Chapter 11: Combustion

(Thanks to David Bayless for his assistance in writing this section)

Introduction - Up to this point the heat Q in all problems and examples was
either a given value or was obtained from the First Law relation. However in various
heat engines, gas turbines, and steam power plants the heat is obtained from
combustion processes, using either solid fuel (e.g. coal or wood). liquid fuel (e.g.
gasolene, kerosine, or diesel fuel), or gaseous fuel (e.g. natural gas or propane).

In this chapter we introduce the chemistry and thermodynamics of combustion of

generic hydrocarbon fuels - (CxHy), in which the oxydizer is the oxygen contained in
atmospheric air. Note that we will not cover the combustion of solid fuels or the
complex blends and mixtures of the hydrocarbons which make up gasolene, kerosene,
or diesel fuels.

Atmospheric Air contains approximately 21% oxygen (O2) by volume. The

other 79% of "other gases" is mostly nitrogen (N2), so we will assume air to be
composed of 21% oxygen and 79% nitrogen by volume. Thus each mole of oxygen
needed to oxidize the hydrocarbon is accompanied by 79/21 = 3.76 moles of nitrogen.
Using this combination the molecular mass of air becomes 29 [kg/kmol]. Note that it
is assumed that the nitrogen will not normally undergo any chemical reaction.

The Combustion Process - The basic combustion process can be described

by the fuel (the hydrocarbon) plus oxydizer (air or oxygen) called the Reactants,
which undergo a chemical process while releasing heat to form the Products of
combustion such that mass is conserved. In the simplest combustion process, known
as Stoichiometric Combustion, all the carbon in the fuel forms carbon dioxide (CO 2)
and all the hydrogen forms water (H2O) in the products, thus we can write the
chemical reaction as follows:

where z is known as the stoichiometric coefficient for the oxidizer (air)

Note that this reaction yields five unknowns: z, a, b, c, d, thus we need five equations
to solve. Stoichiometric combustion assumes that no excess oxygen exists in the
products, thus d = 0. We obtain the other four equations from balancing the number of
atoms of each element in the reactants (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen) with
the number of atoms of those elements in the products. This means that no atoms are
destroyed or lost in a combustion reaction.

Amount in  Reduced
 Element  =  Amount in Products
reactants equation
 Carbon (C)  x    a  a = x
 Hydrogen (H)  y    2b  b = y/2
 Oxygen (O)  2z    2a+b  z = a + b/2
 Nitrogen (N)  2(3.76)z    2c  c = 3.76z

Note that the water formed could be in the vapor or liquid phase, depending on the
temperature and pressure of the combustion products.

As an example consider the stoichiometric combustion of methane (CH 4) in

atmospheric air. Equating the molar coefficients of the reactants and the products we
obtain:

Theoretical Air and Air-Fuel Ratio -The minimum amount of air which

will allow the complete combustion of the fuel is called the Theoretical Air (also
referred to as Stoichiometric Air). In this case the products do not contain any
oxygen. If we supply less than theoretical air then the products could include carbon
monoxide (CO), thus it is normal practice to supply more than theoretical air to
prevent this occurrence. This Excess Air will result in oxygen appearing in the
products.
The standard measure of the amount of air used in a combustion process is the Air-
Fuel Ratio (AF), defined as follows:

Thus considering only the reactants of the methane combustion with theoretical air
presented above, we obtain:

2. Solved Problem 11.1 - In this problem we wish to develop the combustion
equation and determine the air-fuel ratio for the complete combustion of n-Butane
(C4H10) with a) theoretical air, and b) 50% excess air.
Analysis of the Products of Combustion - Combustion always occurs
at elevated temperatures and we assume that all the products of combustion (including
the water vapor) behave as ideal gases. Since they have different gas constants, it is
convenient to use the ideal gas equation of state in terms of the universal gas constant
as follows:

In the analysis of the products of combustion there are a number of items of interest:

 1) What is the percentage volume of specific products, in particular carbon

dioxide (CO2) and carbon monoxide (CO)?
 2) What is the dew point of the water vapor in the combustion products? This
requires evaluation of the partial pressure of the water vapor component of the
products.
 3) There are experimental methods of volumetric analysis of the products of
combustion, normally done on a Dry Basis, yielding the volume percentage of
all the components except the water vapor. This allows a simple method of
determining the actual air-fuel ratio and excess air used in a combustion
process.

For ideal gases we find that the mole fraction y i of the i'th component in a mixture of
gases at a specific pressure P and temperature T is equal to the volume fraction of that
component.
Since from the molar ideal gas relation: P.V = N.R u.T, we have:
Furthermore, since the sum of the component volumes V i must equal the total volume
V, we have:

Using a similar approach we determine the partial pressure of a component using

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures:

Solved Problem 11.2 - In this problem Propane (C3H8) is burned with 61%
excess air, which enters a combustion chamber at 25°C. Assuming complete
combustion and a total pressure of 1 atm (101.32 kPa), determine a) the air-fuel ratio
[kg-air/kg-fuel], b) the percentage of carbon dioxide by volume in the products, and c)
the dew point temperature of the products.
Solved Problem 11.3 - In this problem Ethane (C2H6) is burned with
atmospheric air, and the volumetric analysis of the dry products of combustion yields
the following: 10% CO2, 1% CO, 3% O2, and 86% N2. Develop the combustion
equation, and determine a) the percentage of excess air, b) the air-fuel ratio, and c) the
dew point of the combustion products.
The First Law Analysis of Combustion - The main purpose of
combustion is to produce heat through a change of enthalpy from the reactants to the
products. From the First Law equation in a control volume, ignoring kinetic and
potential energy changes and assuming no work is done, we have:

where the summations are taken over all the products (p) and the reactants (r). N
refers to the number of moles of each component and h [kJ/kmol] refers to the molar
enthalpy of each component.

Since there are a number of different substances involved we need to establish a

common reference state to evaluate the enthalpy, the common choice being 25°C and
1 atm which is normally denoted with a superscript o. Prof. S. Bhattacharjee of the
San Diego State University has developed a web based expert system at
<www.thermofluids.net> called TEST (The Expert System for Thermodynamics) in
which he has included a set of ideal gas property tables all based on the enthalpy h o =
0 at this common reference. We have adapted some of these tables specifically for this
section, and these can be found in the following link:

Combustion Molar Enthalpy Tables

As an example, consider again the complete combustion of Methane (CH 4) with

theoretical air:

Notice that in the reactants and the products of the above example we have basic
elements O2 and N2 as well as compounds CH4, CO2, and H2O. When the compound is
formed then the enthalpy change is called the Enthalpy of Formation, denoted hfo,
and for our example:

hfo
Substance Formula
[kJ/kmol]
Carbon dioxide CO2(g) -393,520
Water Vapor H2O(g) -241,820
Water H2O(l) -285,820
Methane CH4(g) -74,850
where (g) refers to gas and (l) refers to liquid.

The negative sign means that the process is Exothermic, i.e. heat is given off when
the compound is formed. Note that the enthalpy of formation of basic elements O 2 and
N2 is zero.

Consider first the case in which there is sufficient heat transfer such that both the
reactants and the products are at 25°C and 1 atm pressure, and that the water product
is liquid. Since there is no sensible enthalpy change the energy equation becomes:
This heat (Qcv) is called the Enthalpy of Combustion or the Heating Value of the
fuel. If the products contain liquid water then it is the Higher Heating Value (as in
our example), however if the product contains water vapor then it is the Lower
Heating Value of the fuel. The enthalpy of combustion is the largest amount of heat
that can be released by a given fuel.

Adiabatic Flame Temperature - The opposite extreme of the above

example in which we evaluated the enthalpy of combustion is the case of an adiabatic
process in which no heat is released. This results in a significant temperature increase
in the products of combustion (denoted the Adiabatic Flame Temperature) which
can only be reduced by an increase in the air-fuel ratio.

3. Solved Problem 11.4 - Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for the
complete combustion of Methane (CH4) with 250% theoretical air in an adiabatic
control volume.
This equation can only be solved by an iterative trial and error procedure using the
tables of Sensible Enthalpy vs Temperature for all four components of the products
- CO2, H2O, O2, and N2. A quick approximation to the adiabatic flame temperature can
be obtained by assuming that the products consist entirely of air. This approach was
introduced to us by Potter and Somerton in their Schaum's Outline of
Thermodynamics for Engineers, in which they assumed all the products to be N2.
We find it more convenient to use air assuming a representative value of the Specific
Heat Capacity of Air: Cp,1000K = 1.142 [kJ/kg.K].

Thus, summing all the moles of the products, we have:

Using the tables of Sensible Enthalpy vs Temperature we evaluated the enthalpy of
all four products at a temperature of 1280K. This resulted in a total enthalpy of
802,410 [kJ/kmol fuel], which is extremely close to the required value, thus justifying
this approach.

Problem 11.5 - - Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for the complete
combustion of Propane ( C3H8) with 250% theoretical air in an adiabatic control
volume [T = 1300K].

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Engineering Thermodynamics by Israel Urieli is licensed under a Creative Commons

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5. Liquid octane (C8H18) enters the combustion chamber of a gas turbine steadily at 1 atm and 25°C,
and it is burned with air that enters the combustion chamber at the same state, as shown in Fig. 15–27.
Determine the adiabatic flame temperature for (a) complete combustion with 100 percent theoretical
air, (b) complete combustion with 400 percent theoretical air, and (c) incomplete combustion (some CO
in the products) with 90 percent theoretical air.

Solution: Liquid octane is burned steadily. The adiabatic flame temperature is to be determined for
different cases.
7. Consider the growth of leaves on a tree. Consider a single leaf as it is growing. The gaseous CO2 and
liquid water are used to produce a solid leaf which is assumed to be cellulose C6 H10 O5. a) Develop an
overall reaction scheme. The sunlight is used as an energy source for such a reaction. b) Write down the
mass, energy and entropy balance equations. Assume that reactions occur at 25C, 1 bar ? Determine a)
sunlight required in kJ/kg of cellulose, b) entropy change for the reaction in kJ/kg K, c) repeat parts (a)
and (b) if the solid is lignin (C40 H44 O6).
9. Ethane gas (C2H6) at 25°C is burned in a steady-flow combustion chamber at a rate of 5 kg/h with the
stoichiometric amount of air, which is preheated to 500 K before entering the combustion chamber. An
analysis of the combustion gases reveals that all the hydrogen in the fuel burns to H2O but only 95
percent of the carbon burns to CO2, the remaining 5 percent forming CO. If the products leave the
combustion chamber at 800 K, determine the rate of heat transfer from the combustion chamber.