5.01 90 103 109 SP [130]
55 1:3.08:3.65 0.78 65.70 6.60 69 79 – [126]
60 1:1.35:1.88 0.27 75.14 8.19 91 107 108 SP [124]
C.O. Nwankwo et al. / Construction and Building Materials 260 (2020) 120445 9
Table 4 (continued)
SCM PR (%) Mix ratio W/B ratio S + A + F (%) CaO(%) SAI, 7 days (%) SAI, 28days (%) SAI, 90 days (%) Additives Source
60 1:1.48:1.48 0.53 75.37 5.70 65 79 90 SP [131]
60 1:1.48:1.48 0.47 75.37 5.70 67 75 78 SP [131]
60 1:1.48:1.48 0.42 75.37 5.70 68 73 73 SP [131]
60 1:1.35:1.88 0.27 75.14 8.19 91 107 108 SP [89]
60 1:1.93:1.58 0.35 77.25 5.01 87 101 106 SP [130]
70 1:3 0.50 72.83 5.84 29 44 62a – [5]
70 1:1.93:1.58 0.35 73.69 5.21 66 90 97 SP [128]
70 1:1.70:0.65 0.30 77.52 5.61 34 62 76 SP [129]
70 1:1.93:1.58 0.35 77.25 5.01 82 98 103 SP [130]
80 1:3 0.50 72.83 5.84 21 32 36a – [5]
80 1:3.00 0.40 56.50 8.30 75 84 – [88]
80 1:3.00 0.40 79.70 9.15 97 105 – [88]
90 1:3 0.50 72.83 5.84 15 12 15a – [5]
Mix ratio – binder: fine aggregate: coarse aggregate or binder: fine aggregate
S + A + F – SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3 SP – Superplasticizer P – Plasticizer W/B – Water/binder
PR – Percentage replacement WR – Water reducer NC – Nano calcium carbonate
a
SAI 56 days bSAI 91 days cSAI 112 days dSAI 120 days eSAI 365 days
there is unreacted silica and alumina due to the inadequate CH for a number of ancient cements that contained alkaline metal
content because of the reduced cement content. Water/binder phases as well as calcium silicate hydrate phases [7]. Pozzolans
(w/b) ratio and particle size significantly affect the performance are typically rich in silica and alumina and they serve as the alumi-
of the mix. Additives like superplasticizers can ensure minimal nosilicate precursor material in alkali cement. Palomo et al. [7]
w/b ratios for concretes with high volumes of pozzolans. Nanoma- believe that alkalis have a crucial part to play in producing more
terials like nano calcium carbonate can be introduced to react with sustainable cement. The authors went on to group alkali cement
the unreacted silica and alumina to strengthen the mix. The curing into moderately calcium-rich cement, low-calcium cement and
method used also affects the strength development of concrete hybrid cement. The first category is formed when materials with
[74]. Most of the researchers cited in Table 4 used standard water high calcium content such as GGBS is used as the precursor mate-
curing, and this is largely unattainable in practice. For higher per- rial. The second category is characterized by low calcium content
centages of SCMs to be used in concrete production, allowances from precursors like fly ash. The product of this category is a
have to be made for the curing technique used. three-dimensional inorganic alkaline polymer with the nomencla-
It can also be observed that GGBS has high SAI at 60% replace- ture, ‘‘geopolymer” [137]. The geopolymerization mechanism con-
ment level owing to its hydraulic property in contrast to other sists of the following stages [138];
SCMs which only have cementitious properties when mixed with
PC. POFA also shows considerably high SAI at 60%, but it should Dissolution of the source material by alkaline hydrolysis to
be noted that it is TPOFA and UPOFA that have these high release silicate and aluminate.
strengths. The strength of CWP and GP concrete is largely compro- Speciation equilibrium occurs due to the mixture of liberated
mised with replacement levels of more than 40%. For greater waste silicate and aluminate species in the aqueous phase.
utilization and energy reduction, CWP is better utilized when used The aqueous solution then becomes saturated by this mixture
to replace either fine or coarse aggregates in concrete. The com- and forms a gel in a process called gelation.
pressive strengths of concrete with higher percentages of CWP Continuous reorganization of the system occurs after gelation
up to 100% have been reported to have yielded SAI greater than resulting in a three-dimensional aluminosilicate network.
100% but at a cost of the concrete workability because of the angu-
The third category of alkali cement is formed when the precur-
lar shape of the ceramic particles [80,132]. GP can also be used as
sor material is a blend of pozzolans and PC or low calcium poz-
filler material in ultra-high performance concrete, replacing the
zolans blended with high calcium pozzolans.
more expensive binders like cement and silica fume [133].
One of the advantages of the use of alkali cement is the variety
The major drawback of replacing high volumes of PC with poz-
of the precursor materials available today. In addition to GGBS and
zolans is its slow strength development. Low early strength can sig-
fly ash, other pozzolans such as GP [139,140], CWP [141], RHA
nificantly affect the economy of construction and can be detrimental
[142–144] and POFA [145,146] amongst others have been used
in specific construction that requires high early strength [43]. An
as precursor materials.
advantage of using concretes with high volumes of SCMs is that it
can be used in mass concrete to help prevent temperature cracking
[18]. This is because of their reduced heat of hydration due to the 9. Conclusion
slower rate of pozzolanic reaction [18,134,135]. Many concrete
structures today cannot rely on traditional pozzolanic cements that High volume replacement of PC with CWP, fly ash, GGBS, GP and
are PC activated due to their slow strength development [34]. The POFA have been reviewed in this study. Based on this review the
strength of PC activated pozzolanic cement is at the mercy of the following conclusions were drawn:
PC content in the mix. The reduction in PC content results in a slower
pozzolanic reaction and the reduced strength of the mix. Pozzolanic Waste materials with high CaO or S + A + F content can partially
cements can alternatively be alkali-activated. substitute PC in concrete production and help reduce the
amount of waste that ends up in landfills.
Increasing dosages of SCMs in concrete compromises the com-
8. Alkali cement
pressive strength of concrete, but this can be improved by
mechanical means by grinding the materials to micro and nano
Alkali cements are formed when materials rich in alumina and
sizes; by minimizing the water/binding ratio; or by incorporat-
silica (precursor materials) are combined with alkali hydroxide
ing chemical activators.
and/or silicate solution (activator) [136]. This concept is the basis
10 C.O. Nwankwo et al. / Construction and Building Materials 260 (2020) 120445
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