MATHEMATICS IN THE MODERN WORLD

Lesson
3.2 Intuition, Proof and Certainty

Specific Objective
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:

1. Define and differentiate intuition, proof and certainty.

2. Make use of intuition to solve problem.
3. Name and prove some mathematical statement
with the use of different kinds of proving.
Introduction
Sometimes, we tried to solve problem or problems in mathematics even without
using any mathematical computation and we just simply observed, example a
pattern to be able on how to deal with the problem and with this, we can come up
with our decision with the use of our intuition. On the other hand, we use another
method to solve problems in mathematics to come up with a correct conclusion or
conjecture with the help of different types of proving where proofs is an example
of certainty.

Discussion

A. Intuition

There are a lot of definition of an intuition and one of these is that it is an immediate
understanding or knowing something without reasoning. It does not require a big
picture or full understanding of the problem, as it uses a lot of small pieces of abstract
information that you have in your memory to create a reasoning leading to your
decision just from the limited information you have about the problem in hand.
Intuition comes from noticing, thinking and questioning.

As a student, you can build and improve your intuition by doing the following:

a. Be observant and see things visually towards with your critical thinking.
b. Make your own manipulation on the things that you have noticed and observed.
c. Do the right thinking and make a connections with it before doing the solution.

Illustration

1. Based on the given picture below, which among of the two yellow
lines is longer? Is it the upper one or the lower one?

What are you going to do to be able to answer the question? Your own
intuition could help you to answer the question correctly and come up with a
correct conclusion. For sure, the first thing that you are going to do is to make a
keen observation in the figure and you will be asking yourself (starting to process
your critical thinking) which of these two yellow lines is longer compare to other
line or is it really the yellow line above is more longer than the yellow line below?
But what would be the correct explanation?

The figure above is called Ponzo illusion (1911). There are two identical
yellow lines drawn horizontally in a railway track. If you will be observing these
two yellow lines, your mind tells you that upper yellow line looks longer that the
below yellow line. But in reality, the two lines has equal length. For sure, you will
be using a ruler to be able to determine which of the two is longer than the other
one. The exact reasoning could goes like this. The upper yellow line looks longer
because of the converging sides of a railway. The farther the line, it seems look
line longer that the other yellow line below. Now, have you tried to use a ruler?
What have you noticed?

B. Proof and Certainty

Another equally important lesson that the student should be learned is on how to
deal with mathematical proof and certainty. By definition, a proof is an inferential
argument for a mathematical statement while proofs are an example of
mathematical logical certainty.
A mathematical proof is a list of statements in which every statement is one of the
following:
(1) an axiom
(2) derived from previous statements by a rule of inference
(3) a previously derived theorem
There is a hierarchy of terminology that gives opinions about the importance of
derived truths:
(1) A proposition is a theorem of lesser generality or of lesser importance.
(2) A lemma is a theorem whose importance is mainly as a key step in
something deemed to be of greater significance.
(3) A corollary is a consequence of a theorem, usually one whose proof is much
easier than that of the theorem itself.
METHODS OF PROOF
In methods of proof, basically we need or we have to prove an existing
mathematical theorem to be able to determine if this theorem is true or false.
In addition, there is no need to prove any mathematical definition simply
because we assumed that this is already true or this is basically true.
 Usually, a theorem is in the form of if-then statement. So, in a certain
theorem, it consists of hypothesis and conclusion.
Let us say P and Q are two propositions. In an if-then statement, proposition
P would be the hypothesis while the proposition Q would be our conclusion
denoted by:
P→Q

Example:
2 2
If a triangle is a right triangle with sides a, b, and c as hypotenuse, then a + b =
2
c .
There are two ways on how to present a proof. One is with the use of an outline
form and the other one is in a paragraph form. Either of the two presentations
could be used by the student.

TWO WAYS ON HOW TO PRESENT THE PROOF

a. Outline Form
Proposition: If P then Q.
1. Suppose/Assume P
2. Statement
3. Statement
.
.
. Statement
Therefore Q .
b. Paragraph Form
Proposition: If P then Q.
Assume/Suppose P. ____________. ___________. _____________________.
____________ . . . _____________. _______________. _________________.
Therefore Q.

Let us have a very simple and basic example on how to prove a certain
mathematical statement.
Illustration 1: Prove (in outline form) that “If x is a number with 5x + 3 = 33,
then x = 6”
Proof:
1. Assume that x is a number with 5x + 3 = 33.
2. Adding -3 both sides of an equation will not affect the equality of the two
members on an equation, thus 5x + 3 – 3 = 33 – 3
3. Simplifying both sides, we got 5x = 30.
4. Now, dividing both member of the equation by 5 will not be affected the
equality so
5. Working the equation algebraically, it shows that x = 6.
Therefore, if 5x + 3 = 33, then x = 6. ■
Let us have a very simple and basic example on how to prove a certain
mathematical statement in paragraph form.
Illustration 2: Prove (in paragraph form) that “If x is a number with 5x + 3 =
33, then x = 6”
Proof:
If 5x + 3 = 33, then 5x + 3 − 3 = 33 − 3 since subtracting the same number from
two equal quantities gives equal results. 5x + 3 − 3 = 5x because adding 3 to 5x
and then subtracting 3 just leaves 5x, and also, 33 − 3 = 30. Hence 5x = 30. That is,
x is a number which when multiplied by 5 equals 30. The only number with this
property is 6.
Therefore, if 5x + 3 = 33 then x = 6. ■
Note: It is up to the student which of the two forms would be their preferred
presentation.
KINDS OF PROOF
1. DIRECT PROOF
DEFINITION. A direct proof is a mathematical argument that uses rules of
inference to derive the conclusion from the premises.
In a direct proof, let us say we need to prove a given theorem in a form of P → Q.
The steps in taking a direct proof would be:
 1. Assume P is true.
2. Conclusion is true.
2
Example 1: Prove that if x is an even integer, then x – 6x + 5 is odd.
Proof: (by outline form)
1. Assume that x is an even integer.
2. By definition of an even integer, x = 2a for some a Z.
3. So,
2
x – 6x + 5
2
= (2a) – 6(2a) + 5
2
= 4a – 12a + 4 + 1
2
= 2(2a – 6a+ 2) + 1
2
where 2a – 6a + 2 k.
4. Therefore,
2
2(2a – 6a + 2) + 1
= 2k + 1,
2
so x – 6x + 5 is odd. ■
Example 2: With the use of direct proving, prove the following in both form
(outline and paragraph).
Prove: (in an outline form)
If a and b are both odd integers, then the sum of a and b is an even
integer.
Proof:
1. Assume that a and b are both odd integers.
2. There exists an integer k1 and k2 such that a = 2k1 + 1 and
b = 2k2 + 1 (by definition of an odd number).

3. Now,
a+b
 = (2k1 + 1) + (2k2 + 1)
= 2k1 + 2k2 + 2.
Factoring 2, it follows that
a + b = 2(k1 + k2 + 1).
4. So;
a+b
= 2(k1 + k2 + 1).
Let k1 + k2 + 1 = k
Z, hence a + b = 2k.
5. Therefore, if a and b are both odd integer, then a + b is even. Prove:
(in paragraph form)
Assume that a and b are both odd integers. By definition of an odd number,
there exists an integer k1 and k2 such that a = 2k1 + 1 and b = 2k2 + 1. Now, adding a
and b, that is,
a+b
= (2k1 + 1) + (2k2 + 1)
= 2k1 + 2k2 + 2.
Factoring 2, it follows that
a + b = 2(k1 + k2 + 1).
So; a + b = 2(k1 + k2 + 1) and let k1 + k2 + 1 = k  Z,
hence a + b = 2k.
Therefore, if a and b are both odd integers, their sum is always and even integer. ■

Example 3: With the use of direct proving, prove the following in paragraph
form.
Prove:
If x and y are two odd integers, then the product of x and y is also an odd
integer.
Proof:
Assume that x and y are two different odd integers. There exists k 1 and k2 Z such that
x = 2k1 + 1 and y = 2k2 + 1 by definition of an odd number.
Now, taking the product of x and y, we got
xy = (2k1 + 1)(2k2 + 1)
= 4k1k2 + 2k1 + 2k2 + 1
= 2(2k1k2 + k1 + k2) + 1.
Let 2k1k2 + k1 + k2 = k  Z.
Hence (2k1+1)(2k2+1) = 2k + 1.
Therefore, xy = 2k + 1 where the product of two odd integers is also an odd
integer. ■
Example 4. Prove the proposition (in outline form) that is “ If x is an positive
2
integer, then x is also an odd integer”.
Prove: (In outline form)
1. Suppose x is odd.
2. Then by definition of an odd integer, x = 2a + 1 for some a  Z.
2 2 2 2
3. Thus x = (2a + 1) = 4a + 4a +1 = 2(2a + a) + 1.
2 2
4. So x = 2b+1 where b is the integer b = 2a + 2a.
2
5. Thus x = 2b + 1 for an integer b.
2
6. Therefore x is odd, by definition of an odd number. ■
Example 5. Prove: Let a,b and c be integers. If a| b and b | c, then a | c. Proof
(in outline form)
1. Suppose a, b and c are integers and a | b and b | c.
2. We all know that if a | b, there is a certain integer say d which is b = ad.
3. Similarly, when b | c, there is an integer say e which is c = be.
4. Now, since b = ad, substitute the value of b in c = be, it follows that c =
(ad)e = a(de).
5. So, c = a(de) = ax for x = de Z.

6. Therefore a | c.

2. INDIRECT PROOF (CONTRAPOSITIVE PROOF)

DEFINITION:

Indirect proof or contrapositive proof is a type of proof in which a statement

to be proved is assumed false and if the assumption leads to an impossibility, then
the statement assumed false has been proved to be true.
 Recall that the proposition p →q is a conditional statement. This proposition
is logically equivalent to q → p. Now, the expression q → p is the contrapositive
form of the statement p →q.

In an indirect proof, let us say we need to prove a given theorem in a form of

P → Q. The steps or outline in taking an indirect proof would be:

Assume/Suppose Q is true.
.
.
.

Therefore P is true.

Example 1. Using indirect/contrapositive proof, prove that “If x is divisible by 6,

then x is divisible by 3”.

Here in example 1, we let that p : x is divisible by 6 and q : x is divisible

by 3. So, this original statement to become a contrapositive could be transformed
into “If x is not divisible by 3, then x is not divisible by 6”.

Note that, we let p: x is divisible by 6 and q: x is divisible by 3. With the

use of indirect proof, we assume that q is true and the conclusion p is also true.

So, the formal proof would be;

Proof:
1. Assume x is not divisible by 3.
2. Then x  3k for all k  Z
3. It follows that x  (2m)(3) for all m  Z
4. So, x  6m for all m  Z
5. Therefore, x is not divisible by 6. ■

Example 2: Prove using indirect proof or contraposition.

2
Let x be an integer. Prove that, if x is even, then x is even.
 2
Note that, we let p: x is even and q: x is even. With the use of indirect proof, we
assume that q is true and the conclusion p is also true.

2
So, the original statement would become “If x is odd, then x is odd”.

Now, the formal proof would be;

Proof:
1. Assume x is odd.
2. Then x = 2k + 1 for some k  Z
3. It follows that
2 2
x =(2k + 1)
2
= 4k + 4k + 1
2
= 2(2k + 2k) + 1
2
where q = 2k + 2k
2
4. So, x = 2q + 1
2
5. Therefore, x is odd. ■

3. Proof by Counter Example (Disproving Universal Statements)

A conjecture may be described as a statement that we hope is a theorem. As

we know, many theorems (hence many conjectures) are universally quantified
statements. Thus it seems reasonable to begin our discussion by investigating how
to disprove a universally quantified statement such as

∀x ∈ S,P(x).

To disprove this statement, we must prove its negation. Its negation is

∼ (∀x ∈ S,P(x)) = ∃ x ∈ S,∼ P(x).

 Things are even simpler if we want to disprove a conditional statement
P(x) ⇒ Q(x). This statement asserts that for every x that makes P(x) true, Q(x) will
also be true. The statement can only be false if there is an x that makes P(x) true
and Q(x) false. This leads to our next outline for disproof.

The question is “How to disprove P(x) ⇒ Q(x)”? The answer is simple.

Produce an example of an x that makes P(x) true and Q(x) false.

In both of the above outlines, the statement is disproved simply by

exhibiting an example that shows the statement is not always true. (Think of it as
an example that proves the statement is a promise that can be broken.) There is a
special name for an example that disproves a statement: It is called a
counterexample.

Example 1. Prove or disprove: All prime numbers are odd.

*Negation : Some prime numbers are even.

By counterexample: Let n = 2. By definition of a prime, 2 = (2)·(1). But 2 is

even where the only factor of 2 is 2 and 1 so we could say that 2 is a prime
number.

Since we have found an even prime number so the original statement is not true. ■

Example 2. Prove or disprove: For all integers x and y, if x + y is even, then

both x and y are even.
*Negation : For some integers x and y,if x + y is odd, then x and y is
odd.

Proof:  (x)  (y): x + y = 2k1 + 2k2, for k  Z

 x  y: x + y = 2k1+ 1 + 2k2 + 1
= 2k1+ 2k2 + 2
= 2(k1 + k2 + 1)

By giving a counterexample, if x = 1 and y = 1, then x + y = 2.

But x and y are both odd, therefore the theorem is false. ■
 Example 3. Prove that “For every nZ, the integer f(n) = n2 – n + 1 is
prime.

Note that the negation of this would be “For some n Z, the integer
f(n) = n2 – n + 1 is composite.

We all know that a prime number is a number whose factors are 1 and the
number itself, thus if p is prime number then p = (p)(1) where p  Z

To be able to resolve the truth or falsity of the above statement, let us

construct a table for f(n) for some integers n. If we could find at least one number
for f(n) which is not prime (composite), then we could conclude that the statement
is false.

n 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
f(n) 11 11 13 17 23 31 41 53 67 83 101 ?

In every case, f (n) is prime, so you may begin to suspect that the conjecture
is true. Before attempting a proof, let’s try one more n. Unfortunately,
f (11) = 112−11+11 = 112 is not prime. The conjecture is false because n = 11 is a
counterexample.

We summarize our disproof as follows:

Disproof. The statement “For every n ∈ Z, the integer f (n) = n 2 − n + 11 is

prime,” is false. For a counterexample, note that for n = 11, the integer
f (11) = 121 = 11·11 is not prime.

4. Proof by Contradiction
 Another method of proving is what we called “Proving by
Contradiction”. This method works by assuming your implication is not true,
then deriving a contradiction.
Recall that if p is false then p → q is always true, thus the only way
our implication can be false is if p is true and q is false.
So, if we let p → q be a theorem, a proof by contradiction is given by this
way;
1.Assume p is true.
2.Suppose that q is also true.
3.Try to arrive at a contradiction.
4.Therefore q is true
So, in practice then, we assume our premise is true but our conclusion is
false and use these assumptions to derive a contradiction.
This contradiction may be a violation of a law or a previously established
result. Having derived the contradiction you can then conclude that your
assumption (that p → q is false) was false and so the implication is true.
Be careful with this method: make sure that the contradiction arise because
of your original assumptions, not because of a mistake in method. Also, if you end
up proving ~p then you could have used proof by contraposition.
Example 1: Prove by contradiction that “If x + x = x, then x = 0.
Proof:
1. Assume that x + x = x.
2. Suppose that x  0.
3. Now, x + x = x, so 2x = x and since x  0, we could multiply both
sides of the equation by the reciprocal of x, i.e., 1/x.
4. Multiplying by the reciprocal of x, it follows that 2 = 1 which is a
contradiction.
5. Therefore, the original implication is proven to be true.■

Example 2: Prove by contradiction that “If x is even then x + 3 is odd.

Proof:
1. Assume x is even, so x = 2k.
 2. Suppose x + 3 is even. Since x + 3 is even, there exist k Z such
that x + 3 = 2k.
3. It follows that x = 2k -3. We can rewrite this as x = 2k – 4 + 1. Now,
x = 2(k – 2) + 1. Let k – 2 = q. So, x = 2q + 1. It is clearly seen that x is an
odd number. This is a contradiction to the assumption.
4. Therefore, x + 3 is odd.■