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General Chemistry (Chem 1006)

Chapter 4
Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions

4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

4.1.1. Writing Chemical Equations
 Element symbols represent individual atoms and chemical
formulas represent compounds
 The identities and the relative quantities of substances
undergoing a chemical change are represented by writing and
balanced chemical equation that uses element symbols and
chemical formulas.
 The physical states of reactants and products are indicated with a
parenthetical abbreviation (such as: s, l, g, aq) following the
formulas.
Example: The chemical equation for the reaction between methane
and oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water is:
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O
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4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

 Reactants: The substances undergoing reaction

 Their formulas are placed on the left side of the equation.
 Products: The substances generated by the reaction
 Their formulas are placed on the right side of the equation.
 Plus signs (+) separate individual reactant and product formulas
 An arrow (⟶ ) separates the reactants and the products
 Coefficients: The relative numbers of reactants and products
 They are represented by numbers written to the left of each
formula
 A coefficient of 1 is typically omitted
 In a chemical equation, the smallest possible whole-number
coefficients are used
 The coefficients show the ratios of the species.
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4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

E.g.: Methane and oxygen react to yield carbon dioxide and water
in a 1:2:1:2 ratio, respectively.
 One methane molecule and two oxygen molecules react to yield
one carbon dioxide molecule and two water molecules.
 One mole of methane molecules and 2 moles of oxygen
molecules react to yield 1 mole of carbon dioxide molecules and 2
moles of water molecules.
 Necessary conditions for a reaction are sometimes designated by
writing a word or symbol above or below the equation’s arrow.
Example:
The  represents the requirement of heat for the reaction:

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4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

4.1.2. Balancing Chemical Equations

 Balanced equation: A chemical equation that has equal numbers
of atoms for each element on the reactant and product sides.
This is a requirement the equation must satisfy to be consistent
with the law of conservation of matter

 Note that the number of atoms for a given element is calculated

by multiplying the coefficient of any formula containing that
element by the element’s subscript in the formula.
E.g. In the equation, CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O :

The numbers of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen atoms on each side of

the equation are 1, 4 and 4, respectively.
 Therefore the equation is balanced.
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4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

In the reaction between N2 and O2 to produce N2O5, the equation

N2 + O2 N2O5 is unbalanced
2N2 + 5O2 2N2O5 is balanced

 A balanced chemical equation may be derived by an approach

known as “balancing by inspection”

Example: Balance the following reaction.

Fe (s) + O2(g) Fe2O3 (s)
First balance oxygen and then iron.
Answer:
4Fe (s) + 3O2(g) 2Fe2O3 (s)

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4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

4.1.3. Equations for Ionic Reactions

 Consider a reaction between ionic compounds taking place in an
aqueous solution.
Example:
 When aqueous solutions of CaCl2 and AgNO3 are mixed, a
reaction takes place producing aqueous Ca(NO3)2 and solid AgCl.

CaCl2(aq) + 2AgNO3(aq) Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2AgCl(s)

 The equation is called a molecular equation because it doesn’t

explicitly represent the ionic species that are present in solution
 Ionic compounds dissolved in water are more realistically
represented as dissociated ions
 An equation that represents all dissolved ions is called a complete
ionic equation
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4.1. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations

 Molecular and Ionic Equations

Example: Write balanced molecular, complete ionic, and net ionic
equations for the following reaction.
CO2(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na2 CO3(aq) + H2 O(l)
Solution
Balanced molecular equation:
CO2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Na2 CO3(aq) + H2 O(l)

Balanced complete ionic equation

CO2(aq) + 2Na+ + 2OH-(aq) ⟶ 2Na+ + CO32-(aq) + H2 O(l)

Balanced net ionic equation: Remove the spectator ion (Na+)

CO2(aq) + 2OH-(aq) ⟶ CO32-(aq) + H2 O(l)
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

4.2. Classification of Chemical Reactions

4.2.1. Precipitation reactions and solubility rules
Precipitation reaction: A reaction in which dissolved
substances react to form one or more solid products.
 Many reactions of this type involve the exchange of ions
between ionic compounds in aqueous solution
 They are sometimes referred to as double displacement,
double replacement, or metathesis reactions.
They are common
 in industry for production of commodities
 in nature
E.g. They are responsible for the formation of kidney stones

4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Example:
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Net ionic equation:
Pb2+(aq) + 2I−(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s)

Solubility: The maximum concentration of a substance that can be

dissolved in water, or any solvent under specified conditions such as
temperature.
 Substances with relatively large solubilities are said to be soluble.
 A substance will precipitate in the solution if its concentration
exceeds its solubility.
 Substances with relatively low solubilities are said to be insoluble
 These are the substances that readily precipitate from solutions.
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Soluble compounds contain Exceptions

group 1 cations (Li+, Na+, K+, Rb+ Cs+)

ammonium ion (NH4+)

halide ions (Cl−, Br−, and I−) halides of Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
acetate (C2 H3 O2−), bicarbonate sulfates of Ag+, Ba2+, Ca2+,
(HCO3−), nitrate (NO3−), chlorate Hg22+, Pb2+, and Sr2+
(ClO3−) sulfate (SO42−)

Insoluble compounds Exceptions

contain
carbonate (CO32−), compounds of these anions with group 1
chromate (CrO32−), cations and NH4+ ,
phosphate (PO43−),
sulfide (S2−),
hydroxide (OH−) hydroxides of group 1 cations and Ba2+
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Examples of Precipitation Reactions:

2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq) molecular equation

Pb2+(aq) + 2I−(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) Net ionic equation

NaF(aq) + AgNO3(aq) ⟶ AgF(s) + NaNO3(aq) molecular equation

Ag+(aq) + F−(aq) ⟶ AgF(s) net ionic equation
Exercise:
Predict whether a precipitation reaction will occur when aqueous
solutions of the following ionic compounds are mixed together.
a) potassium sulfate and barium nitrate
b) lithium chloride and silver acetate

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Solution:
a)
 BaSO4 is insoluble
 Precipitation reaction is expected
K2SO4 (aq)+ Ba(NO3)2 (aq)  KNO3 (aq)+ BaSO4(s)
Net ionic equation:
Ba2+ + SO42-  BaSO4(s)
b)
 AgCl is insoluble
 Precipitation reaction is expected
LiCl (aq) + AgC2H3O2 (aq)  LiC2H3O2 (aq) + AgCl (s)
Net ionic equation:
Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s)
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

4.2.2. Acid-base reactions

 An acid-base reaction is one in which a hydrogen ion, H+, is
transferred from one chemical species to another.
 Such reactions are important to numerous natural and
technological processes, ranging from the
 chemical transformations that take place within cells to
 industrial-scale production of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, and
other substances.
 Common types of acid-base reactions that take place in aqueous
solutions are considered.
Acid: A substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydronium ions,
H3O+.

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Example
HCl(aq) + H2 O(aq) ⟶ Cl−(aq) + H3 O+(aq)

 The process represented by the equation confirms that hydrogen

chloride is an acid.
 When dissolved in water, H3O+ ions are produced by a chemical
reaction in which H+ ions are transferred from HCl molecules to
H2O molecules
 Every HCl molecule that dissolves in water will undergo this
reaction.
 The reaction is 100% efficient
Strong acids: Acids that are completely or nearly 100% ionized in
their aqueous solutions
Examples of strong acids: HCl, HNO3, H2SO4, HBr, HI,HClO4, HClO3
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Weak acids: Acids that are only partially ionized in their solutions
 Do not completely dissociate into their ions in water
 They partially react with water
 Relatively small amount of hydronium ions are formed
 Large majority of dissolved molecules remain in their original form
Example
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
 About 1% of acetic acid molecules are present in the ionized form,
CH3CO2−
Examples of weak acids:
HO2C2O2H - oxalic acid HF – hydrofluoric acid
HCO2H - methanoic acid C6H5COOH -benzoic acid
CH3COOH - acetic acid HCOOH - formic acid
Conjugate acids of weak bases (e.g. NH4+), H2O 16

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Base: A substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydroxide ions,

OH−.
 The most common bases are ionic compounds composed of alkali
or alkaline earth metal cations (groups 1 and 2) combined with the
hydroxide ion
Examples: NaOH, Ca(OH)2
 When dissolve in water, hydroxide ions are released directly into
the solution.
Strong bases: Bases that completely dissociate in water.
NaOH(s) ⟶ Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
 The equation confirms that sodium hydroxide is a base.
 When dissolved in water, NaOH dissociates to yield Na+ and OH−
ions.
 The dissociation process is essentially complete (100% efficient)
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Weak bases: A base that upon dissolution in water, does not

dissociate completely.
 the resulting aqueous solution contains only a small proportion of
hydroxide ions
 They produce hydroxide ions when dissolved by chemically
reacting with water molecules.
Example:
NH3(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
 It is an acid-base reaction
 Only about 1% of the dissolved ammonia is present as NH4+ ions.
Examples of weak bases:
 Ammonia (NH3), ammonium hydroxide ( NH4OH), trimethyl
ammonia ( N(CH3)3), H2O, conjugate bases of weak acids (e.g.
HCOO−)
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Neutralization reaction: It is a specific type of acid-base reaction in

which the reactants are an acid and a base;
 The products are often a salt and water, and neither reactant is
the water itself
acid + base ⟶ salt + water

Example:
The antacid milk of magnesia (aqueous suspension of solid Mg(OH)2)
when ingested to ease symptoms associated with excess stomach
acid (HCl), undergoes the following neutralization reaction:

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⟶ MgCl2(aq) + 2H2 O(l)

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Exercise:
Write balanced chemical equations for the acid-base reactions:
a) hydrogen hypochlorite(weak acid) reacts with water
b) a solution of barium hydroxide is neutralized with a solution of
nitric acid

Solution
a) HOCl(aq) + H2 O(l) ⇌ OCl−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
b) Ba(OH)2(aq) + 2HNO3(aq) ⟶ Ba(NO3)2(aq) + 2H2 O(l)

Exercise: Write the net ionic equation representing the neutralization

of any strong acid with an ionic hydroxide.
Solution:
Consider the reaction between HCl (aq)and NaOH(aq) 20

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Molecular equation:
HCl (aq) + NaOH(aq)  NaCl(aq) + H2O
Ionic equation:
H3O+ + Cl- (aq) + Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq) + 2H2O
Net ionic equation:
H3O+ (aq) + OH- (aq)  2H2O – It hold for similar reactions

4.2.3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions (Redox reaction):

 A reaction characterized by the transfer of electrons between
chemical species
Oxidation: loss of electrons
 The species that losses electrons is said to be oxidized
Reduction: gain of electrons
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

 The species that gains electrons is said to be reduced

Reducing agent (reductant): A species that is oxidized
Oxidizing agent (oxidant): A species that is reduced
Consider the reaction between sodium and chlorine to yield sodium
chloride:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2NaCl(s)
 The process can be viewed with regard to the fate of each reactant
in the form of an equation called a half-reaction
Oxidation Half reaction: 2Na(s) ⟶ 2Na+(s) + 2e−
Reduction Half reaction: Cl2(g) + 2e− ⟶ 2Cl−(s)
 These equations show that Na atoms lose electrons while Cl atoms
(in the Cl2 molecule) gain electrons
 NaCl is an ionic compound
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

 Some redox processes, however, do not involve the transfer of

electrons.
 Consider the following reaction.

H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2HCl(g)

 The product of this reaction is a covalent compound,

 Transfer of electrons in the explicit sense is not involved

Oxidation number (oxidation state): Oxidation number of an

element in a compound is the charge its atoms would possess if the
compound was ionic.

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Guidelines for assigning oxidation numbers to each element in a

molecule or ion:
1. The oxidation number of an atom in an elemental substance is zero
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the ion’s
charge.
3. Oxidation numbers for common nonmetals:
Hydrogen:
 +1 when combined with nonmetals
 −1 when combined with metals
Oxygen:
−2 in most compounds −1 in peroxides (O2 2−)
rarely −½ in superoxides (O2−) positive values with F (values vary)

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Halogens:
−1 for F always
−1 for other halogens except when combined with oxygen or other
halogens (+ve oxidation numbers in these cases, varying values)

4. The sum of oxidation numbers for all atoms in a molecule or

polyatomic ion is equal to the charge on the molecule or ion.
Note:
The proper convention for
 reporting charge is to write the number first, followed by the sign
(e.g., 2+)
 oxidation number is written with the reversed sequence, sign
followed by number (e.g., +2).
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Examples:
Determine the oxidation number of each element in the following
compounds.
a)NaH b) H2SO4
Solution:
a) Following guideline 3, the oxidation number for H is -1
Following guideline 4,
charge on NaH = 0 = oxidation number of Na + oxidation number of H
 oxidation number of Na = 0 – (-1) = +1

b) For ionic compounds, it’s convenient to assign oxidation numbers

for the cation and anion separately.
According to guideline 3, the oxidation number for hydrogen is +1.
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Following guideline 4,
Oxidation number of H2SO4 = 0 = 2 x oxidation number of H + oxidation number of
SO4
oxidation number of SO4 = 0 – (2 x +1) = -2
Following guideline 3, oxidation number of O = -2.
oxidation number of SO4 = -2 = oxidation number of S + (4 x -2)
oxidation number of S = -2 + 8 = +6

Using the oxidation number concept:

Oxidation-reduction(redox) reactions: Reactions in which one or
more elements involved undergo a change in oxidation number.
Accordingly,
Oxidation: An increase in oxidation number
Reduction: A decrease in oxidation number
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

In the reaction:
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2NaCl(s)
Na is oxidized
 Its oxidation number increases from 0 in Na to +1 in NaCl
Cl is reduced
 Its oxidation number decreases from 0 in Cl2 to −1 in NaCl
Subclasses of redox reactions
Combustion reactions: The reductant (a fuel) and oxidant (often, O2)
react vigorously and produce significant amounts of heat, and often
light, in the form of a flame.
Example:
10Al(s) + 6NH4ClO4(s) ⟶ 4Al2O3(s) + 2AlCl3(s) + 12H2O(g) + 3N2(g)

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Single-displacement (replacement) reactions :
Redox reactions in which an ion in solution is displaced (or replaced)
via the oxidation of a metallic element.
Example
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⟶ ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)
Cu(s) + 2AgNO3(aq) ⟶ Cu (NO3)2(aq) + 2Ag(s)

Disproportionation reactions: The same substance functions as an

oxidant and a reductant.

Example:
2H2 O2(aq) ⟶ 2H2 O(l) + O2(g)
 This is a redox reaction
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

 Oxygen is oxidized,
 Its oxidation number increasing from −1 in H2O2(aq) to 0 in O2(g).
 Oxygen is reduced, its oxidation number decreasing from −1 in
H2O2(aq) to −2 in H2O(l).

Examples
Identify which equations represent redox reactions, providing a name
for the reaction if appropriate. For those reactions identified as
redox, name the oxidant and reductant.
a) ZnCO3(s) ⟶ ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
b) C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) ⟶ 2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l)

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Solution:
a) The oxidation number of Zn, C and O on both sides of the equation
are +2, +4 and -2, respectively
 Oxidation numbers remain unchanged for all elements.
 The reaction is not a redox reaction
b) This is a redox reaction
 It is combustion reaction.
 Carbon is oxidized
 Its oxidation number increasing from −2 in C2H4 to +4 in CO2
 The reducing agent (fuel) is C2H4
 Oxygen is reduced
 Its oxidation number decreasing from 0 to −2 in H2O
 The oxidizing agent is O2
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Balancing Redox Reactions via the Half-Reaction Method
 Redox reactions that take place in aqueous media often involve water,
hydronium ions, and hydroxide ions as reactants or products.
 Although these species are not oxidized or reduced, they do participate
in chemical change
Steps for balancing redox reactions
1. Write the two half-reactions representing the redox process.
2. Balance all elements except oxygen and hydrogen.
3. Balance oxygen atoms by adding H2O molecules.
4. Balance hydrogen atoms by adding H+ ions.
5. Balance charge by adding electrons.
6. Multiply each half-reaction’s coefficients by the smallest possible integers
to yield equal numbers of electrons in each.
7. Add the balanced half-reactions together and simplify by removing
species that appear on both sides of the equation.
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

For reactions occurring in basic media, carry out these additional
steps:
7. Add OH− ions to both sides of each equation in numbers equal to
the number of H+ ions.
8. On the side of the equation containing both H+ and OH− ions,
combine these ions to yield water molecules.
9. Add the two equations and simplify the equation by removing any
redundant species.
Finally, check to see that both the number of atoms and the total
charges are balanced.
Example:
Balance the following reaction that takes place in acidic solution.
Cr2 O72− + Fe2+ ⟶ Cr3+ + Fe3+
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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Solution:
Step 1. Fe2+ ⟶ Fe3+ Cr2O72− ⟶ Cr3+
Step 2. Fe2+ ⟶ Fe3+ Cr2O72− ⟶ 2Cr3+
Step3. Fe2+ ⟶ Fe3+ Cr2O72− ⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Step 4. Fe2+ ⟶ Fe3+ Cr2O72− + 14H+ ⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Step 5. Fe2+ ⟶ Fe3++ e- Cr2O72− + 14H++ 6e- ⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Step 6 . 6Fe2+ ⟶ 6Fe3++ 6e- Cr2O72− + 14H++ 6e- ⟶ 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
Step 7. 6Fe2+ + Cr2O72− + 14H++ 6e- ⟶ 6Fe3++ 6e- + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O
6Fe2+ + Cr2O72− + 14H+- ⟶ 6Fe3+ + 2Cr3+ + 7H2O

Example 2: Balance the following reaction that takes place in basic

media
MnO4−(aq) + NO2−(aq) ⟶ MnO2(s) + NO3−(aq)

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4.2. Classification of chemical reactions

Solution:
Step 1. MnO4− ⟶ MnO2 NO2− ⟶ NO3−
Step 2. - -
Step3. MnO4− ⟶ MnO2+ 2H2O NO2− + H2O ⟶ NO3−
Step 4. MnO4− + 4H+ ⟶ MnO2+ 2H2O NO2− + H2O ⟶ NO3−+ 2H+
Step 5. MnO4− + 4H+ + 3e- ⟶ MnO2 + 2H2O NO2− + H2O ⟶ NO3−+ 2H++ 2e-
Step 6. 2MnO4− + 8H+ + 6e- ⟶ 2MnO2 + 4H2O 3NO2− + 3H2O ⟶3 NO3−+ 6H++ 6e-
Step 7.
2MnO4−+ 8H++8OH-+6e- ⟶2MnO2+4H2O+8OH-
3NO2−+3H2O + 6OH-⟶3NO3− + 6H++6OH-+ 6e-
Step 8.
2MnO4− +8H2O +6e- ⟶ 2MnO2+ 4H2O +8OH-
3NO2− + 3H2O + 6OH- ⟶ 3 NO3−+ 6H2O+ 6e-
Step 9. 2MnO4− + 3NO2− + H2O ⟶ 2MnO2+ 3 NO3− + 2OH-
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4.3. Reaction Stoichiometry

Stoichiometriy: The study of quantitative relationships between the

amounts of substances consumed and produced by a reaction.
 Coefficients in a balanced chemical equation provide the relative
numbers of these chemical species

Example 1: In the reaction: H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2HCl(g)

 The balanced equation shows the hydrogen and chlorine react to
produce hydrogen chloride in a 1:1:2 stoichiometric ratio,
respectively.
Example 2: How many moles of Ca(OH)2 are required to react with
1.36 mol of H3PO4 to produce Ca3(PO4)2according to the equation
3Ca(OH)2 + 2H3 PO4 ⟶ Ca3 (PO4)2 + 6H2O?
3𝑚𝑜𝑙
Answer: mol of CaOH 2 = 2 𝑚𝑜𝑙 × 1.36 𝑚𝑜𝑙 = 2.04 𝑚𝑜𝑙
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4.3 Reaction Stoichiometry

Example 3
What mass of sodium hydroxide, NaOH, would be required to
produce 16 g of the antacid milk of magnesia [magnesium hydroxide,
Mg(OH)2] by the following reaction?
MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)

(molar masses: NaOH = 40 g, Mg(OH)2 =58.3 g)

2×40 𝑔
Answer: mass of NaOH = × 16 𝑔 = 22 𝑔
58.3 𝑔

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4.4. Reaction Yield

4.4. Reaction Yield

4.4.1. Limiting Reactant

Limiting reactant: The reactant provided in smaller amount than the
stoichiometric amount
Excess reactant: The reactant provided in larger amount than
stoichiometric amount
N.B.: The amount of the product formed depends on the amount of
the limiting reactant.

Example:
Consider the reaction: N2 (g) + 3H2(g)  2NH3(g)
The stoichiometric ratio for N2 , H2 and NH3 is 1:3:2, respectively.

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4.4. Reaction Yield

Imagine combining 3 moles of N2 and 6moles of H2.

From the balanced equation, for 3 moles of N2 9 moles of H2 are
required.
But, there are only 6 moles.
Therefore,
 The excess reactant is N2
 It is in excess by 1 mole
 The limiting reactant is H2
 The amount of N2 produced depends on the amount of H2
 The amount of N2 that can be produced is 4 moles

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4.4. Reaction Yield

4.4.2. Percent Yield

Theoretical yield: The amount of product that may be produced by a
reaction under specified conditions, as calculated per the
stoichiometry of an appropriate balanced chemical equation
Actual yield: The amount of product obtained in practice
 It is often less than the theoretical yield
Possible reasons:
 Inefficient reactions because of side reaction
 Incomplete reactions
 Difficult to collect the products without some loss
Percent yield: The extent to which a reaction’s theoretical yield is
achieved
It is expressed as:
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4.4. Reaction Yield

𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

 Actual and theoretical yields may be expressed as masses or molar

amounts by any appropriate property such as mass, molar amount,
volume, etc.
 Example:
The phosphorus pentoxide used to produce phosphoric acid for cola
soft drinks is prepared by burning phosphorus in oxygen.
(a) What is the limiting reactant when 0.200 mol of P4 and 0.200 mol
of O2 react according to
P4+ 5O2 ⟶ P4 O10
(b) Calculate the percent yield if 10.0 g of P4 O10is isolated from the
reaction.(molar mass of P4O10 = 283.88 g)
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4.4. Reaction Yield

𝐒𝐨𝐥𝐮𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧:
a) According to the balanced chemical equation, 1 mol of P4 reacts
with 5 molof O2
 Hence, for 0.200 mol of P4, 1 mol of O2 is required.
 But there is only 0.200 mol of O2
Therefore, the limiting reactant is O2
b) 5 mol of O2 produces 1 mol of P4 O10
 0.200 mol of O2 produces 0.040 mol of P4 O10
 1 mol of P4O10 = 283.88 g
 Therefore 0.040 molP4O10 = 11.355 g (Theoretical yield)
Actual yield = 10.0 g
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
Therefore, 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 × 100%
10.0𝑔
= × 100% = 88.1%
11.355 𝑔 42

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4.5. Quantitative Chemical Analysis

Quantitative analysis: The determination of the concentration of a
substance in a sample.
4.5.1. Acid-base Titration
Titration: A method of chemical analysis that involves incremental
additions of a solution containing a known concentration of some
substance (the titrant) to a sample solution containing the substance
whose concentration is to be measured (the analyte).
A burret is used to make incremental additions of the analyte and to
measure the volume used at the equivalence point
 The titrant and analyte undergo a chemical reaction of known
stoichiometry
 Measuring the volume of titrant solution required for complete
reaction with the analyte (the equivalence point of the titration)
allows calculation of the analyte concentration 43

4.5. Quantitative Chemical Analysis

Equivalence points may be detected

i. Using Indicators: dyes that are added to the sample solutions to
impart a change in color at or very near the equivalence point of
the titration.
ii. by measuring some solution property that changes in a
predictable way during the course of the titration.
E.g. electrical property
End point: The volume of titrant actually measured
Acid - base titration: The determination of the concentration of a
sample of an acid solution by titrating it with a known concentration
of a base.

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4.5. Quantitative Chemical Analysis

Example:
The end point in a titration of a 50.00 mL sample of aqueous HCl was
reached by addition of 35.23 mL of 0.250 M NaOH titrant.
The titration reaction is:
HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ⟶ NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
What is the molarity of the HCl?
Solution:
According to the balanced equation, 1 mol of HCl reacts with 1 mole
of NaOH.
Therefore,
M (HCl) × V (HCl) = M(NaOH) × V(NaOH)
𝑀 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 0.250𝑀
𝑀 𝐻𝐶𝑙 = × 𝑉 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 = 50.00𝑚𝐿 × 35.23𝑚𝐿 = 0.176 M
𝑉 𝐻𝐶𝑙

45

4.5. Quantitative Chemical Analysis

4.5.2. Gravimetric Analysis

Gravimetric analysis: One in which a sample is subjected to some
treatment that causes a change in the physical state of the analyte
that permits its separation from the other components of the sample.
 The required change of state in a gravimetric analysis may be
achieved by various physical and chemical processes.
Examples:
 The moisture content of a sample is determined by measuring the
mass of a sample before and after it is subjected to a controlled
heating process that evaporates the water.
 The analyte is subjected to a precipitation reaction and the
precipitate is isolated from the reaction mixture by filtration

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4.5. Quantitative Chemical Analysis

Example: What is the percent of chloride ion in a sample if 1.1324 g of

the sample produces 1.0881 g of AgCl when treated with excess Ag+?
Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s)
(molar masses: Cl- = 35.45 g, AgCl = 143.32 g)
Solution:143.32 g AgCl contains 35.45 g Cl-1
35.45𝑔
1.0881 g AgCl contains 143.32𝑔 × 1.0881𝑔 = 0.2691 𝑔
If 0.2691 g is obtained from 1.1324 g sample, its mass percent is
0.2691
× 100% = 23.76%
1.1324

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