ANALYSIS OF FORCES AND STABILITY

CHECKS OF GRAVITY DAMS

CASE STUDY : MIDDLE VAITARNA DAM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN CIVIL

OF
UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI

Submitted by

Mr. MATE TEJAS CHANDRASHEKHAR

Mr. JAIN SHUBHAM SANJAY
Ms. PATIL MANSI CHANDRAKANT
Mr. PANIGAVI SHIVARAJ KASHINATH

Department of Civil Engineering,

Mahatma Gandhi Mission’s College of Engineering and Technology,
Kamothe, Navi Mumbai-410209.
2016-17

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Working on the project has been a grateful experience for us. This acknowledgement is our
sign of gratitude, we feel towards all the persons who guided and helped us to make this
project, a rich exposure, as without their guidance we should not have done so far. We are
thankful to Prof. P.J. Salunkhe, guide of the project and Head of Department, who always
respected our views and guided us to achieve that, also Ms. Shweta Istape, co-guide and
Assistant Professor, made sure that we are working on our project and was always there to
help us on regular basis.
We, all would like to express our gratitude to Principal Dr. S.K. Narayankhedkar for
giving an opportunity to develop our technical knowledge.
Grateful acknowledgement is made to all the staff and faculty members of Civil
Engineering Department, M G M C E T , for their encouragement. We would also like to
thank our colleagues and friends for their encouragement and help.

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 Table of Contents

Chapter Title Page no.

1 Introduction 1
1.1 General 2
1.2 Objective 2
1.3 Scope of Work 2
1.4 Outline of Present Work 3

2 Literature Review 4
2.1 General 4
2.2 literature 4

3 Gravity Dams 7
3.1 General 7
3.2 Different Parts and Terminologies of Dams 8
3.3 Classification of Gravity Dams 9
3.4 Advantages 12
3.5 Disadvantages 12
3.6 Zones of storage in a reservoir 13
3.7 Forces acting on Gravity Dam 14
3.8 Modes of Failure 14

4 Preliminary Considerations 15
4.1 Engineering Surveys 15
4.2 Geological Considerations 17
4.3 Hydraulic Considerations 18
4.4 Hydrologic Considerations 19

5 Forces Acting On Gravity Dam 21

5.1 Introduction 21

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 5.2 Water Pressure 24
5.3 Earthquake (seismic) forces 27
5.4 Self Weight Of Dam 36
5.5 Uplift Pressure 37
5.6 Water pressure below the base of the dam or Uplift pressure 39
5.7 Wave Pressure 47
5.8 Silt Pressure 50
5.9 Ice Pressure 51
5.10 Wind Pressure 53

6 Stability checks for gravity dam 54

6.1 Introduction 54
6.2 Stability against overturning 55
6.3 Stability against sliding 60
6.4 Compression or Crushing 69
6.5 Tension 70

7 Different methods of Analysis of Dam Stability 72

7.1 Introduction 72
7.2 Gravity method 73
7.3 Trial load method 74
7.4 Finite element method 75
7.5 Limit Equilibrium method 76
7.6 Cracked Base Analysis 77
7.7 Use of computer programs 79

8 Remedial measures for dam safety 81

8.1 Introduction 81
8.2 Ample Freeboard 82
8.3 Geometric Configuration to Reduce Tensile Stresses In Foundations 82
8.4 Geometric configurations to reduce tensile stresses in mass concrete 83
8.5 Treatments to strengthen foundation and abutment materials 84

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 8.6 Reduction of uplift pressures and seepage 85

9 Modern Structural Advancement In Dams 90

9.1 Introduction 90
9.2 FSH dams 91
9.3 CSG Dams 93
9.4 Concept Of The Rock-Filled Concrete Dam And The Cemented 96
Rock-fill Dam
9.5 Conclusions 98

10 Case Study: Middle Vaitarna Dam 100

10.1 Introduction 100
10.2 Purpose 101
10.3 Technical Details 101
10.4 Construction Details 103
10.5 Construction Planning 104
10.6 Engineering Challenges 106
10.7 Stability Checks Of Middle Vaitarna Dam 107

11 Conclusion 113
11.1 Introduction 113
11.2 Result 114

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 List of Figures

Figure no. Description Page no.

3.1 Typical c/s view of a gravity dam 7

3.2 Three gorges dam 8
3.3 Middle vaitarna dam 8
3.4 Pathfinder dam 9
3.5 Grand coulee dam 9
3.6 Shasta Dam 10
3.7 Zones of storage in a reservoir 12
5.1 Different forces acting on dam section 23
5.2 Water pressure distribution diagram 24
5.3 Horizontal water force on spillway block during flood water 25
overflow
5.4 Water pressure acting on both faces 25
5.5 Water pressure acting on u/s vertical face 36
5.6 Water pressure acting on u/s inclined face 27
5.7 Seismic zones of India 29
5.8 Worst combination of earthquake forces under reservoir 31
empty condition
5.9 Worst combination of earthquake forces under reservoir full 32
condition
5.10 Variation of horizontal and vertical acceleration in terms of 32
basic seismic coefficient
5.11 Earthquake acceleration forces in an infinite horizontal strip 33
in the body of the dam
5.12 Variation of coefficients Cm and Ch 34
5.13 Hydro dynamic pressure distribution diagram 35
5.14 FBD of dam showing weight of components 36
5.15 Uplift pressure at base and on any general plane in the dam 38
body (drainage holes not considered)

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5.16 Uplift pressure diagram considering horizontal cracks at any 38
general plane at the base
5.17 Uplift pressure acting on dam body 39
5.18 Position of gallery, drainage hole, curtain grout hole, 40
ventilation
5.19 Formation crack at the heel before drainage line 43
5.20 Formation crack at the heel which extends beyond drainage 44
line
5.21 Changes in uplift pressure due to apron 46
5.22 Design height of wave for provision of free body 49
7.1 Base pressure acting on gravity dam 78
9.1 Cross section of FSH dam 92
9.2 CSG- Tobetsu dam in Japan 95
10.1 Sectional view of middle vaitarna dam 107

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 List of Tables

Table no. Description Page no.

5.1 Values of basic seismic coefficients for different zones 30

5.2 Values of seismic zone factor for different zones 30
6.1 Permissible tensile stresses for various load combinations 68
7.1 Methods for analysing static stability 80
7.2 Drainage problems and solutions 88
7.3 Abutment and toe protection 89
10.1 Additional forces and moments neglecting earthquake forces 111
10..2 Additional forces and moments including forces earthquake 112
forces

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 Abstract

The strategic importance of dams has been introduced to the world from as long as from
ancient times.
Dams complies heavy workmanship and large construction materials which requires large
area to be submerged for its reservoir, hence it failure can cause enormous destruction of both
resources and properties. Hence construction of Dams should be carefully undertaken and
designed on basis of the forces acting and measures should be taken to make the dam most
stable by the topographical conditions of terrain. This context is about the various forces
acting on the dam and the stability requirements that would be beneficial for the economic
and efficient construction and stability of Dams.
The construction should be designed to withstand the most adverse load conditions, in case of
gravity dams there are several forces acting on the structure but the only resultant force which
resists the forces is the self weight of the mass structure, the gravitational force acting on
every part of the structure gives immense stability to withstand the oncoming pressure. The
various forces which acts on the dam and its causes are explained further in this topic, the
topic consists analysis of this forces on the structure and the modes of failures which are to be
considered while designing the same. The analysis described in the context is based on the
gravity method of analysis also the various merits and limitations of this method is
showcased which will bring the conclusion of the topic.

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 Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 General
Basically, a gravity dam is defined as a structure, which is designed in such a way
that its own weight resists the external forces. It is primarily the weight of a gravity dam
which prevents it from being overturned when subjected to the thrust of impounded water.
This type of structure is durable, and requires very little maintenance. Gravity dams
typically consist of a non-overflow section(s) and an overflow section or spillway. The two
general concrete construction methods for concrete gravity dams are conventional placed
mass concrete and RCC. Gravity dams, constructed in stone masonry, were built even in
ancient times, most often in Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire.

However, concrete gravity dams are preferred these days and mostly constructed.
They can be constructed with ease on any dam site, where there exists a natural foundation
strong enough to bear the enormous weight of the dam. Such a dam is generally straight in
plan, although sometimes, it may be slightly curve. The line of the upstream face of the
dam or the line of the crown of the dam if the upstream face in sloping, is taken as the
reference line for layout purposes, etc. and is known as the “Base line of the Dam” or the
“Axis of the Dam”. When suitable conditions are available, such dams can be constructed
up to great heights. The ratio of base width to height of high gravity dams is generally less
than 1:1. But the earlier dams are constructed with the ratio of about 1.5 to 3. This is due to
the low grade of concrete and low density of compaction achieved.
 While designing, it is not always possible to obtain rigorous mathematical solutions
for engineering problem. In fact, analytical solution can be obtained only for certain
simplified situations. For the Problems involving complex material properties, loading and
boundary conditions, the engineer introduce assumptions and idealization deemed necessary
to make the problem mathematically manageable, but still capable of providing sufficiently
approximate solutions and the satisfactory results from point of view of safety and economy.
Also the forces acting on the structure depends upon the topographical conditions which may
or may not be beneficial for the structure, to successfully achieve natural material stability,
the conditions has to be studied and all the forces should be taken into consideration while the
designing process while keeping in mind to make the most use of the surrounding conditions.

1.2 Objective
The objective of this project is to provide Staff engineers, licensees, and their
consultants with recommended procedures and stability criteria for use in the stability
analysis of concrete gravity structures. Engineering judgments must be exercised by staff
when evaluating procedures or situations not specifically covered herein. Unique problems or
unusual solutions may require deviations from the criteria and/or procedures outlined in this
context. In these cases, such deviations must be evaluated on an individual basis.

1.3 Scope of Project Work

This project mainly focuses on the study of various factors considered for the
construction of dams and its stability. The case study includes Middle Vaitarna dam, whose
various structural aspects would be studied so as to give a clear example about the context
and to provide a better way of understanding .The scope of this study is limited to:
A. Gravity dams, its components and structure, cross-section, elementary profile of
gravity dams along with practical profile. Limiting height of gravity dams, as well as
considerations on low and high gravity dams
B. Description of forces acting on the dam, and its analysis. Various types of load
combinations under various dam conditions according to USBR Recommendations and
Indian Standard Recommendations (IS 6512-1984).
C. Study of Modes of Failure, stability requirements and the Stability Analysis

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1.3 Outline of the Present Work
The study mainly deals with the dam, its cross-structure and its behavior under
various loading conditions.

The context mainly consists,

Chapter 1 presents the general introduction, objective and the scope of the present work.
Chapter 2 presents the conclusions of the previously done similar projects which are directly
or indirectly related to the concerned topic.
Chapter 3 includes the detailed introduction to the gravity dams, along with its various
structural components and profile considerations.
Chapter 4 consists of the site investigations along with various factors to be considered for
the study and selection of sites for new dam and procurement for design and analysis of the
same.
Chapter 5 comprises of various forces acting on gravity dam with detailed explanations of
the same along with the factors affecting it.
Chapter 6 explains various modes of failure of gravity dam and the stability checks for the
same.
Chapter 7 includes various methods which can be adopted for the analysis of dam stability
along with their features.
Chapter 8 presents detailed information for preventive measures for dam safety against
failure.
Chapter 9 includes the study of modern structural advancements in dam for special site
conditions.
Chapter 10 case study on Middle Vaitarna dam.
Chapter 11 concludes the present context.

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 Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 General
A detailed literature review in this subject reveals no published literature on the
equivalent static analysis of concrete gravity dam. The context includes all the required data
for the project which are related directly or indirectly collected from various research papers
and journals though a particular literature review has not been published which is directly
related to the concerned topic.
However, there is few research efforts found where typical concrete gravity dams
were analyses. The following part of this chapter presents the findings of these researches.
This chapter also summarizes the gravity method of analysing concrete gravity dam as
reported in some textbooks.

2.2 Literature
International Journal for Research in Applied Science & Engineering
Technology (IJRASET), Volume 2 Issue XI, November 2014
Miss. Meghna S. Bhalodkar, IJRASET.

The behaviour of Gravity dam for stability and response towards seismic forces are studied
in this paper. With problem consideration the stability analysis of gravity dam is done in
absence of seismic forces initially. Thus analysis highlighted that in presence of various
loads like dead load, water/ hydrostatic pressure, uplift pressure, total cumulative values of
+ve moment and -ve moment, summation of horizontal and vertical forces are overall
responsible for dam stability. Further with analysis it is clear that moment resulting due to
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self-weight act as resistive moment against moment produced due to water, uplift pressure
etc. Which means that stability against overturning is achieved when +ve moment is greater
than -ve moments. Whereas stability against sliding depends upon coefficient of friction, sum
of all vertical forces and all horizontal forces. Thus sliding is governed by uplift pressure.
More friction coefficient & more summation of vertical forces results stability against sliding.
However, if horizontal force increases stability against sliding decreases if vertical forces
remain approximately same. Third stability of dam is on basis of shear friction factor, this
depends upon coefficient of friction, summation of all vertical forces, summation of all
horizontal forces, geometry of dam and materials shear strength. For same problem material
shear strength, geometry friction remains unchanged, thus stability should depend upon sum
of all vertical forces and all horizontal forces. For problem considered in study, dam achieves
stability against all factors i.e. overturning, sliding & shearing. Further same dam is analyses
considering seismic forces. With introduction of seismic forces, there is change in behavior
of dam against stability. From study it is very clear that for considered problem the value of
+ve moment remained unchanged. Whereas value of -ve moment changed. As resistivity i.e.
+ve moment is unchanged -ve moment increased thus, dam is unstable against overturning
for seismic force consideration. Again value of summation of vertical forces and summation
of horizontal forces increased. This resulted instability against sliding, however stable against
shear force (as material, geometry & shear strength is constant in both cases). Thus, it can be
concluded that for gravity dam considered over here in study reflects that the dam was stable
against overturning, sliding and shearing in absence of seismic forces. But, with introduction
of seismic forces dam turned unstable against overturning and sliding. The study is further
carried out to observe the change in analysis values of moments, vertical and horizontal
actions with change in seismic zones. For same loading and geometry consideration, when
analysis is done for various seismic zone, it is observed that values of +ve moment remains
constant whereas the value of –ve moment increased with increase in earthquake severity
zone wise. This highlights instability against overturning. Again, it is observed that value of
vertical forces remained unchanged but seismic forces increases value of horizontal forces
which resulted in instability against sliding.

Md. Hazrat Ali, Md. Rabiul Alam, Md. Naimul Haque, Muhammad Jahangir Alam,
October 2015

The section of gravity dam should be chosen in such a way that it is the most economic

5
section and satisfies all the conditions and requirements of stability. The preliminary dam
section is selected based on the U.S.B.R. recommendations, and the stability and stress
conditions of the high concrete gravity dam are approximated and analyzed for varying
horizontal earthquake intensity and unvarying other loads, using two-dimensional gravity
method and finite element method. The horizontal earth- quake intensities are perturbed from
0.10 g - 0.30 g with 0.05g increment, keeping other loads unchanged, to calculate the total
horizontal and vertical forces and moments at the toe of the gravity dam, and to examine the
stability and stress conditions of the dam using the two methods. Dealing with the U.S.B.R.
recommended initial dam section, the stabilizing moments are found to de- crease
significantly with the increment of horizontal earthquake intensity, indicating endanger to the
dam stability, thus larger dam section is designed to increase the stabilizing moments and to
make it safe against failure. The results of the horizontal earthquake intensity perturbation
suggest that the stability of the gravity dam en- dangers with the increment of horizontal
earthquake intensities unless the dam section is enlarged significantly. The FE analyses were
carried out using the same dam section and loading conditions used in 2D gravity method.
The vertical, principal and shear stresses using ANSYS 5.4 are found more conservative than
those obtained using 2D gravity method, except the principal stresses at the toe of the gravity
dam for 0.10 g - 0.15 g. Only the principal stresses found at the toe of the dam using FE
analyses for 0.10 g - 0.15 g and using 2D gravity method for 0.30 g, were found to exceed the
allowable concrete stress throughout the analyses. The principal stresses found at the toe of
the dam using FE analyses for 0.10 g - 0.15 g can be made safer by flattening the u/s face of
the dam, but it might not be possible to make it safe in the case of 2D gravity method for
horizontal earthquake intensity of 0.30 g. Moreover, it was very difficult to achieve the
required factor of safety against sliding, specifically for 0.30 g horizontal earthquake
intensity. Although, one can feel apparently that smaller dam section is required for stress
analyses using FEM, it would not possible to achieve the required factors of safety with
smaller dam section. It is also observed that the factor of safety against sliding is satisfied at
last than other factors of safety, resulting huge dam section to make it safe against sliding.
Therefore, sufficient base width, adequate strong rock foundation, drainage gallery to reduce
uplift pressure, silt pressure, and construction joints need to be ascertained to improve factor
of safety against sliding. Finally, it can be concluded that it would not be feasible to construct
a concrete gravity dam for kh values greater than 0.3 without changing other loads and or
dimension of the dam and keeping provision for drainage gallery to reduce the uplift pressure
significantly.

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 Chapter 3

Gravity Dams

3.1 General

A gravity dam is a structure so proportioned that its own weight resists the forces
exerted upon it. this type of dam is most commonly used. the most ancient gravity dam on
record was built more than 400 years B.C. of uncemented masonry. archaeological experts
Believe that this dam was kept in perfect condition for many centuries.

A gravity dam may be constructed either of Masonry or of concrete. however

nowadays with improved methods of construction, quality control and curing, concrete is
most commonly used for the construction of gravity Dams. a gravity dam is mostly straight
in plan and is known as 'straight gravity dam'. however, it may be slightly curved in plan. a
curved gravity dam resists the external forces by its weight and not by arch action. most of
the gravity Dams are solid, so that no bending stress is introduced at any point and hence,
can be hollow and is known as 'hollow gravity dam.

Gravity dams are particularly suited across gorges with very steep side slopes where
earth Dams might slip. Where good foundations are available, gravity dams can be built upto
any height. the highest dams in the world are of gravity type.

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3.2 Different parts & terminologies of dams

Crest: The top of the dam structure. These may in some cases be used for providing a
roadway or walkway over the dam.

Parapet walls: Low Protective walls on either side of the roadway or walkway on the
crest.

Heel: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at upstream side.

Toe: Portion of structure in contact with ground or river-bed at downstream side.

Gallery: Level or gently sloping tunnel like passage (small room like space) at transverse
or longitudinal within the dam with drain on floor for seepage water. These are generally
provided for having space for drilling grout holes and drainage holes. These may also be
used to accommodate the instrumentation for studying the performance of dam.

Fig 3.1 Typical c/s view of gravity dam

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 Sluice way: Opening in the structure near the base, provided to clear the silt accumulation
in the reservoir.

Spillway: It is the arrangement made (kind of passage) near the top of structure for the
passage of surplus/ excessive water from the reservoir.

Free board: The space between the highest level of water in the reservoir and the top of
the structure.

3.3 Classification of gravity dams

The most common classification of gravity dams is by the materials composing the structure:
Concrete dams include

A. Mass concrete dams, made of:

i) Conventional concrete : Grand Coulee Dam, Three Gorges Dam

Fig 3.2 Three Gorges dam

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 ii) Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC) : Middle Vaitarna Dam

Fig 3.3 Middle Vaitarna Dam

iii) Masonry : Pathfinder Dam, Cheesman Dam

Fig 3.4 Pathfinder Dam

iii) Hollow gravity dam : made of reinforced concrete: Braddock Dam

iv) Composite dams : are a combination of concrete and embankment dams.

Construction materials of composite dams are the same used for concrete and embankment
dams.

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B. Gravity dams can be classified by plan (shape):

i) Most gravity dams are straight (Grand Coulee Dam).

Fig 3.5 Grand Coulee Dam

ii) Some masonry and concrete gravity dams have the dam Axis curved (Shasta
Dam, Cheesman Dam) to add stability through arch action

Fig 3.6 Shasta Dam

C. Gravity dams can be classified with respect to their structural height:

i) Low, up to 100 feet.
ii) Medium high, between 100 and 300 feet.
iii) High, over 300 feet.

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3.4 Advantages
There is no type of dam more permanent than one of the solid concrete, nor does any
other type require less for maintenance. as compare to earth and rockfill dams gravity dams
have the following advantages
1. Gravity dams are relatively more strong and stable than earth dams. they are
particularly suited across gorges having very steep side slopes where earth dam, of
constructed, might slip.
2. Gravity dam is especially suited to such areas where there is likelihood of very heavy
downpour.
3. A gravity dam requires the least maintenance.
4. A gravity dam is cheaper in the long run since it is more permanent than any other
type. thus the benefit-cost ratio of such a dam is always high.
5. Deep set sluices can be used in the gravity dams, to retard the sedimentation or silt
deposit in the reservoir.
6. A gravity dam can be constructed upto any height, provided suitable foundations are
available to bear the stresses. the height of the dam is usually limited by the stability
of its slopes requiring a very wide base width.
7. Gravity dams are well adapted for use as an overflow spillway crest. earth dams
cannot be used as overflow dams.
8. The failure of a gravity dam, if any, is not sudden. it gives enough warning time
before the area to downstream side is flooded due to the damage to the gravity dams.

3.5 Disadvantages
1. Gravity dams can be constructed only on sound rock foundations. they are unsuitable
on weak foundations or on permeable foundations.
2. The initial cost of a gravity dam is high. hence where funds are limited and where
suitable materials are not available, the gravity dam is not preferred.
3. If mechanized plants, such as manufacturing and transporting mass concrete , curing
of concrete etc. are not available, a gravity dam may take more time to construct.
4. Gravity dams require skilled labour or mechanized plants for its construction.
5. It is very difficult to allow subsequent rise in the height of a gravity dam, unless
specific provisions have been made in the initial design.

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3.6 Zones of storage in a reservoir
1. The maximum level to which the water will rise in the reservoir during ordinary
operation condition is called Normal Pool Level.
2. The level to which water rises during the design flood is known as Maximum Pool
Level.
3. The lowest elevation to which the water in the reservoir is to be drawn under ordinary
operating conditions is known as Minimum Pool Level.
4. Volume of water stored between normal pool level and minimum pool level is known
as Useful Storage.
5. The volume of water below the minimum pool level is known as Dead Storage and is
not useful under ordinary operating condition.
6. Volume of water stored between normal pool level and maximum pool level
corresponding to a flood is called Surcharge Storage and is usually uncontrolled.
7. The terms Bank Storage and Valley Storage are referred to the volume of water
stored in the previous formation of the river banks and the soil above it.

Fig 3.7 Zones of Storage in a Reservoir

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3.7 Forces acting on gravity dams
Following are the forces acting on Gravity Dams,

1. Water Pressure

2. Uplift Pressure

3. Pressure due to Earthquake

4. Silt Pressure

5. Wave Pressure

6. Ice Pressure

7. Wind Pressure

8. Weight of the Dam

3.8 Modes of failure

1. Overturning

2. Sliding

3. Compression

4. Tension

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 Chapter 4

Preliminary Considerations

4.1 Engineering Surveys

Engineering surveys for dam safety include the study and selection of sites for new
dams, construction surveying, and the procurement of data for design and analysis. For new
construction, engineering surveying is closely allied to the various stages of project
development. The American Society of Civil Engineers (1985) published a manual on
engineering surveys, which includes a chapter on dam construction. It is a good reference for
practicing engineers to use in planning preliminary and design surveys.
Site Selection Survey
An engineering survey program for a dam generally originates as a preliminary or
reconnaissance study of one or more sites. The preliminary study does not determine the
feasibility of a project; it does, however, provide an important source of data for planners and
designers of the project to use in making siting and preliminary design determinations. The
preliminary survey and siting procedure begins with the best available contour maps. If the
maps used are from two or more sources, care must be taken to insure that the vertical datums
are compatible. Possible site locations can then be noted on these maps and a limited amount

15
of field work performed to verify the accuracy of the maps at the published scale. Any
changes which have taken place subsequent to development of the maps can be noted during a
field reconnaissance. Care must be exercised when using old maps. Several years 'are
involved in the compilation of mass-produced maps, and many years may pass before the
maps are revised. Significant changes may have taken place in the area since the maps were
compiled, which could seriously impair the accuracy and usefulness of the maps. Unless the
project is very small in scope, photogrammetric mapping probably will be the most
economical and expedient means for obtaining the necessary large scale, detailed topographic
maps for the engineering design and construction operations. The optimum time for obtaining
the photography for mapping is the time interval from January through early pril. This is
primarily due to the better sun angle and absence of foliage on the trees. it is advisable for the
owner to obtain the written consent of all persons, agencies, or authorities owning property
which may be inundated by the dam on a temporary or permanent basis. This will require a
determination of the impoundment area below the top of dam elevation.

Construction Surveying

Upon completion of the engineering design for the project, location and construction surveys
and documentation will be required. Dam site center lines are usually staked for the
convenience of the design engineers, but offset reference monuments will be needed to re-
establish the center line location as construction proceeds. These offset reference monuments
should carry both horizontal and vertical positions. If the area is heavily wooded, the control
reference line may be located along a roadway, railway, or electric power Transmission line
clearing which roughly parallels the stream. Offset traverses to the reference line can then be
computed in the office and surveyed in the field. Construction control requirements usually
involve more than the basic establishment of centerlines and strategically located bench
marks. Supplemental control may also be required at many locations around and on a
structure for activities such as setting concrete forms and aligning pipes. During construction,
survey checks should be made from time to time of monuments to detect any horizontal or
vertical disturbance which may have been caused by construction equipment

16
construction. The reference line documentation should be preserved for use in post
construction maintenance and control surveys. In order to obtain a construction permit to
build a dam greater than 35 feet in height, hydrological information must be analyzed and
submitted. This includes the flow elevation of all spillways, channel profiles and cross
sections the water storage elevation, inlet and outlet works elevations, and stage-storage
information for the reservoir. This information is normally included on the plans. It is
necessary to know the topography of the dam site to design a spillway system that will keep
the dam from being overtopped during the design flood.

Analysing Existing Dams

Dam safety inspections include an engineering survey to obtain data to perform a

hydrologic and hydraulic analysis of the dam and to determine the slope of the embankment
faces. The survey includes a profile of the crest, a cross section of the embankment at the
maximum section, invert elevations of pipes, cross sections of open channel spillways,
location and top elevation of dikes along the discharge channel, and dimensions of inlet and
outlet structures. The two most common methods employed by the staff of the Dam and
Reservoir Safety Program are stadia surveys and level and tape surveys. The primary benefit
of performing a stadia survey is to develop a plan of the dam and spillways. The location of
observable defects such as slides, uncontrolled seepage exit points, and cracks can be
determined and plotted on a plan view. It also gives the engineer analysing the dam additional
information concerning the location of the spillways and discharge channels in relation to the
dam. The survey notes should include information about the type of surface in the spillway.
The information should be sufficient to estimate the roughness of the channel at each cross
section.

4.2 Geological Considerations

Careful evaluation of geologic conditions at potential lake sites and sound design and
construction practices can greatly enhance lake development. It can also save the owner
money during the lifeof the dam. All dams seep, and below normal rainfall, combined with
high rate of seepage can cause wide fluctuations in lake levels at some reservoirs. When dams
are constructed without any borings or consideration for the geological conditions of the lake

17
site, the likelihood that the dam 'will experience seepage and safety problems increases
dramatically. Unfortunately, many owners discover that a geological investigation should
have been performed after the dam is built. Seepage and stability problems are frequently
linked to geologic conditions. To reduce seepage, it is sometimes necessary to grout the
abutments or foundation, construct a new cut off trench, or construct an Impermeable earthen
blanket in the reservoir basin. These are all expensive options, particularly if the work is done
after the dam is built. A surface geological evaluation of the proposed lake site should be
made by a qualified geologist. The purpose of the visual investigation is to observe geologic
conditions that are not evident from maps or reports of previous studies. At the same time,
observations can be made of the presence or absence of springs or seeps, the type and
thickness of soil, the characteristics of exposed bedrock outcrops, the presence of karst
features, and whether the stream is losing or gaining.
The actual interval will depend on local conditions and the length of the proposed
dam. There should be at least one hole in each abutment and two of the valley holes should
extend 10 to 20 feet into bedrock. Back holes pits can be excavated in potential borrow areas
to determine the type and quantity of material available to construct the dam. Care must be
taken in obtaining samples from the borrow areas to determine the strength of the soil that
will be used in the dam. soil does not have predictable strength properties like concrete or
steel. It must be tested at the density at which it will be placed to determine its strength.
Construction permits issued by the Dam and Reservoir Safety Program require that density
testing of the fill be performed during construction. This requirement is made to insure that
the material is placed in accordance with the design specifications.

4.3 Hydraulic Considerations

The hydraulic calculations that are performed in a dam safety analysis involve the
principles of fluid mechanics, and the laws of continuity, conservation of momentum, and
specific energy. Many dams have a combination of closed conduit spillways, open channel
spillways, and gates and valves for water supply and other uses. It is important that the
engineer be familiar with the principles of hydraulic engineering in order to determine the
capacity of these spillways.
After the spillways are rated, an overtopping analysis can be conducted. In order to perform
an overtopping analysis, the inflow hydrograph must be routed through the reservoir to

18
determine the maximum water surface elevation during the spillway design flood (SDF). This
information not only determines whether a dam can safely pass the SDF; it also defines the
maximum reservoir loading condition for the slope stability analysis. The purpose of this
section is to provide the engineer with the techniques commonly employed by the staff of the
Dam and Reservoir Safety Program to perform these computations.

4.4 Hydrologic Considerations

The analysis of an existing dam and the design of a new dam includes the hydrological
analysis of the watershed and a hydraulic analysis of the spillways. Generally the hydrologic
computations conclude with the computation of the inflow hydrograph to the reservoir.
Parameters used in the hydrologic analysis include the watershed area, unit hydrograph
parameters, lag time, total rainfall, rainfall distribution (hyetograph), infiltration
characteristics of the watershed, and initial abstraction. In the case of kinematic and dynamic
wave modeling and breach analysis, channel routing will also be included in the definition of
hydrological computations.
Hydraulic computations involve reservoir routing and rating open channel and closed
conduit spillways. This differentiation, although not universal in the field of civil engineering,
will nonetheless be used throughout this booklet. The flood used for design to prevent the
failure of the dam is termed the 'spillway design flood" (SDF). The spillway design flood is
the specified flood discharge that may be expected from the most severe combination of
critical meteorological and hydrologic conditions that are reasonably possible in an area and
for which the dam and reservoir are designed. Determination of the spillway design flood is
based on a rational consideration of the chances of the simultaneous occurrence of several
elements or conditions which contribute to the flood. is primarily concerned with synthetic
hydrology and techniques used to simulate the rainfall runoff process on a watershed.

Downstream Environment Zone

The downstream environment zone is defined as an area downstream from a dam that
would be affected by inundation in the event the dam failed with the reservoir at the
emergency spillway crest elevation or the dam crest elevation, in the absence of an emergency
spillway. This is typically termed a 'sunny-day" failure. Inundation is defined as a minimum
of 2 feet of water over the first floor elevation of affected structures. Three environmental

19
classes are defined in 10 CSR 22-2.040(1). Class I is high hazard, Class II is significant
hazard, and Class III is low hazard. If a sufficient number of homes are located downstream
of a dam, a breach analysis is required to justify a Class II or Class III downstream
environmental zone designation. It may be advantageous to the engineer performing the
computations to meet with the staff of the Dam and Reservoir Safety Program before a breach
analysis is conducted.

Watershed Data

All available information concerning watershed characteristics should be assembled.

A map of the drainage area should be prepared showing the drainage system, contours,
drainage boundaries, and locations of any precipitation stations and stream flow gaging
stations. Available data on soil types, cover, and land usage provide valuable guides to
judgment and should also be assembled. If the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) has published
a soil survey booklet for the county in which the drainage area is located, a soil map can be
developed. Engineers are advised to contact the county SCS office for a copy of the soil
survey booklet. land use, such as woodland, pasture, farmland, and residential can be
determined from several sources such as topographic maps, tax reassessment photographs,
and Agricultural Stabilization and Conservation Service (ASCS)aerial photographs.
For large watersheds, it is advisable to divide the drainage area into sub basins on the
basis of size, drainage pattern, existing and proposed facilities, vegetation, and soil and cover
types. The sub basin hydrographs are channel routed downstream to the reservoir. Upstream
dams and reservoirs may be included in the analysis. Any upstream dam that is found to
overtop during the spillway design flood must either be considered to breach or omitted from
the analysis. Breaching is assumed to commence when the reservoir exceeds the lowest
elevation on the crest of the dam. The breach hydrograph is then routed downstream and
added to the inflow hydrograph at the next reservoir. It is advisable to calibrate the spillway
design flood results to historical flood events where adequate stream gage data are available.

20
 Chapter 5

Forces Acting On Gravity Dam

5.1 Introduction

Technically a concrete gravity dam derives its stability from the force of gravity of the
materials in the section and hence the name. The gravity dam has sufficient weight so as to
withstand the forces and the overturning moment caused by the water impounded in the
reservoir behind it. It transfers the loads to the foundations by cantilever action and hence
good foundations are pre requisite for the gravity dam.
The forces that give stability to the dam include:

1. Weight of the dam

2. Thrust of the tail water

The forces that try to destabilize the dam include:

1. Reservoir water pressure
2. Uplift

21
 3. Forces due to waves in the reservoir
4. Ice pressure
5. Temperature stresses
6. Silt pressure
7. Seismic forces
8. Wind pressure
Safety of the dam structure is to be checked against possible loadings, which may be
classified as primary, secondary or exceptional. The classification is made in terms of the
applicability and/or for the relative importance of the load.

1. Primary loads are identified as universally applicable and of prime importance of

the load.
2. Secondary loads are generally discretionary and of lesser magnitude like sediment
load or thermal stresses due to mass concreting.
3. Exceptional loads are designed on the basis of limited general applicability or
having low probability of occurrence like inertial loads associated with seismic activity.

For consideration of stability of a concrete dam, the following assumptions are made:

1. That the dam is composed of individual transverse vertical elements each of which
carries its load to the foundation without transfer of load from or to adjacent elements.
However for convenience, the stability analysis is commonly carried out for the whole
block.
2. That the vertical stress varies linearly from upstream face to the downstream face on
any horizontal section.

The Bureau of Indian Standards code IS 6512-1984 “Criteria for design of solid gravity
dams” recommends that a gravity dam should be designed for the most adverse load condition
of the seven given type using the safety factors prescribed.
Depending upon the scope and details of the various project components, site
conditions and construction program one or more of the following loading conditions may be
applicable and may need suitable modifications. The seven types of load combinations are as
follows:

22
 Figure 5.1: Different forces acting on a concrete gravity dam

1. Load combination A (construction condition): Dam completed but no water in reservoir or

tail water
2. Load combination B (normal operating conditions): Full reservoir elevation, normal dry
weather tail water, normal uplift, ice and silt (if applicable)
3. Load combination C: (Flood discharge condition) - Reservoir at maximum flood pool
elevation ,all gates open, tail water at flood elevation, normal uplift, and silt (if applicable)
4. Load combination D: Combination of A and earthquake
5. Load combination E: Combination B, with earthquake but no ice
6. Load combination F: Combination C, but with extreme uplift, assuming the drainage holes
to be Inoperative
7. Load combination G: Combination E but with extreme uplift (drains inoperative)

The forces to be resisted by a gravity dam fall into two categories as given below:
1. Forces, such as weight of the dam and water pressure which are directly calculated from the
unit weight of materials and properties of fluid pressure and

23
2. Forces such as uplift, earthquake loads, silt pressure and ice pressure which are assumed
only on the basis of assumptions of varying degree of reliability. In fact to evaluate this
category of forces, special care has to be taken and reliance placed on available data,
experience and judgment.

5.2 Water Pressure

Water pressure (P) is the most major external force acting on such a dam. The
horizontal water pressure, exerted by the weight of the water stored on the upstream side on
the dam can be estimated from rule of hydrostatic pressure distribution; which is triangular in
shape.
The pressure due to water in the reservoir and that of the tail water acting on vertical
planes on the upstream and downstream side of the dam respectively may be calculated by the
law of hydrostatics. Thus, the pressure at any depth H is given by γH kN/m² acting normal to
the surface. When the dam has a sloping upstream face, the water pressure can be resolved
into its horizontal and vertical components, the vertical component being given by the weight
of the water prism on the upstream face and acts vertically downward through the center of
gravity of the water area supported on the dam face.

Figure 5.2: Water Pressure distribution diagram

In spillway section, when the gates are closed, the water pressure can be worked out in
the same manner as for non–overflow sections except for vertical load of water on the dam
itself. During overflow, the top portion of the pressure triangle gets truncated and a trapezium
of pressure acts.

24
 Figure 5.3: Horizontal water force on spillway block during flood water overflow

The pressure due to tail water is obtained in a similar manner as for the upstream reservoir
water. If there is tail water on the downstream side, it will have horizontal and vertical
components, as shown in Figure:

Figure 5.4: Water pressure acting on the dam on both faces

25
External water pressure:

It is the pressure of water on the upstream face of the dam. In this, there are two cases:
(i) Upstream face of the dam is vertical and there is no water on the downstream side
of the dam.

Figure 5.5: Water pressure acting on U/S vertical face

The total pressure is in horizontal direction and acts on the upstream face at a height from
the bottom. The pressure diagram is triangular and the total pressure is given by:

Where w is the specific weight of water. Usually it is taken as unity.

‘H’ is the height up to which water is stored in m.
(ii) Upstream face with batter and there is no water on the downstream side.
(iii) Here in addition to the horizontal water pressure as in the previous case, there is
vertical pressure of the water. It is due to the water column resting on the upstream
sloping side.

26
The vertical pressure acts on the length ‘b’ portion of the base. This vertical pressure is
given by:

Figure 5.6: Water pressure acting on u/s inclined face

Pressure acts through the center of gravity of the water column resting on the sloping
upstream face.
If there is water standing on the downstream side of the dam, pressure may be calculated
similarly. The water pressure on the downstream face actually stabilizes the dam. Hence as an
additional factor of safety, it may be neglected.

5.3 Earthquake forces / Seismic Forces

Earthquake or seismic activity is associated with complex oscillating patterns of

acceleration and ground motions, which generate transient dynamic loads due to inertia of the
dam and the retained body of water. Horizontal and vertical accelerations are not equal, the
former being of greater intensity.

27
 The earthquake acceleration is usually designated as a fraction of the acceleration due
to gravity and is expressed as α⋅g, where α is the Seismic Coefficient. The seismic
coefficient depends on various factors, like the intensity of the earthquake, the part or zone of
the country in which the structure is located, the elasticity of the material of the dam and its
foundation, etc. The effect of earthquake is equivalent to acceleration to the foundation of the
dam in the direction in which the wave is travelling at the moment. Earthquake wave may
move in any direction and for design purposes, it is resolved into the vertical and horizontal
directions. On an average, a value of 0.1 to 0.15g (where g = acceleration due to gravity) is
generally sufficient for high dams in seismic zones. In extremely seismic regions and in
conservative designs, even a value of 0.3g may sometimes by adopted.

Vertical acceleration reduces the unit weight of the dam material and that of water is

to times the original unit weight, where the value of g accounted against
earthquake forces, i.e. 0.1 is when 0.1g is accounted for earthquake forces. The horizontal
acceleration acting towards the reservoir causes a momentary increase in water pressure and
the foundation and dam accelerate towards the reservoir and the water resists the movement
owing to its inertia. The extra pressure exerted by this process is known as hydrodynamic
pressure.

Traditionally concrete gravity dams have been analyzed & designed by a procedure
suggested by Westergaard in which the earthquake forces consisting of inertia &
hydrodynamic forces are treated as static ones combined with hydrostatic water pressure,
gravity loads, etc.

For the purpose of determining the value of the seismic coefficient which has to be
adopted in the design of a dam, India has been divided into five seismic zones, depending
upon the severity of the earthquakes which may occur in different places.
The BIS code also indicates two methods that may be used for determining the coefficient
‘α’.

These are:
1. The Seismic Coefficient Method (for dam height up to 100m)
α=ίΙα0
2. The Response Spectrum Method (for dams taller than 100m)

28
α = ί Ι Φ0 (Σα/ΰ)
In the above expressions,
ί = Soil-foundation system factor, which may be taken as 1.0 for dams
I = Importance factor, which may be taken as 2.0 for dams
α0=the basic seismic Coefficient, the value of which for each of the five zones:

Figure 5.7: Seismic zones of India as per IS: 1893-2002 (Part 1)

29
 A map showing these zones is given in the Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 1893-
2002(Part-1) “Criteria for earthquake resistant design of Structures (fourth revision)”, and has
been reproduced.

Table 5.1: Values of basic seismic coefficient for different zones

Zone α0

I 0.01
II 0.02
III 0.04
IV 0.05
V 0.08

F0 = the seismic Zone Factor for average acceleration spectra, the value of which for each of
the five zones is given in the following table:

Table 5.2: Values of seismic zone factor for different zones

Zone F
0

I 0.05
II 0.10
III 0.20
IV 0.25
V 0.40

Sa/g = the average acceleration coefficient that has to be read from, corresponding to the
appropriate natural period of vibration and damping of the structure.

The natural (or fundamental) period of vibration of a gravity dam may be determined by the
following expression:

Where,
T = the natural period of vibration of the dam, in seconds

30
 H = the height of the dam, in m
B = the base width of the dam, in m
ΰm = Specific weight of the material with which the dam is constructed. For concrete
dams, it may be taken as about 26.5KN/m3
g = Acceleration due to gravity (=9.8m/s2)
Es = Modulus of elasticity of the dam material. For concrete dams, it may be taken as about
32.5 GPa

Using the value obtained for the natural period of vibration (T) of the dam, and
assuming the recommended value of 5 percent damping, as per IS: 1893-1984, the value of
(Sa/g) may be obtained and the value of the seismic coefficient computed using the
appropriate equation.

As mentioned earlier, the earthquake forces cause both the dam structure as well as the
water stored in the reservoir to vibrate. The forces generated in the dam are called the Inertia
Force and that in the water body, Hydrodynamic Force. Since the earthquake forces are
generated due to the vibration of the earth itself, which may be shaking horizontally in the two
directions as well as vibrating vertically. For design purpose, one has to consider the worst
possible scenario, and hence the combination that is seen to be the least favorable to the
stability of the dam has to be considered.

When the dam has been newly constructed, and the reservoir has not yet been filled,
then the worst combination of vertical and horizontal inertia forces would have to be taken
that cause the dam to topple backward. The notations used in the Figure are as follows:

Hu: Horizontal earthquake force acting in the upstream direction

HD: Horizontal earthquake force acting in the downstream direction

Vu: Vertical earthquake force acting upwards

VD: Vertical earthquake force acting downwards

31
 Figure 5.8: Worst combination of earthquake forces under reservoir empty condition

Under the reservoir full condition, the worst combination of the inertia forces is the one which
tries to topple the dam forward.

Figure 5.9: Worst combination of earthquake forces under reservoir full condition

In the Seismic Coefficient method, the horizontal and vertical acceleration coefficients, αh and
αv, respectively, are assumed to vary linearly from base of the dam to its top.

32
 Figure 5.10: Variation of horizontal & vertical acceleration in terms of the basic seismic coefficient

In order to find the force generated due to the acceleration, it would be necessary to
divide the dam into horizontal strips, finding out the force on each strip, and then integrating
for the total dam height. This has to be done for both horizontal force H and vertical force V.
Taking moment of these forces for each strip about any point in the dam body (say the heel or
the toe) and integrating over the dam height would give the moment due to horizontal and
vertical earthquake forces.

Figure 5.11: Earthquake acceleration forces in an infinitel horizontal strip in the body of the dam

33
 In the Response Spectrum method, the horizontal seismic coefficient αh is assumed to
be equal to the value of the seismic coefficient α obtained by the appropriate equation. The
horizontal force HB per unit length of the dam and its moment MB about any point in the base
of the dam is obtained by the following expressions:
HB = 0.6 Wαh
MB = 0.9 W hαh
Where
W = Weight of the dam per unit length in KN/m
αh = Seismic coefficient as obtained by the appropriate equation, and
hαh = Height of the center of gravity of the dam above the base, in m.
For any horizontal section within the dam body, lying at a depth y from the top of the dam,
the horizontal force Hy per unit length of the dam and the bending moment My may be
obtained as follows:
Hy = CH . HB
My = CM . MB
Where CH and CM are coefficients that may be read out from Figure 5.12

Figure 5.12: Variation of coefficients CM & CH

As for the vertical earthquake force calculation by the Response Spectrum method, the
vertical seismic coefficient αu has to be assumed to vary from zero at base up to 0.75α at the
top, where α is the seismic coefficient calculated appropriately. The method for calculating
the vertical force and its corresponding moment has to proceed as for the seismic coefficient
method.

34
 The hydrodynamic pressure generated due to the horizontal movement of the water
body in the reservoir and its consequent impinging against the dam may to be calculated by
the following formula:

Where
P = Hydrodynamic pressure, in KN/m2 at any depth y below the reservoir surface
Cs = Coefficient which varies with the shape of the dam and the depth of the reservoir,
which may be found by the method indicated below
ΰ = Unit weight of water, in KN/m3
h = Total water depth in reservoir, in m
The variation of the coefficient Cs may approximately be found for a dam with vertical or
constant upstream slope as:

Where,
Cm = Maximum value of Cs
y = Depth of horizontal section under consideration below the water surface, in m
h = Total depth of water in reservoir
For dams with combination of vertical and sloping faces, an equivalent slope may be
used for obtaining the approximate value of Cs. If the height of the vertical portion of the
upstream face of the dam is equal to or greater than one-half the total height of the dam,
analyse it as if vertical throughout. If the height of the vertical portion of the upstream face of
the dam is less than one-half the total height of the dam, use the pressure on the sloping line
connecting the point of intersection of the upstream face of the dam and the reservoir surface
with the point of intersection of the upstream face of the dam with the foundation.
If there is tail water on the downstream, then there would be appropriate
hydrodynamic pressure on the downstream face of the dam.
Under reservoir full conditions, the most adverse seismic loading will then occur when
a ground shock is associated with the Horizontal foundation acceleration operating upstream
& vertical foundation acceleration operating downwards. The acceleration intensities are
expressed by acceleration coefficients αh (Horizontal) and αv (vertical) each representing the
ratio of peak ground acceleration.

35
 Horizontal acceleration may cause the
Following two forces:
(I) Hydrodynamic Pressure

(II) Horizontal Inertia Force

Figure 5.13: Hydrodynamic pressure distribution diagram

Figure: Showing development of Hydrodynamic pressure by a horizontal earthquake moving towards
the reservoir. A similar pressure will be developed on d/s tail water when the earthquake is reversed.

5.4 Self Weight Of Dam

Dead load

The dead load comprises of the weight of the concrete structure of the dam body in
addition to pier gates and bridges, if any over the piers. The density of concrete may be
considered as 2400 kg/m³. Since the cross section of a dam usually would not be simple, the
analysis may be carried out by dividing the section into several triangles and rectangles and
the dead load (self-weight) of each of these sections (considering unit width or the block
width) computed separately and then added up. For finding out the moment of the dead load
(required for calculating stresses), the moments due to the separate sub–parts may be
calculated individually and then summed up.
Weight of the dam is the major resisting force.
•Unit length of the dam is consider.
•Total weight of the dam acts at the center of gravity of this section.

36
 Figure 5.14: FBD of dam showing weight of components
For a gravity dam the weight of the structure is the main stabilizing force, and hence
the construction material should be as heavy as possible. Structure self-weight is accounted
for in terms of the resultant, W, which acts through the centroid (centre of gravity) of the
cross-sectional area:

W = ΰc * A

Where,
ΰc = the unit weight of concrete

A =cross-sectional area of the structure

In the determination of the dead load, relatively small voids, such as galleries, normally are
not deducted unless the engineer judges that the voids constitute a significant portion of the dam's
volume. The dead loads considered should include weights of concrete and superimposed backfill, and
appurtenances such as gates and bridges.
The unit weight of concrete may be assumed to be 24 kN/m3 in the absence specific data
from laboratory test trials.

5.5 Uplift Pressure

Uplift forces occur as internal pressure in pores, cracks and seams within the body of the
dam, at the contact between the dam and its foundation and within the foundation. The recent trends
for evaluating uplift forces is based on the phenomenon of seepage through permeable material.

37
Water under pressure enters the pores and fissures of the foundation material and joints in the dam.
The uplift is supposed to act on the whole width plane that is being considered, either at the base or
at any position within the dam. The uplift pressure on the upstream end of the considered horizontal
plane is taken as γhu where hu is the depth of water above the plane. On the downstream the value is
γhd where hd is again the depth of water above the plane.

Figure illustrates the uplift pressure on a concrete gravity dam’s non overflow section
through two planes – one at the base and the other at the horizontal plane which is above the tail
water level. In Figure 25, the drainage holes either in the body of the dam, or within the foundation
has not been considered. If the effects of the drainage holes are considered, then the uplift pressure
diagram gets modified as shown in Figure. If there is crack at any plane of the dam, or at the base
then the uplift pressure diagram gets further modified.

Figure 5.15: Uplift pressure at base & on any general plane in the dam body (drainage holes are not
considered)

38
 Figure 5.16: Uplift pressure diagrams considering horizontal cracks at any general plane at the base

As such, the uplift pressure is assumed to act throughout the base area. Further it is also assumed
that they remain unaffected by earthquakes.

5.6 Water pressure below the base of the dam or Uplift pressure

When the water is stored on the upstream side of a dam there exists a head of water equal to
the height up to which the water is stored. This water enters the pores and fissures of the foundation
material under pressure. It also enters the joint between the dam and the foundation at the base and
the pores of the dam itself. This water then seeps through and tries to emerge out on the downstream
end. The seeping water creates hydraulic gradient between the upstream and downstream side of the
dam. This hydraulic gradient causes vertical upward pressure. The upward pressure is known as
uplift. Uplift reduces the effective weight of the structure and consequently the restoring force is
reduced. It is essential to study the nature of uplift and also some methods will have to be devised to
reduce the uplift pressure value.

39
 Figure 5.17: Uplift pressure acting on dam body
With reference to Figure 3, uplift pressure is given by:

Where is the uplift pressure, B is the base width of the dam and H is the height up to which

water is stored. This total uplift acts at from the heel or upstream end of the dam. Uplift is
generally reduced by providing drainage pipes or holes in the dam section. Self-weight of the dam is
the only largest force which stabilizes the structure. The total weight of the dam is supposed to act
through the center of gravity of the dam section in vertically downward direction. Naturally when
specific weight of the material of construction is high, restoring force will be more. Construction
material is so chosen that the density of the material is about 2.045 gram per cubic meter.

40
 Figure 5.18: Position of Gallery, drainage hole, curtain grout hole, ventilation

Internal Hydrostatic Loads (Uplift)

Any stability analysis of the dam should seek to apply forces that are compatible with
the failure mechanism being assumed. For this reason, it is less important to determine what
the uplift pressures on a dam are at present than it is to determine what they would be during
failure. The uplift distributions recommended herein are consistent with the failure modes
being assumed. Uplift should be assumed to exist between the dam and its foundation, and
within the foundation below the contact plane and it should also be applied within any cracks
within the dam. Uplift is an active force which must be included in the analysis of stability.
Uplift shall be assumed to act over 100 percent of the area of any failure plane whether that

41
plane is within the dam, at the contact with the foundation or at any plane within the
foundation.

Uplift reduction can be achieved through a drainage system, a grout curtain, or

sometimes simply by the accumulation of low permeability silt against the upstream face of
the dam. If uplift reduction is assumed in analysis, it must be verified by instrumentation.
There must also be a reasonable assurance that the uplift reduction effect that is measured
under normal conditions will persist under unprecedented load conditions such as extreme
floods or earthquakes.

Uplift reduction due to drainage assumes that the drainage system vents the high
pressure area under the dam to tail water pressure. This intended purpose can be thwarted
however if the drainage system exits into a region of high hydrodynamic pressure as shown in
Figure 5.18. In this case, the drainage system is vented to tail water under normal conditions,
however, during flood discharges the drain system can become pressurized.

I) Horizontal Planes within the Dam:

Uplift along failure planes within the body of the dam shall be assumed to vary from
100% of normal headwater at the upstream face to 100% of tail water or zero, as the case may
be, at the downstream face. When a vertical drainage system has been provided within the
dam, the drain effectiveness and uplift assumptions should follow the guidance provided in
paragraph 3-2.4.3 below, and should be verified by instrumentation.

II) Rock Foundations:

In the case of gravity Dams on rock foundations, a failure plane shall be assumed
between the dam and the foundation. In addition, the potential for failure planes in the rock
below the dam must be considered. Staff review of assumptions concerning uplift reduction
should always be conservative. Instrumentation data should be submitted in support of uplift
reduction assumptions, and even when instrumentation indicates that uplift reduction is
occurring, the reviewer must question whether or not the headwater, tail water and foundation
stresses that control the magnitude and distribution of uplift pressure will remain the same
under more severe conditions.

42
The uplift criteria cited herein may be relaxed only when sufficient field measurements of
actual uplift pressures justify any proposed deviations.

III) Uplift Assumptions:

Uplift at the foundation-concrete interface for structures having no foundation drains

or an unverified drainage system should be assumed to vary as a straight line from 100% of
the headwater pressure at the upstream face (heel) to 100% of the tail water pressure at the
downstream face (toe) applied over 100% of the base area. Local reductions in tail water
elevations produced by hydrodynamic effects described in section.

Uplift at the concrete/rock interface for structures having an open verifiable drainage
system should be assumed to vary as a straight line from full headwater pressure at the heel or
theoretical crack tip, to reduced uplift at the drain, and then to full tail water pressure at the
toe .The drain effectiveness (E) must be verified by instrumentation and an effective
maintenance plan must be implemented. Note that if heads are measured from any other
datum than the dam base, the dam base elevation must be subtracted from the absolute heads
to yield uplift pressure. It is also assumed that the gallery is free draining.

Figure 5.19: Formation crack at the heel before drainage line

43
Figure 5.20: Formation of crack which extends beyond the drain line

44
 The assumption of full reservoir uplift in the non-compressive zone results from the
realization that if the crack width becomes sufficiently large, the base will become exposed to
the reservoir and the drains will become completely in-effective. This assumption is
compatible with the limit state failure mechanism that is considered in an overturning failure.
For this reason, uplift on any portion of the base or section not in compression should be
assumed to be 100% of the assumed upstream head except when the non-compressive
foundation pressure is the result of earthquake forces. If, however, instrumentation can verify
use of less than 100%, then uplift pressure may be reduced accordingly. Uplift distribution for
the case in which the theoretical foundation crack extends beyond the line of drains.

Deviations from the pressure distributions may be considered provided there is

sufficient justification such as instrumentation of foundation abnormalities. Typically,
measured drain efficiency must be considered valid only for the reservoir loading at which the
measurement was taken. Extrapolation to higher reservoir levels in the absence of supporting
field data is not valid, especially where the applied forces from the unusual loading condition
are significantly different than the usual loading condition. However, extrapolation of drain
efficiencies for higher reservoir levels may be allowed on a case-by-case basis. Staff
engineers should consider the specific conditions at each project to determine if extrapolation
of drain efficiencies is valid.

The difference in the character of foundation stresses produced. Crack extent and
dimensions are influenced by the stresses imposed on the foundation. If analysis indicates that
the foundation stresses will be significantly different, crack geometry and therefore drain
efficiency may be different.

a) The difference between drain efficiency assumed in the design and the measured drain
efficiency. If there is some margin for error, extrapolation is easier to justify.

45
b) The degree of understanding of the geology of the foundation of the dam. As outlined in
paragraph 3-5.3, a reduction in the uncertainties associated with the selection of design
parameters can lead to a corresponding reduction in required factors of safety. This principle
can also be applied to the extrapolation of drain efficiencies. Better definition of the geologic
characteristics of the foundation which affect seepage parameters can also reduce the
uncertainties associated with drain efficiency extrapolation.

c) The sensitivity of the stability drain effectiveness assumptions. If drain efficiency is

required to keep the theoretical base crack from extending all the way through the dam,
extrapolation of drain efficiency assumptions into unprecedented loading conditions should be
viewed with great skepticism.

Grouting

Grouting alone should not be considered sufficient justification to assume an uplift

reduction. A grout curtain may retard foundation flows initially, but the degree of uplift relief
may be lessened as the age of the dam increases due to deterioration of the curtain. A drainage
system should be utilized downstream of grout curtains and, a monitoring system should be
employed to determine actual uplift pressures and to detect any reduction in drain efficiency
due to clogging of the drains.

Apron

Upstream and downstream aprons have the effect of increasing the seepage path under
the dam. For an upstream apron properly sealed to prevent leakage, the effect is to reduce the
uplift under the dam. The effectiveness of upstream aprons in reducing uplift is compromised
if cracks and joints in the apron permit leakage.

Conversely, downstream aprons such as stilling basins have the effect of increasing uplift
under the dam. In the case of downstream aprons, it may be assumed that uplift is limited to
that which would float the apron.

46
 Figure 5.21: Changes in Uplift Pressure due to apron

5.7 Wave Pressure

The reservoir behind a dam is prone to generation of waves produced by the shearing
action of wind blowing over the surface. Of course, the pressure of the waves against massive
dams of appreciable height is not of much consequence. The height of wave is generally more
important in determination of the free board requirements of dams to prevent overtopping of
the dam crest by wave splash. The force and dimensions of waves depend mainly on the
extent and dimensions of waves depend mainly on the extent and configuration of the surface
area of the reservoir, the depth of the reservoir, and the velocity of the wind. The procedure to
work out the height of waves generated, and consequently derive the safe free board, may be
done according to the method described in IS: 6512-1984 “Criteria for design of solid gravity
dams”. However, since it is a bit involved, a simpler method is prescribed as that given by the
Stevenson formula (Davis and Sorenson 1969):

HW = 0.34 √𝐹 + . − . √𝐹
Where,
Hw = Height of wave, crest to trough, in m
F= Fetch of the reservoir, that is, the longest straight distance of the
reservoir from the dam up to the farthest point of the reservoir.

When the fetch exceeds 20Km, the above formula can be approximated as:

47
Since the height of the generated waves must be related to the wind velocity, the original
formula has been modified to

HW = 0.032 √𝑉𝐹 + . − . √𝐹

Where, V = wind speed along the fetch (km/h)

Stevenson’s approximate formula is applicable for wind speeds of about 100km/hour, which
is a reasonable figure for many locations. It is conservative for low wind speeds but under
estimates waves for high wind speeds.

The pressure intensity due to waves (Pw, in KN/m2) is given by the following expression:
PW = 23.544 HW

Hw =height of wave in m. and occurs at 1/8Hw above the still water level
The total wave pressure Pw per unit length (in KN/m) of the dam is given by the area of the
triangle and is given as:
PW = 20 (HW)2
The center of application is at a height of 0.375Hw above the still water level

Free board

Free board is the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the sill water level.
IS: 6512-1984 recommends that the free board shall be wind set-up plus 4/3 times wave
height above normal pool elevation or above maximum reservoir level corresponding to
design flood, whichever gives higher crest elevation. Wind set-up is the shear displacement of
water towards one end of a reservoir by wind blowing continuously – or in repeated regular
gusts – from one direction.

The Zuider Zee formula (Thomas, 1976) and recommended by IS: 6512-1984 may be used as
a guide for the estimation of set-up(S):

S=

Where,
S = Wind set-up, in m

48
 V = Velocity of wind over water in m/s
F = Fetch, in km
D = Average depth of reservoir, in m, along maximum fetch
A = Angle of wind to fetch, may be taken as zero degrees for maximum set-up
K = A constant, specified as about 62000

Set-up of the reservoir will depend upon the period of time over which the wind
blows, that is, at least 1hour, for a fetch of 3km or 3hours for a fetch of 20km. On a 80km
fetch, a wind speed of 80 km/hour must last for at least 4hours, whereas for a wind speed of
40km/hour it must last around 8hours for maximum set-up.

The free-board shall not be less than 1.0m above Maximum Water Level (MWL)
corresponding to the design flood. If design flood is not same as Probable Maximum Flood
(PMF), then the top of the dam shall not be lower than MWL corresponding to PMF.
Waves are generated on the surface of the reservoir by the blowing winds, which exert a
pressure on the downstream side. Wave pressure depends upon wave height which is given by
the equation.
For F < 32 km,
.
Hw = 0.032√𝑃𝑉 + . − . 𝐹
For F > 32 km,
Hw = 0.032√𝑉𝐹
Where,
Hw= the height of water from the top of crest to bottom of trough in meter
V =Wind velocity in km/hour
F = Fetch or straight length of water expanse in km.
The maximum pressure intensity due to wave action may be given by:
ℎ ⁄
𝑃 = . .ℎ And acts at meters above the still water surface.

49
 Figure 5.22: Design height of wave for provision of freeboard

ℎ ⁄
The pressure distribution may be assumed to be triangular of height

Hence total force due to wave action

Pw = . ℎ ℎ

Acting at ℎ above the reservoir surface.

5.8 Silt Pressure

The weight and the pressure of the submerged silt are to be considered in addition to
weight and pressure of water. The weight of the silt acts vertically on the slope and pressure
horizontally, in a similar fashion to the corresponding forces due to water. It is recommended
that the submerged density of silt for calculating horizontal pressure may be taken as 1360
kg/m³. Equivalently, for calculating vertical force, the same may be taken as 1925 kg/m³.
If h is the height of silt deposited, then the forces exerted by this silt in addition to the external
water pressure, can be represented by Rankine’s formula.

𝑃𝑖 = 𝑘

Acting at ℎ⁄ from the base.

Where,
− 𝑖 𝛷
𝑘 = coefficient of active earth pressure of silt =
+ 𝑖 𝛷

50
 = angle of internal friction of soil, cohesion neglected.

= submerged unit weight of silt material.

h = height of silt deposited.

Reservoir Silt

Reservoir silt can reduce uplift under a dam in a manner similar to an upstream apron.
14/ Uplift reduction should be justified by instrumentation. Because of potential liquefaction
of the silt during a seismic event, uplift reduction due to silt may be lost in seismic situations.
If liquefaction occurs, pore pressure in the silt will increase. This condition of elevated pore
pressure may persist for some time after the seismic event. For this reason, uplift reduction
due to silt may not be relied upon when considering post-earthquake stability.

Earth and Silt Pressures

Earth pressures exerted on dams or other gravity structures by soil backfills should be
calculated as outlined in reference 19. In most cases, at rest earth pressures should be
assumed. The rigidity of the foundation and the character of the backfill, along with the
construction sequence, may affect this assumption. The unit weight of the backfill and
material strength parameters used in the analysis should be supported by site investigations.
If the backfill is submerged, the unit weight of the soil should be reduced by the unit weight
of water to determine the buoyant weight.

Earth backfill on the downstream side of a gravity dam has a beneficial effect on
stability, however, if flood conditions can overtop the dam and lead to erosion of the backfill,
it cannot be relied upon for its stabilizing effects.

The silt elevation should be determined by hydro graphic surveys. Vertical pressure
exerted by saturated silt is determined as if silt were a saturated soil, the magnitude of
pressure varying directly with depth. Horizontal pressure exerted by the silt load is calculated
in the same manner as submerged earth backfill. Silt shall be assumed to liquefy under
seismic loading. Thus, for post-earthquake analysis, silt internal shear strength shall be
assumed to be zero unless site investigations demonstrate that liquefaction is not possible.
The gradual accumulation of significant deposits of fine sediment, notably silt, against the

51
face of the dam generates a resultant horizontal force, Ps.

5.9 Ice Pressure

The ice which may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries
may sometimes melt and expand. The dam face is subjected to the thrust and exerted by the
expanding ice. This force acts linearly along the length of the dam and at the reservoir level.
The magnitude of this force varies from 250 to 1500 kN/sq.m depending upon the
temperature variations. On an average, a value of 500 kN/sq.m may be taken under ordinary
circumstances.

Ice pressure is created by thermal expansion of the ice and by wind drag. Pressures
caused by thermal expansion are dependent on the temperature rise of the ice, the thickness of
the ice sheet, the coefficient of expansion, the elastic modulus and the strength of the ice.
Wind drag is dependent on the size and shape of the exposed area, the roughness of the
surface, and the direction and velocity of the wind. Ice loads are usually transitory. Not all
dams will be subject to ice pressure and the engineer should decide whether an ice load is
appropriate after consideration of the above factors. An example of the conditions conducive
to the development of potentially high ice pressure would be a reservoir with hard rock
reservoir walls which totally restrain the ice sheet. In addition, the site meteorological
conditions would have to be such that an extremely rigid ice sheet develops. For the purpose
of the analysis of structures for which an ice load is expected, it is recommended that a
pressure of 5000 pounds per square foot be applied to the contact surface of the structure in
contact with the ice, based upon the expected ice thickness. The existence of a formal system
for the prevention of ice formation, such as an air bubble system, may reduce or eliminate ice
loadings. Information showing the design and maintenance of such a system must be provided
in support of this assumption.

Ice pressure should be applied at the normal pool elevation. If the dam is topped with
flashboards, the strength of the flashboards may limit the ice load.

Some rivers are subject to ice and debris flow. Current Bourne ice sheets weighing
several tons, and/or debris can impact dams and cause local damage to piers, gates or
machinery. Several dams have experienced very large reservoir surcharges under moderate

52
flood events due to plugging of spillway bays by debris or floating ice. When the ability of a
spillway to pass floods is evaluated, the effect of ice and debris should be considered.

The ice may be formed on the water surface of the reservoir in cold countries, may sometimes

melt and expand.

• The dam face has to resist the thrust exerted by the expending ice.
• The magnitude of this force varies from 250 to 1500 KN/m2 depending upon the
temperature variations. Temperature & Aggregate Reactivity

Volumetric changes caused by thermal expansion and contraction, or by

alkali/aggregate reactivity affect the cross valley stresses in the dam. These stresses are
important when 3 dimensional behaviour is being considered. Expansion will cause a dam to
wedge itself into the valley walls more tightly, increasing its stability. Contraction has the
opposite effect. While these effects are acknowledged, the beneficial effect of expansion is
difficult to quantify even with very elaborate finite element models because it is contingent on
the modulus of deformation of the abutments which is highly variable.

For this reason, the beneficial effects of expansion should not be relied upon in three
dimensional stability analysis. If it appears that contraction will cause monolith joints to open,
and thus compromise force transfer from monolith to monolith, this effect should be
considered.

5.10 Wind Pressure

Wind pressure: In designing a dam section, wind pressure is generally not considered. It may
be taken as 100 to 150 kg/m2 for the area exposed to the wind pressure.

53
 Chapter 6

Stability checks for gravity dam

6.1 Introduction
The stability analysis of gravity dams may be carried out by various methods, of
which the gravity method is described here. In this method, the dam is considered to be made
up of a number of vertical cantilevers which act independently for each other. The resultant of
all horizontal and vertical forces including uplift should be balanced by an equal and opposite
reaction at the foundation consisting of the total vertical reaction and the total horizontal shear
and friction at the base and the resisting shear and friction of the passive wedge, if any. For
the dam to be in static equilibrium, the location of this force is such that the summation of
moments is equal to zero. The distribution of the vertical reaction is assumed as trapezoidal
for convenience only. Otherwise, the problem of determining the actual stress distribution at
the base of a dam is complicated by the horizontal reaction, internal stress relations, and other
theoretical considerations. Moreover, variation of foundation materials with depth, cracks and
fissures which affect the resistance of the foundation also make the problem more complex.

The internal stresses and foundation pressures should be computed both with and
without uplift to determine the worst condition. The stability analysis of a dam section is

54
carried out to check the safety with regard to :
1. Rotation and overturning
2. Translation and sliding
3. Overstress and material failure

Fundamentally a gravity dam should satisfy the following criteria:

1. It shall be safe against overturning at any horizontal position within the dam at the
contact with the foundation or within the foundation.
2. It should be safe against sliding at any horizontal plane within the dam, at the
contact with the foundation or along any geological feature within the foundation.
3. The section should be so proportional that the allowable stresses in both the
concrete and the foundation should not exceed.

6.2 Stability against overturning

Before a gravity dam can overturn physically, there may be other types of failures,
such as cracking of the upstream material due to tension, increase in uplift, crushing of the toe
material and sliding. However, the check against overturning is made to be sure that the total
stabilizing moments weigh out the de-stabilizing moments. The factor of safety against
overturning may be taken as 1.5. As such, a gravity dam is considered safe also from the point
of view of overturning if there is no tension on the upstream face.

If the resultant of all the force acting on a dam at any of the section, passes outside the
toe, the dam shall rotate and overturn about the toe. If the resultant of all the forces acting on a
dam at any of its sections passes outside the toe, the dam shall rotate and overturn about the
toe. The factor of safety against overturning (F.S.O.) generally varies from 1.5 to 2.
-Factor of safety against overturning, Fo, in terms of moments about the downstream toe of
the dam:

∑ +
𝐹 =
∑ −

It may be noted that ‘M-ve’ is inclusive of the moments generated by uplift load Fo > 1.25
may be acceptable, but F0 ≥ 1.5 is desirable

55
 Resisting moments
F. O. S against overturning =
Overturning moments

The horizontal pressure of the water tends to tip the wall forward about the front of
any joint, and is resisted by the moment of the weight of the wall. For the present, it will be
assumed that the wall rests upon a rigid base, and therefore can fail only by overturning as a
whole.

The conditions necessary for stability against overturning can be completely

determined either by considering the moments of the several forces, or by the principle of
resolution of forces. In the following discussion the conditions will be first determined by
moments, and afterward by resolution of forces.

Overturning Moment

The pressure of the water is perpendicular to the pressed surface. If the water presses
against an inclined face, then the pressure makes the same angle with the horizontal that the
surface does with the vertical. Since there is a little difficulty in finding the arm of this force,
it is more convenient to deal with the horizontal and vertical components of the pressure.

The overturning effect of the pressure of the water is equal to the moment of the
horizontal component minus the moment of the vertical component. The moment of the
vertical pressure on the inclined face is which, for convenience, if the pressed face is vertical,
M, will be equal to zero.

The moment of the pressure of the water can be determined directly by considering the
pressure of the water as acting perpendicular to vertical face. The arm of this force is a line
from the perpendicular to the line of action of the pressure. If the cross section were known, it
would be an easy matter to measure this arm on a diagram; but, in designing a dam, it is
necessary to know the conditions requisite for stability before the cross section can be
determined, and hence the above method of solution is the better.

Resisting Moment

The moment of the weight of the dam is the moment resisting overturning. This force

56
acts vertically through the center of gravity of the dam. The center of gravity can be found
algebraically or graphically. There are several ways in each case, but the graphical solution is
the simplest.

Factor of Safety

In order that the wall may not turn about the front edge of a joint, it is necessary that
the overturning moment shall be less than the resisting moment, as found by equation or, in
other words, the factor for overturning computing the stability against overturning, the
vertical pressure of the water against the inside face is frequently neglected; i.e., it is assumed
that ‘M’ as above, is zero. This assumption is always on the safe side. Computed in this way,
the factor of safety against overturning for the New Croton Dam the next to the largest
masonry dam in the world, varies between 2.07 and 3.68.

If the actual cross section of the dam is known, or if a cross section of the proposed
dam be assumed, the stability against overturning may be determined graphically by either of
the two.

In connection with the graphical determination of the stability of a dam against

overturning three distinct definitions of the factor of safety are employed:

1. If the factor of safety against overturning be defined as the ratio of the resisting moment to
the overturning moment, then for moments about A This value of the factor will not agree
with that, since in the former the vertical component of the pressure is included in the
overturning force while in the latter it is considered as a resisting force.

2. If the factor of safety be defined as the ratio of the force that would just overturn the dam to
the force tending to overturn it the factor of safety is F' _ F = ab' ab; or This value of the
factor agrees with that found by equation but does not agree with the value found by equation.

3. In the above methods of determining the factor of safety, no special account is taken of the
fact that, owing to the unsymmetrical cross section of the dam, the point in which the vertical
through the center of gravity of the dam pierces the base, g, is on the right-hand side of m, the
middle of the base; and consequently when there is no water pressure against the dam, there is
a tendency to overturn to the right instead of to the left, for any eccentricity of pressure upon

57
the foundation shows a tendency to overturn. Therefore the factor of safety found as above
counts, as it were, from the initial condition of the dam. In the following method it counts
from what may be called the neutral condition of the dam.

The approximate value of the factor of safety, i.e., the value given, is much used in
discussions of the stability of dams, retaining walls, and arches. For example, a very common
statement in considering the stability of such structures is: "If the center of pressure lies
within the middle third of any section, the factor of safety against overturning is at least 3."
This statement assumes that the true factor of safety against overturning, and that therefore if
the center of pressure is within the middle third of any section is equal to or less than 1.For
dams and retaining walls, particularly the former frequently gives 3 for a factor of safety,
when the true value is approximately 2; and hence the approximate formula should not be
used for these structures. The approximate factor of safety is universally employed in
discussions of the stability of arches in which the stresses are found by the thrust theory (the
older and more common theory); but the formula is usually more accurate for arches than for
dams and retaining walls, and besides the theory of the arch itself .

Effect of Percolating Water

Both of the preceding investigations of the stability of a dam against overturning are
based upon the assumption that water in hydrostatic condition does not find its way into the
masonry of the dam; and if this assumption is not true, the preceding conclusions must be
materially modified.

It is nearly, if not quite, impossible to make masonry absolutely impermeable under a

high head; but the water which forces its way through reasonably good masonry or concrete is
in a capillary state and not likely to exert any considerable hydrostatic pressure. If cracks are
formed, due to poor construction or to settlement or to temperature changes, which are large
enough to permit water to enter them under hydrostatic condition, the area subject to such
pressure is so small in comparison with the whole horizontal section of the dam that the effect
may be neglected. This view seems to be sustained by experience with masonry dams, which
shows that although all dams leak more or less, the water which comes through is not under
any appreciable pressure.* However, there is a considerable difference of opinion among
engineers as to the possibility of making masonry water-tight or of preventing cracks and

58
fissures which will give the water a free path into the body of the dam.

Some engineers claim that although the percolating water is not under pressure at the
down-stream face, it is likely to be at the up-stream surface, and that therefore the percolating
water should be assumed to be under full hydrostatic pressure at the up-stream face and
decrease to zero at the down-stream face.

In support of this view reference is frequently made to some experiments conducted in

1888 which showed that water pressure was communicated, almost undiminished, through a
layer of 1: 2 Portland-cement mortar 1 foot thick. However, these experiments were made
before the effect of a well-graded sand upon the density and permeability of a mortar was
clearly understood; and it is probable that the mortar employed was not as good as that now
ordinarily used in the construction of dams. "An examination of a few high masonry dams
seems to show that the pressure of the percolating water is slight and independent of the head
or of the thick ness of the masonry."* The most care should be taken with the up-stream face
so that it may be the most nearly water-tight portion of the dam; and if this is done, it is not
likely that water will exert hydrostatic pressure in the body of the dam, unless possibly the
down-stream face becomes water-tight through the freezing of the seepage water on or near
the surface. To obviate this possibility, drains are sometimes inserted in the masonry to carry
away any water that may seep through the up-stream face. These drains, or weepers, consist
of vertical pipes, 3 or 4 inches in diameter, having open joints or being perforated, placed 5 or
6 feet from the up-stream face and 8 or 10 feet apart, and connected to a drainage gallery in
the base of the dam which is drained by a cross tunnel to the downstream face.

In view of the above, it does not seem necessary to modify the above discussion of the
stability against overturning. Overturning stability is considered satisfactory if the resultant
intersects the base within the kern, and allowable stresses are not exceeded. For earthquake
loads, the resultant may fall anywhere within the base, but the allowable concrete or
foundation pressure must not be exceeded.

6.3 Stability against sliding

Many of the loads on the dam act horizontally, like water pressure, horizontal
earthquake forces, etc. These forces have to be resisted by frictional or shearing forces along

59
horizontal or nearly-horizontal seams in foundation. The stability of a dam against sliding is
evaluated by comparing the minimum total available resistance along the critical path of
sliding (that is, along that plane or combination of plans which mobilizes the least resistance
to sliding) to the total magnitude of the forces tending to induce sliding.

Sliding resistance is also a function of the cohesion inherent in the materials at their
contact and the angle of internal friction of the material at the surface of sliding. The junction
plane between the dam and rock is rarely smooth. In fact, special efforts are made during
construction to keep the interface as rough as possible. There may, however be some lower
plane in the foundation where sliding is resisted by friction alone especially if the rock is
markedly stratified and horizontally bedded. Figure shows a typical dam profile with the bed-
rock and foundation interface inclined at an angle α.

Factor of Safety against sliding (F) along a plane may be computed from the following
formula

𝐍 𝐥 𝐥 𝐍 𝐯 𝐥 𝐥
⁄𝐅 + ⁄𝐅
𝑭= 𝚽
𝐍 𝐥 𝐥 𝐥 𝐥

Where, Fφ and Fc are the Partial Factor of Safety in respect of friction and Partial
Factor of Safety of cohesion. IS: 6512-1984 recommends these values to be as given in the
following table:

The value of cohesion and internal friction may be estimated for the purpose of
preliminary designs on the basis of available data on similar or comparable materials. For
final designs, however, the value of cohesion and internal friction has to be determined by
actual laboratory and field tests, as specified in the Bureau of Indian Standards code IS: 7746-
1975 “Code of practice for in-situ shear test on rocks”.

In the presence of a horizon with low shear resistance, for example, a thin clay seam
or clay infill in a discontinuity, then it would be advisable to include downstream passive
wedge resistance P, as a further component of the total resistance to sliding which can be
mobilized. In this case, the Factor of Safety along sliding has to be found along plane B-B
computing the net shear force and net cohesive force along this plane.

60
The net shear force would now be equal to

(W cos α + ∑H sin α) tanΦ

Where, W is the weight of the wedge;

α is the assumed angle of sliding failure,
ΣΗ is the net destabilizing horizontal moment; and
φ is the internal friction within the rock at plane B-B.

The net cohesive force along plane B-B is determined as equal to C.AB-B. Here, C is the
cohesion of material and AB-B, the area, along plane B-B.

Resistance to sliding any plane above the base of a dam is a function of the shearing
strength of concrete, or of the construction lift joint. The sliding stability is based on a factor
of safety, Fs , as a measure of determining the resistance of the structure against sliding.
Estimated using one or other of three definitions:

•Sliding factor, Fss,

•Shear friction factor, Fsf,

•Limit equilibrium factor, Flf.

The resistance to sliding or shearing, which can be mobilized across a plane, is expressed
through the parameters cohesion, c, and frictional resistance, tan Φ.
Sliding Factor (Fss)

It is expressed as a function of the resistance to simple sliding over the plane

considered:

If the plane is inclined at a small angle α, the foregoing expression is modified to

61
Angle α is defined as positive if sliding operates in an uphill sense.

ΣV is determined allowing for the effect of uplift.

FSS on a horizontal plane should not be permitted to exceed 0.75 for a specified NLC; it may
be permitted to rise to 0.9 under ELC.
Shear-friction factor (Fsf)

FSF is the ratio of the total resistance to shear and sliding which can be mobilized on a
plane to the total horizontal load.

𝐹 =
∑𝐻

S is the maximum shear resistance, which can be mobilized

Where Ah is the area of plane of contact or sliding

For the case of a horizontal plane (α =0), the above equation is simplified to:

In some circumstances it may be appropriate to include downstream passive wedge resistance,

Pp, as a further component of the total resistance to sliding which can be mobilized

Sliding: weak seams and passive wedge resistance

This is effected by modifying the equations accordingly

In the presence of a horizon with low shear resistance, e.g. a thin clay horizon or clay
infill in the discontinuity, it may be advisable to make the assumption S =0, in the above
equation.

62
Limit equilibrium factor (FLE):

This approach follows the conventional soil mechanics logic in defining the limit
equilibrium factor, FLE, as the ratio of shear strength to mean applied shear stress across the
plane.

For a single plane sliding mode, the above equation will be:

ℎ + [∑𝑉 cos + ∑𝐻 sin ] 𝛷

𝐹 =
∑𝐻 cos − ∑𝑉 sin

Note that for α =0 (horizontal sliding plane) the above expression simplifies to
FLE = FSF

The recommended minima for FLE (limit equilibrium factor of safety) against sliding are
• FLE = 2.0 in normal operation, i.e. with static load maxima applied, and
•FLE = 1.3 under transient load conditions embracing seismic activity.

Notes:

1) Safety factors apply to the calculation of stress and the Shear Friction Factor of Safety
within the structure, at the rock/concrete interface and in the foundation.

2) Loading conditions

3) Safety factors should not be calculated for overturning, i.e., Mr / M0.

4) Clarification of the load conditions.

One of the main sources of uncertainty in the analysis of gravity dam stability is the amount
of cohesive bond present at the dam foundation interface. The FERC recognizes that cohesive
bond is present, but it is very difficult to quantify through borings and testing. It has been the
experience of the FERC that borings often fail to recover intact interface samples for testing.
In addition, strengths of intact samples that are recovered exhibit extreme variability. For this
reason, table 2A below offers alternative recommended safety factors that can be used if
cohesion is not relied upon for stability.

63
5) The worst static case is defined as the static load case with the lowest factor of safety. It
shall be up to the analyst to determine the worst static case and to demonstrate that it truly is
the worst static case.

6) Because the PMF is by definition the flood that will not be exceeded, a lower factor of
safety may be tolerated. Therefore if the worst static case is the PMF, a factor of safety of 1.3
is acceptable. If the IDF is not the PMF, then the safety factor for the worst static case shall
control. The factor of safety is the ratio of actual shear plane resistance to the shear plane
resistance that would allow the initiation of sliding. It is not a ratio of forces, but rather a
demand capacity ratio. For example, in a friction only analysis

𝛷
FSS =
𝛷

Shear

Resistance to shear within the foundation and between the dam and its foundation
depends upon the zero normal stress shear strength (cohesion) and internal friction inherent in
the foundation materials, and in the bond between concrete and rock at the contact surface.
Ideally, these properties are determined in the laboratory by triaxial and direct shear tests on
samples taken during construction, during a post construction drilling program, or in the field
through insitu testing. The possible sliding surface may consist of several different materials,
some intact and some fractured. Intact rock reaches its maximum break bond resistance with
less deformation than is necessary for fractured materials to develop their maximum frictional
resistances. Therefore, the shear resistance developed by each fractured material depends
upon the displacement of the intact rock part of the surface. This raises several issues,
including strain compatibility, point crushing strength, creep, and progressive failure which
must be considered in the selection of reasonable shear strength parameters.

The shear resistance versus normal load relationship for each material along the
potential sliding plane should be determined by testing wherever possible. Staff geotechnical
engineers should be consulted concerning the adequacy of any foundation evaluation program
and the interpretation of test results.

64
 In many cases, photographic records of the foundation before and during construction
are very useful in estimating overall foundation contact shear strength. Large scale roughness
which interrupts shear planes can force a shear through rock or shear through concrete
situation, justifying apparent cohesion, or much higher friction angles than small sample
testing would indicate. The reviewer should be aware however, that there may be one "weak
link" in the foundation. If large scale asperities prohibit sliding along the interface between
concrete and rock, attention should be focused on other area, such as planar concrete lift
joints, or adversely oriented rock joints beneath the dam.

Failure against overstressing & material failure

A dam may fail if any of its part is overstressed and hence the stresses in any part of
the dam must not exceed the allowable working stress of concrete. In order to ensure the
safety of a concrete gravity dam against this sort of failure, the strength of concrete shall be
such that it is more than the stresses anticipated in the structure by a safe margin. The
maximum compressive stresses occur at heel (mostly during reservoir empty condition) or at
toe (at reservoir full condition) and on planes normal to the face of the dam. The strength of
concrete and masonry varies with age, the kind of cement and other ingredients and their
proportions in the work can be determined only by experiment.

The calculation of the stresses in the body of a gravity dam follows from the basics of elastic
theory, which is applied in a two-dimensional vertical plane, and assuming the block of the
dam to be a cantilever in the vertical plane attached to the foundation. Although in such an
analysis, it is assumed that the vertical stresses on horizontal planes vary uniformly and
horizontal shear stresses vary parabolically, they are not strictly correct. Stress concentrations
develop near heel and toe, and modest tensile stresses may develop at heel. The basic stresses
that are required to be determined in a gravity dam analysis are discussed below:

Normal stresses on horizontal planes

On any horizontal plane, the vertical normal stress ( z) may be determined as:

65
 ∑ + ∑
𝜎 = −

Where,
ΣV = Resultant vertical load above the plane considered
T = Thickness of the dam block, that is, the length measured from heel to toe
e = Eccentricity of the resultant load
y = Distance from the neutral axis of the plane to the point at the heel.
y = -T/2 and at toe, y = +T/2.
Thus, at these points, the normal stresses are found out as under:
∑𝑉 𝑒
𝜎∑ℎ𝑒𝑒 = −

∑𝑉 𝑒
𝜎∑ 𝑒= +

Eccentricity (E) may be found out as:

Net moment
E=
Net vertical Force

Naturally, there would be tension on the upstream face if the overturning moments under the
reservoir full condition increase such that e becomes greater than T/6. The total vertical
stresses at the upstream and downstream faces are obtained by addition of external hydrostatic
pressures.

Shear stresses on horizontal planes:

Nearly equal and complimentary horizontal stress ( zy) and shear stresses ( yz) are developed
at any point as a result of the variation in vertical normal stress over a horizontal plane .The
following relation can be derived relating the stresses with the distance y measured from the
centroid:
𝐻
𝜏 =𝜏 =𝜏 − [ +𝜏 + 𝜏 ] + [ 𝜏 +𝜏 ]

66
Where,
yz D = ( zD – pD) tanφD, the shear stress at downstream face
yz U = -( zU – pU) tanφD, the shear stress at upstream face
H = the height of the dam
The shear stress is seen to vary parabolically from yz U at the upstream face up to yz D at the
downstream face.

Normal stresses on vertical planes

These stresses, y can be determined by consideration of the equilibrium of the

horizontal shear forces operating above and below a hypothetical element within the dam. The
difference in shear forces is balanced by the normal stresses on vertical planes. Boundary
values of y at upstream and downstream faces are given by the following relations:

𝜎 =𝑝 + 𝜎 −𝑝 𝛷
𝜎 =𝑝 + 𝜎 −𝑝 𝛷

Principal stresses

These are the maximum and minimum stresses that may be developed at any point
within the dam. Usually, these are denoted as 1 and 3 respectively, and are oriented at a
certain angle to the reference horizontal or vertical lines. The magnitude of 1,3 and 3 may be
determined from the state of stress z , y and yz at any point by the following formula:

𝜎 +𝜎 + 𝜎 −𝜎
𝜎 , = −
√ +𝜏

The maximum and minimum shear stress is obtained from the following formula:
The upstream and downstream faces are each planes of zero shear, and therefore, are planes of
principal stresses. The principal stresses at these faces are given by the following expressions:

𝜎 −𝜎
𝜏 =√ +𝜏

𝜎 =𝜎 𝑒 𝛷 −𝑝 𝛷

67
 𝜎 =𝑝

𝜎 =𝜎 𝑒 𝛷 −𝑝 𝛷

𝜎 =𝑝

Table no. 6.1: Permissible tensile stresses for various load combinations

Load combination Permissible tensile stress

C 0.01f
c
E 0.02f
c
F 0.02f
c
G 0.04f
c

Where fc is the cube compressive strength of concrete.

Small values of tension on the downstream face is permitted since it is improbable that a fully
constructed dam is kept empty and downstream cracks which are not extensive and for limited
depths from the surface may not be detrimental to the safety of the structure.

Material failure:

Permissible stresses in concrete:

According to IS: 6512-1984, the following have to be followed for allowable compressive and
tensile stresses in concrete:
Compressive strength of concrete is determined by testing 150mm cubes. The strength of
concrete should satisfy early load and construction requirements and at the age of one year, it
should be four times the maximum computed stress in the dam or 14N/mm 2, whichever is
more. The allowable working stress in any part of the structure shall also not exceed 7N/mm2.
Small values of tension on the downstream face is permitted since it is improbable that a fully
constructed dam is kept empty and downstream cracks which are not extensive and for limited
depths from the surface may not be detrimental to the safety of the structure.

68
6.4 Compression or Crushing

•A dam may fail by the failure of its materials.

•The compressive stress may exceed the allowable stress and the dam material may
get crushed.
The compressive stresses produced may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material
may get crushed.
Compression or crushing Every Point or section of the dam is subjected to compression.
When this Normal stress exceeds the permissible stress, then failure occurs due to
compression. It may be interesting to note that the normal stress can be direct as well as due to
bending stress.

Compressive

In general, the compressive strength of a rock foundation will be greater than the
compressive strength of the concrete within the dam. Therefore, crushing (or compressive
failure) of the concrete will usually occur prior to compression failure of the foundation
material. When testing information is not available this can be assumed, and the allowable
compressive strength of the rock may be taken as equal to that of the concrete. However, if
testing data is available, the safety factors from Table 2 should be applied to the ultimate
compressive strength to determine the allowable stress. Where the foundation rock is
nonhomogeneous, tests should be performed on each type of rock in the foundation.

Crushing resistance

An important parameter in the limit turning calculations is the crushing resistance of

the rock mass, Rcr. This is a better estimation of the resistance to shear loading compared to
the shear strength parameters friction angle and cohesion. The crushing resistance of the rock
mass should be obtained from geotechnical investigations and depends on the peak shear and
normal stresses acting on the rock. When the crushing resistance is exceeded and the crushing
zone is formed, a limit turning failure will occur.

A dam may fail by the failure of its materials, i.e., the compressive stresses produced
may exceed the allowable stresses, and the dam material may get crushed. The vertical direct

69
stress distribution at the base is given by:

∑ +
𝑝 = −𝐵
𝑖

Where, e is the eccentricity of the resultant force from the center of the base, the maximum
value of which can be permitted on either side of the center of the base is equal to B/6; ∑V is
the total vertical force; and B is the base width of the dam.

6.5 Tension

•Masonry and concrete gravity dam are usually designed in such a way that no tension
is developed anywhere, because the materials cannot withstand sustained tensile
stresses.
•If it subjected to such stresses, these materials may crack.
Gravity Dam Failure due to Tension Cracks:

Masonry and concrete are weak in tension. Thus masonry and concrete gravity dams
are usually designed in such a way that no tension is developed anywhere. If these dams are
subjected to tensile stresses, materials may develop tension cracks. Thus the dam loses contact
with the bottom foundation due to this crack and becomes ineffective and fails. Hence, the
effective width B of the dam base will be reduced. This will increase pmax at the toe. Hence, a
tension crack by itself does not fail the structure, but it leads to the failure of the structure by
producing excessive compressive stresses.

For high gravity dams, certain amount of tension is permitted under severest loading
conditions in order to achieve economy in design. This is permitted because the worst
condition of loads may occur only momentarily and may not occur frequently.

Tension Concrete or masonry is weak in tension. When a crack develops at the heel
the uplift pressure ally increase and the net downward vertical force or the stabilizing force
reduces. The force gets further shifted towards the toe, leading to lengthening of the crack.
This results allocation of the base width and increase in the tensile stress at the heel, till it fails
due to in other words, the tensile stress developed at the heel would exceed the permissible

70
stress.

A determination of tensile strength of the rock is seldom required because unhealed

joints, shears, etc., cannot transmit tensile stress within the foundation. Therefore, the
allowable tensile strength for the foundation should be assumed to be zero.

Masonry and concrete gravity dams are usually designed in such a way that no tension
is developed anywhere, because these materials cannot withstand sustained tensile stresses.
For achieving economy in designs of very high gravity dams, certain amount of tension may
be permitted under severest loading condition. The maximum permissible tensile stress for
high concrete gravity dams, under worst loadings, may be taken as 500 kN/m2.

71
 Chapter 7

Different methods

7.1 Introduction

Failure to meet minimum factor of safety using the analysis procedures for proposed
dam doesn’t real mean that dam rehabilitation & strengthening is required. Safety factors
themselves are judgmental & depend not only on the probability of designed loads occurring
during the life of project but also on the reliability & extent of foundation & material
investigation. In addition, actual loads may vary from design load.

The converse is also true. In other words the dam that established factor of safety may
not be safe if these factors were based on a poor foundation or material investigation or
inaccurate uplift and load assumptions.

Therefore, conclusion regarding the safety of an existing dam should be reached only
after obtaining expert advice regarding appropriate strength parameters, loads, analysis
procedure and additional explorations and testing required to conduct a stability analysis that
represents actual conditions.

The stability analysis of a given gravity dam section may be carried out by the

72
Following methods:

1) Gravity method or two dimensional method :

a) Graphical method
b) Analytical method
2) Trial load twist method
3) Slab analogy method
4) Lattice analogy method
5) Experimental methods:
a )Direct method
c) Indirect method
6) Limit equilibrium method
7) Cracked base analysis

7.2 Gravity method

This method of stress & stability analysis is used for following purposes:

 Preliminary studies of gravity dam, depending on the phase of evaluation & the
information required.
 Final evaluation of straight gravity dams in which the transverse contraction joints are
neither keyed nor grouted.

Using gravity method & elementary beam theory, the stresses in c/s of a gravity dam be
determined. It is applicable to gravity sections with a vertical u/s face & a constant d/s slope
& to those with a variable slope on either or both faces.
Use of this method requires that the following simplifying assumptions be made about loads
on the dam & the structural behavior of dam:

 The concrete in the dam is homogenous, isotropic, & uniformly elastic material.
 The da, acts as a rigid body with respect to dam foundation interface.
 All loads are transmitted to the foundation through cantilever action of the dam
without support from adjacent monoliths.
 Stresses are distributed in a linear manner on horizontal planes.

73
When using this method, foundation stresses & factor of safety are determined. The stability
factor of safety for sliding is often determined using the limiting equilibrium method of
analysis. Uplift is considered to reduce the normal force on shear plane & thereby reduce
frictional sliding resistance.

Stability against overturning is usually determined by calculating the location of the resultant
of all forces acting on dam & determining interface & foundation stresses. Uplift may or may
not be present. Therefore, foundation bearing pressures are evaluated for both possibilities.

7.3 Trial load method

A gravity dam may be made of a series of vertically cantilevered elements from

abutment to abutment. If the cross canyon profile is narrow with steep sloping walls, then
adjacent cantilevered elements will be of different lengths. The loads applied from the
reservoir will cause the longer elements to deflect more than shorter elements.

If the transverse contraction joints in the dam are keyed, the movement of each
cantilever will be restrained by adjacent element. The interaction between adjacent elements
will cause a twisting of the element & torsional moments. This condition changes the stress
distribution from that of ordinary 2D gravity analysis, in which the effects of torsion of the
elements & deformation of the foundation are neglected. A 3D analysis should be considered
for gravity dams with keyed contraction joints & a sloping foundation. In general a dam with
keys is more stable than the same dam without keys because of the keyed dam ability to
transmit loads to abutments.

If the adjacent elements are of the same length & on a relatively flat foundation, then
torsional stresses are usually negligible. However, additional stresses can also occur within
the dam if there is a sharp change in the shape of foundation. This condition usually occurs at
the abutments where foundation rock may change abruptly but it can also occur along a long
wide river channel. Such conditions are eliminated wherever possible by excavating to a
smooth profile.

The trial load method is sometimes used in the analysis of arch dams.

74
7.4 Finite element method

Dams of moderate height may be analyzed using above methods of analysis. However,
in high dams, additional stresses that occur near the base of dam, due to foundation yielding
may be important. Computer programs using finite element methods (FEM) permit the
engineer to closely model the actual configuration of the structure & its interaction with the
foundation. This method provides a more accurate picture of stress distribution & can more
reliably predict the response of dams to earthquakes.

Two-dimensional Finite element analysis:

In most cases, 2-D FEM may be used to model the c/s of dam & predict the behavior of
dam with sufficient accuracy. The following situations attributes make the 2-D FEM useful in
many situations:
 It is capable of analyzing the majority of problems associated with variations in
geometry of sections of the dam. 3-D effects can be approximated by doing a 2-D
analysis in more than one plane.(Full 3-D analysis is required for arch dam)
 It is capable of solving for stresses economically even when great detail is necessary
to attain sufficient accuracy.
 It is adaptable to gravity dam analysis when the assumption of planarity is used. The
stress results for loading of typical transverse sections are directly applicable. Sections
including auxiliary works can be analyzed to determine the stress distributions.
 It allows the foundation with its possible wide variation in mechanical properties to be
included with the dam in analysis. Weak seams of material can be included in
foundation.

Three dimensional Finite Element Analysis:

It is required under certain conditions when:

 Structure or loading is such that conditions cannot be modeled suitably in two

dimensions.
 The geometry of the problem is such that the stability of the dam depends upon the
stress distribution parallel to its axis, as in a curved in plan structure.

75
  The c/s of the dam or its loading is not uniform along its longitudinal axis.

For simplicity it may be preferable to approximate 3-D states of stress by combining the
results of 2-D FEM studies done on transverse & longitudinal sections of the structure.

Analysis of results of Finite Element Studies:

When an FEM analysis is conducted for static loads, the basic criteria apply.
Conventional factors of safety for sliding & overturning can be determined by integrating the
stress distributions at the structure to calculate resultant locations & to determine if shear
forces exceed dam or foundation capacities.
Because of the complexity of problems handled by FEM, computerized analysis is necessary.
Review of FEM studies should concentrate upon the modeling assumptions made and actual
computer input to ensure that the computer model accurately represents the structural
configuration of the dam & its foundation & that the material properties selected are
representative of actual conditions.
It is essential that an experienced structural engineer review any FEM data. Subtle changes in
material properties, boundary conditions, element type, & model geometry can have a
significant effect on the results. The person interpreting the results must be able to recognize
the influence of these factors on displacements & stresses in order to judge the reasonableness
of the analysis. These results are difficult to verify by hand actions.

7.5 Limit Equilibrium method

This analysis is based on the principles of structural & geotechnical mechanics. These
principles apply a factor of safety of the material strength parameters assuming that the
foundation materials are at a limit state or on the verge of shear failure. The analysis is
performed in a manner that places the forces acting on the structure & foundation in sliding
equilibrium.

A sliding failure will occur along a presumed failure surface when the applied
shearing force exceeds the resisting material strength. The failure surface can be any

76
combination of plane & curved surfaces but for simplicity all failure surfaces are assumed to
be planes that form the bases of wedges. The critical failure surface with the lowest FOS is
determined by an iterative process.

This method does not consider moment equilibrium & only force equilibrium is satisfied in
the analysis. The advantages of this method are its simplicity of calculation & its long history
of reliability in producing designs that are stable against sliding. The main disadvantage is
that no information on displacements is provided. Other disadvantages are that:
 Interaction between adjacent wedges is not considered.
 Strain compatibility is not considered.

This method computes the sliding FOS required to bring the sliding mass, consisting of
structural wedge & the driving & resisting wedges, into a state of horizontal equilibrium
along a given set of slip planes. The analysis requires a common factor for al wedges.

7.6 Cracked Base Analysis

A dam must be safe either with or without uplift. Therefore, the concrete stresses &
foundation reactions are computed with & without uplift to determine the critical load
conditions.

However, a higher uplift pressure must be considered for the region of the base that is
not in compression. This condition requires that the uplift diagram be modified and a cracked
base analysis be performed.

77
 Figure 7.1: Base pressures acting on gravity dam

The following are the basic considerations of this method:

 Extent of base cracking is determined by establishing the allowable tensile stress that
can be developed at any dam foundation interface & then using static equilibrium
procedures which properly consider all forces including uplift to determine a base
pressure distribution that satisfies both stress & equilibrium requirements. The base is
considered cracked when tensile stress exceeds the allowable. For earthquake stability
analysis due to oscilliary nature of earthquake loading, uplift is either assumed to be
unaffected by seismic events or assumed to be zero along the crack.
 Uplift may or may not be present. Therefore, base pressure distributions are
determined with & without uplift to obtain maximum bearing pressures.
 Sliding factors are calculated using only friction on the cracked portion of the base, &
friction plus cohesion on the uncracked portion.

78
  For the post-earthquake condition, normal & unusual load cases are revaluated with
proper consideration of the uncracked portion of the base.

Criteria:

When analysing new dams’ base cracking is usually not assumed for normal or
unusual loading but may be assumed for extreme loading. However, at existing dams, base
cracking is assumed for all loading conditions, provided that any potential crack that might
propagate under load will stabilize analytically within the base of the dam & provided that
adequate sliding safety factors are obtained using only the uncracked portion of the base.

When the extreme loading combination consists of an earthquake loading using the
seismic coefficient method, the basic requirements for stability under normal & unusual
combinations apply. The exception is that a cracked base analysis is allowed if the structure
stabilizes when the structure is analyzed. An analysis must be conducted of the post-
earthquake condition using the cracked base & modified material parameters to ensure
stability under normal & unusual loading combinations.

7.6 Use of computer programs

Commonly used programs such as SAP4, STRUDL, ADAP, ADINA, EAGD,

ADSAS, and ABAQUS & ANSYS are often accepted by design agencies without supporting
documentation. Program documentation should be provided for any software that has not
been thoroughly tested & proven to be accurate. Documentation should include samples of
verification runs & a description of the analysis procedures used.

Input data should be checked for accuracy to ensure that the computer model will
represent actual site conditions & parameters realistically predict the structural behavior of the
model & the loads to which it will be subjected.

Output data should be & compared to hand-calculated solutions to ensure that the
basic laws of statics have been satisfied that the summation of forces equals zero & the
summation of moments equals zero.

79
 Table 7.1: Methods for analyzing static stability

Method Description/application

Provides an approximate means for determining stresses in a c/s of a

Gravity method
gravity dam. It is applicable to gravity sections with a vertical u/s face &
a constant d/s slope& to those with variable slope on either or both
faces.
Used for gravity dams of moderate height that are made of a series of
Trial load method
vertically cantilevered elements whose interaction will cause a twisting
of the elements & torsional moments. Sometimes used in the analysis of
arch dams.
Used to model the actual configuration of a structure & its interaction
2-D Finite
with the foundation, Can be used to analyze most problems associated
Element Method
with variations in the geometry of sections of dam, Is capable of solving
for stresses economically. Is adaptable to gravity dam analysis when the
assumption of planarity is used. Allows the foundation to be included
with the dam in analysis.
Used where the structure or loading is such that conditions cannot be
3-D Finite
modeled suitably in two dimensions where the stability of the dam
Element Method
depends on the stress distribution parallel to dam’s axis or where the c/s
of the dam or its loading is not uniform.
It is based on principle of structural & geotechnical mechanics, applying
Limit Equilibrium
a factor of safety to the material strength parameters & assuming that the
Method
foundation materials are at a limit state. Places the forces acting on the
structure & foundation in sliding equilibrium. Considers only force
equilibrium, not moment equilibrium.
Used to determine the base cracking in dam. In existing dams, base
Cracked Base
cracking is assumed for all loading conditions, provided the crack
Analysis
stabilizes within the base of the dam & adequate sliding safety factors
are obtained using only the uncracked portion of the base.

80
 Chapter 8

Remedial measures for dam safety

8.1 Introduction
In evaluating the stability of concrete dams, as well as reviewing and evaluating
project data, it is helpful to understand what measures are commonly used to enhance static and
seismic stability. This knowledge will make it possible to identify features of a dam that are
important to stability.

This section provides an overview of typical stability design measures.it includes information on
the types of problems that are considered and the principal measures that may e applicable.

These measures include:

 Ample freeboard
 Geometric configurations to reduce tensile stresses in the foundation and in the mass
concrete
 Treatments to strengthen foundation and abutment materials
 Reduction of uplift pressures and seepage by means of drainage , foundation grouting, or cut-
offs

81
  Abutment and toe protection during overtopping
 Concrete strength and durability

8.2 Ample Freeboard

Freeboard is the distance between the stated water level and the top of the dam. Ample
freeboard is required to make sure the dam is not overstressed. Overtopping can lead to the
erosion of the foundation at the toe of the dam, with possible detrimental effects on sliding
and overturning resistance. The designer must, at a minimum, meet applicable policies and
regulations.

Consideration for providing ample freeboards includes:

 Wave setup from earthquake shaking, fault displacement in the reservoir, tilting of the reservoir,
and landslides into the reservoir.
 Possible storms and/or snowmelt runoff into a frozen reservoir (thereby reducing possible storm
water storage and routing.
 Capability of the outlet works to regulate the reservoir water surface in the event of unexpected
or extreme conditions.
 Potential settlement of soil foundations or elastic compression of soft rock foundations.

8.3 Geometric configuration to Reduce Tensile Stresses in Foundations

An analysis for overturning will determine if tensile stresses will occur on the base on
the base of the gravity or buttress dam during the earthquake. If excessive tensile stress will
occur then additional tensile stress must be applied to the base of the dam to offset this tension.
This is usually done by adding weight to the dam or by anchoring the base of the dam to the
foundation with tendons.

Arch dams usually doesn’t require any analysis for overturning. These dams are normally
analyzed as curved horizontal beams that transfer the reservoir load to the canyon walls.

82
 To ensure that the entire base of an arch dam is in compression (that is, that no tension
exists), good design practice dictates that the resultant force of all the loads must fall within the
center one-third portion of the base.

Any area along the base of a dam that is not in compression is considered “cracked,”
and a cracked base analysis is performed. Such an analysis frequently requires that full uplift
pressures be applied over the entire base of the dam that is not in compression. The analysis must
also satisfy stability requirements.

Generally speaking, the most effective geometric shape to deal with potential tension in
the foundation is a gravity section with a vertical upstream face and a sloping downstream
face, with the slope adjusted to meet the overturning stability and foundation tension
requirements. The base width of a gravity dam is usually from 70 to 90 percent of is height.

At sites where he cost of concrete is high, buttresses and possibly a downstream

apron may be considered. Buttresses, however, are more difficult to design and construct than a
gravity section, and they require a detailed structural analysis using reinforced concrete for the
aprons, buttresses, and faces of the dam.

8.4 Geometric configurations to reduce tensile stresses in mass concrete

Tensile stresses in mass concrete are generally a result of one of the following:

 High internal temperature gradients, which occur particularly where there is an anomaly,
discontinuity, or rapid change in geometry of the structure.
 Significant daily and seasonal changes in ambient temperatures.
 Load-induced stress concentration at openings ad abrupt changes in geometry, which produce
secondary tensile and shear stresses.
 Unanticipated foundation or abutment movements.

The following are some of the geometric configurations, or curved or transition sections used
with large sections.

83
 Gradual changes in section thicknesses, or curved or transition section used with large sections.
 Haunches or fillets used where smaller monolithic sections adjoin larger sections or in inside
corners of rectangular openings.
 Curved shapes in gallery or tunnel roofs, gates, and other openings.
 Drains, galleries, and other openings located away from the cold sources to keep the thermal
gradient lower and reduce the potential for cracking
 Properly designed expansion and contraction joints (including filler and joint sealer) where high
differential temperatures are likely to cause high mass volumetric and/or linear changes in the
concrete. Water-stops are used in joints to control seepage, and joint keys or steel dowels may be
used to maintain alignment where differential movement across the joint is a concern.

8.5 Treatments to strengthen foundation and abutment materials

The stability of a concrete dam also depends on the stability of the foundation and abutment
materials. Three of the most common types of treatments are:

 Smoothing the abutment areas

 Removal and replacement
 Rock reinforcement

Smoothing the abutment areas

Removing over hangs and smoothing sharp breaks in the slope between the foundation and
abutment helps to relieve stress concentrations that can cause cracking in the dam after
constructions. These areas are smoothed and, if necessary, reinforced with grout.

Removal and replacement

Overburden and weathered or badly fractured rock is removed to the competent rock formation.
It may be replaced with concrete to smooth the area and provide a more stable foundation.

Rock reinforcements
Rock reinforcements, such as rock-bolts, anchors, and tendons, stabilize slopes and increase the
overall strength of abutments and adjacent areas, rock-bolts, anchors, and tendons are steel rods

84
 or cables that are inserted through unstable rock or even structures to reinforce and anchor the
unstable element to a stable mass. Figure illustrates how a rock bolt holds together unstable
masses or rock.

8.6 Reduction of uplift pressures and seepage

Uplift pressures and seepage may be reduced by means of drainage systems, foundation
grouting, and cut-offs

Drainage systems
Leakage and seepage occur in all concrete dams. The amount of flow is a function of
the reservoir level, water tightness of joints and lifts, extent of cracking, foundation permeability,
reservoir rises, and the flow rate generally increases. As the temperature drops, the contracts,
joints or cracks to open, and the flow rate usually increases

Drainage systems designed to intercept and carry away leaking and seeping water are provide in
concrete dams to serve several purposes:

 To control and direct seepage to desired areas in order to prevent leaching of concrete, unsightly
conditions, and maintenance or operation problems.
 To reduce uplift pressures that may cause instability.
 To reduce seepage exit gradients that may cause piping and internal erosion in foundations and
abutments.

The design of a drainage system may include various drainage features that contribute to the
stability of the dam, such as formed drains, drainage gutters, and foundation drains.

Grouting of foundations and abutments

Two main types of grouting are done in association with concrete dams: surface grouting and
injected pressure grouting

85
 Dental grouting

It involves brooking grout slurry into cracks and small voids. It is normally performed on rough
surfaces of broken, fractured, and weathered rock. Dental grouting is used to achieve the
following purposes:

 To provide a smooth, regular surface for the placement of concrete.

 To provide a barrier to the vertical movement of soils and water across the interface of the dam
and foundation and abutments.
 To seal surface cracks and voids to prevent seepage along the interface from eroding the
foundation

Pressure grouting

It involves injecting grout (cement, betonies, or abutments) into deeper previous zones of
fractured rock. Pressure grouting is used:
 To reduce the quantity of seepage flow through the foundation or abutments.
 T reduce the seepage pressure down-streams from the grouting
 To fill voids.

During the course of investigation & analysis, deficiencies may be identified that require
some type of remedial action. Remedial measures may be of an emergency & temporary
nature or they may be of long term treatments:
 Emergency/temporary measures: Measures that must be undertaken immediately to
prevent failure of the dam or alleviate conditions that could lead to failure of dam.
 Long term measures: Repairs or improvements of a permanent nature that are used to
correct the identified deficiencies.

On occasion, deficiencies discovered during operation or inspection of a concrete dam may

require immediate action:
 Prevent failure of dam
 Alleviate conditions that could lead to failure of dam

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  Alleviate conditions that could impair the dam’s ability to operate as intended for
flood protection.

Following are the conditions that may require immediate action:

 Erosion of foundation materials
 Leakage through foundation & abutment materials that increases with time or shows
evidence of removing material.
 Instability of reservoir or abutment slopes or foundation along toe
 Excessive settlement

These conditions may call for immediate action because they can indicate events such as:

 Breach of the dam

 Overtopping of dam due to waves generated by u/s landslides
 Breaching of foundation to a point where piping, sliding or overturning failure occurs.

Measures to be considered:

When it is determined that immediate corrective action is required following measures are
considered:
 Drawing the reservoir down
 Sealing or draining cracks
 Modifying operational procedures
 Buttressing unstable slopes
 Emergency planning

Long time measures:

These are the repairs of permanent nature that are used to correct identified deficiencies. It
also includes monitoring to evaluate continuing deterioration & early warning systems to
mitigate the effect of failures.

Restoring structural integrity:

Modifications involving restoring integrity are:

 Increasing freeboard

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  Adding weight
 Anchoring
 Adding thrust blocks
 Repairing concrete

Repairing Foundation integrity:

Foundation can be modified to strengthen weak zones or discontinuities to reduce seepage

pressures acting on potential failure plains to reduce uplift pressures or to prevent erosion of
foundation material from abutment & toe areas. Modifications may involve:
 Reducing seepage & uplift pressures by improving drainage systems
 Grouting foundation & abutments
 Anchoring

Table no. 7.2: Drainage problems & solutions

Problems Drainage features Where used
Blanket drains of clean, coarse, highly Foundations of reasonably
Uplift pressures in
permeable gravel. homogenous rock/soil.
foundation
Finer filter matter beneath drain to prevent Where soil is fine enough
piping from foundation. to move into gravel drain.
Relief wells, which may operate Where foundation is
independently or in conjunction with stratified rock/soil or
blanket drain. irregularly fractured rock
of random nature.
Trench drains of clean, coarse gravel, Seepage area in d/d groin
Seepage pressures
perforated drain pipes. area
that may cause
Finer filter material placed beneath drain. Where soil is fine enough
sliding &
Trench drain. to move into gravel.
sloughing of
Area-type treatment of free drainage filter Seepage travelling in a
slopes
& drain blankets. confined zone.
Berms of drain & filter materials. Seepage through entire
abutment
Seepage low on abutment
or reservoir slope.

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 Relief wells.
Seepage exit
Trench drains of clean gravels placed Sand or silt foundation soil
gradients that may
transversely along d/s toe & allowed to of medium to low
cause piping &
exit freely at ground surface. plasticity or non-plastic.
internal soil
Riprap at surface of trench drains to
erosion
protect from scour.
Filter materials to protect drain materials Where soil is fine enough
from infiltration by soil. to move into gravel drain.
Uncontrolled Internal drainage into galleries, ports, Seepage within dam
seepage within tubes, etc.
dam

Table no. 7.3: Abutments and foundation protection

Protection Uses
material
Shot Crete Applied to surface to strengthen weak material. May be used for shallow joints
& fractures.
Pressure Used to improve mass integrity if fractures or joints are deep & open.
grouting
Concrete Placed to take impact of overtopping: to span over weaker rock without undue
aprons flexing or damage to rock or apron.
Anchor rods Drilled & anchored into deep rock to support & hold a concrete slab when
supporting rock is not sufficient to hold blocks of rock in place.
Gabions Rock-filled wire baskets placed on soil abutments or abutments foundations to
dissipate energy of flowing water.
Wire-pinned Placed on soft bedrock & soil foundations or abutments where overtopping is
rock infrequent, of short duration, or of low impact.
Heavy rock Placed on soft bedrock & soil foundations or abutments where overtopping is
riprap of low to moderate impact & greater duration. May require weep holes or pipes
where uplift seepage is present.
Grouted Placed on soft bed rock & soil foundations or abutments where overtopping is
rock riprap of low to moderate impact & greater duration. May require weep holes or pipes
where uplift seepage is present.

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 Chapter 9

MODERN STRUCTURAL ADVANCEMENT IN DAMS

9.1 Introduction
Due to immense advantages and characteristics of gravity dams, they have been used
worldwide but along with advantages there also disadvantages which makes it difficult for
various site conditions. The disadvantages include

 Their initial cost of construction is high.

 Their construction period is comparatively more.
 These require a strong and sound foundation.
 For the supervision of concrete dams, skilled labour is required.

The changes in the structural material of the dam can overcome these above advantages
without hampering the economy and also providing with the same structural stability.
The following new type of dams shows how the change in the structural material and
composition helps in withstanding the challenging site conditions where concrete gravity
dams may not be proposed.

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9.2 FSH dams

Gravity dams at least 100 meters high that are made using roller-compacted concrete
and feature the traditional vertical upstream facing and sloping downstream facing (0.8h/1v)
on a rigid foundation frequently are unsafe in an earthquake with horizontal acceleration of
0.2 g or more. Another serious restriction of traditional RCC dams is that they are not feasible
on a soil or weak rock foundation.

These restrictions can be overcome by changing the profile to a symmetrical triangular

cross-section with low cementitious content RCC, without horizontal joint treatment and with
a watertight upstream concrete facing. This new type of lean RCC dam — called FSH, with
both slopes of about 0.7h/1v — was introduced in 1992 and constructed in 1996 in the
Dominican Republic. Because of the symmetrical shape, the RCC does not require high shear
or compressive strengths, and there is no tensile stress at least for an earthquake with a
pseudo-static acceleration of 0.2 g.

A 100 meter-high FSH-REC dam was developed for a high seismic region and later
used in some dam projects in Russia. The outer zones of this dam, with slopes of 0.5-0.7 and
width of 3+0.1 H meters (where H is head), can be made with low cement content (<70
kg/m3). By placing a watertight membrane on the upstream slope (instead of a reinforced
concrete facing), the uplift in RCC joints or cracks is eliminated with no consequence on
water tightness or safety. The membrane is placed after completion of the dam to overcome
any difficulties with thermal cracking in RCC zones.

Construction

 Material consisting of rock fill with a diameter of 5-300 mm can be placed in the
central zone of the dam in a 60 cm-thick layer.
 Then 10-15 cm-thick cement-fly ash mortar is spread and penetrates into the coarse
pores.
 This penetration can be facilitated by two passages of a sheep roller, and compaction
can be achieved by two to three passages of a vibrating roller.
 This roller also can used to compact the 30 cm-thick layers of RCC placed in the outer
zones of the dam.

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  Because the rock fill layers are 60 cm thick compared with the 30 cm typically used
for RCC dams, and a membrane is placed on the upstream slope instead of a
reinforced concrete facing, the speed of construction for an FSH-REC dam will be
faster than for a homogeneous FSH dam.

Figure 9.1: C/S of a FSH-ACC dam

Compared With Gravity Dam

The comparative analysis was made in terms of factors of safety against sliding at the
foundation, of a 100 meter-high RCC dam with vertical upstream and sloping downstream
faces and an FSH-REC dam of the same height and sloping upstream and downstream faces.
Three foundation types were considered: rock (with the angle of inner friction 45 degrees),
alluvial (35 degrees) and moraine (30 degrees and cohesion 0.1 MPa).
Two operating cases were considered: static case with a maximum reservoir level and seismic
(pseudo static) case with ground acceleration of 0.2 g. In the seismic case, the shear wedge

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method was used to calculate the acceleration distribution because this method corresponds to
the shear movements of RCC dams during earthquakes. For both dams, uplift was taken at
40% of the force developed by a straight percolation line from full head upstream to no head
at the dam.
 Analysis results showed that a 100 meter-high RCC or conventional concrete gravity
dam are not feasible on a soft foundation (such as alluvium or moraine). On the
contrary, a 100 meter-high FSH-REC dam with both slopes of 0.6h/1v is quite feasible
on a soft foundation and of 0.5h/1v on a rock foundation
 the 100 meter-high FSH-REC dam with both slopes of 0.5h/1v has, at least, double the
seismic (dynamic) safety against action of the MCE compared with a traditional RCC
dam.

The new type of FSH-REC dam on rock or soil foundation is an attractive alternative to
traditional RCC or conventional gravity dams and is recommended when developing new
projects in seismic regions of Russia and other countries.
Examples of FSH dams that could be built using very lean RCC include:
— Cindere, a 107 meter-high FSH dam constructed in Turkey in 2005 on a soft rock
foundation in a seismic region;
— Yumagazinskaya, a 65 meter-high FSH-REC dam on a soil foundation in a seismic region
in Russia, which was developed as an alternative to a rockfill dam with a clay core.
— Ituango in Colombia, a 180 meter-high FSH dam on a rock foundation in a seismic region,
which was developed as an alternative to a concrete dam.

9.2 CSG Dams

The development of dam construction theories laid a foundation for dam safety,
allowing higher and higher dams to be built. Dam safety has been improved significantly,
especially since the 1990 s. However, dam engineers continue to seek new technologies to
build dams in a safer, more economical, and more environmentally friendly way.

The concrete gravity dam has a high degree of safety. A serious secondary disaster
will not occur in this type of dam, even if a dam block breaks or if overtopping occurs due to
an earthquake or to unexpected flood events

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This characteristic makes the concrete gravity dam stand out from other dam types. However,
concrete gravity dams are much more costly.
An idea for a new type of dam—partway between a concrete dam and an earth-
rockfill dam—was first proposed in 1941 by an American engineer, Homer M. Hadley, but
the idea was not taken into practice. The symmetric gravity dam (optimal gravity dam) was
proposed by Jérôme Raphaël in 1970, but no dams were constructed based on this concept. In
1992, Pierre Londe and Michel Lino proposed the concept of the symmetric concrete-faced
hardfill dam; this concept was reported in the International Commission on Large Dams
(ICOLD) Bulletin No. 117 under the title “The gravity dam: a dam for the future”. Marathia
Dam, completed in 1993, was the first hardfill dam. From that point on, several dams of this
type were built in Greece, the Dominican Republic, Peru, Turkey, the Philippines, and
Algeria.
One reason for the high cost of a gravity dam is that the strength of the concrete for
most parts of the dam is much higher than necessary. To make better and full use of local
materials, and based on the practices of the hardfill dam, trapezoid CSG dam, and CSGRD,
Jia put forward the concept of the cemented material dam (CMD).
The CMD is defined as a new dam type, partway between an embankment dam and a
concrete dam, and having the character of a gravity dam. Its main characteristics are as
follows:

(1) The dam structure is optimized in order to make better use of local materials. A cemented
soil dam (CSD) can be built when earthfill or fine material is possible, and a CSGRD can be
built when material with a diameter less than 300 mm is possible. A cemented rockfill dam
(CRD) can be built when material with a diameter larger than 300 mm is possible.

(2) Proper materials can be selected for the different parts of the dam in order to realize better
function of structures.

(3) The shape or type of the dam can be adjusted for better use of materials. Symmetric or
trapezoidal dam section is not always necessary.

It should be emphasized that the safety of CMD is similar or close to gravity dam. It should
be safe even when overtopping occurs; in addition, no serious secondary flood disaster would
occur for the area downstream, even if the dam breaks during an earthquake.

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 Figure 9.2: CSG - Tobetsu Dam in Japan (H=52m)

Progress of the cemented sand, gravel, and rock dam

For the CSGRD, sand, gravel, and rock are mixed with cementitious materials in order
to improve the cohesive strength. The stable slope ratio for a CSGRD can be calculated
according to the material cohesive strength, which is determined by lab tests. The stable slope
ratios are about 1:0.75, 1:0.3, and vertical, respectively, when the amount of cement per cubic
meter is 30 kg, 50 kg, and 80 kg. The material of a CSGRD has good compressive properties.
The dam cross-section can be symmetrical, trapezoidal, or traditional gravity shape. The
shape should be determined based on the material properties and the requirements of the dam
structure.

Many existing hard fill dams adopt a symmetrical section. Compared with a traditional
gravity dam section, the advantages of a symmetrical section are as follows:

(1) Homogenization of stress. Under the same load case, the stress at the dam heel is half of
that of a gravity dam when the reservoir is empty. The maximum normal stress and shear
stress at the contact between the dam and foundation are approximately 60% of those of a
traditional gravity dam. The resultant hydrostatic force on the upstream face passes
approximately through the centreline of the dam foundation section. Therefore, it causes no

95
rotation of the section, and the stresses of the foundation at the filling or emptying of the
reservoir experience little change.

(2) High degree of safety due to anti-sliding stability. The anti-sliding stability is less
sensitive to pore pressure at the contact between the dam and foundation. This allows the
drainage of the contact with the foundation to be simplified, and permits the hydraulic
gradient between the watertight curtain and the drainage curtain to be decreased. It is possible
to build a symmetrical dam for an erodible foundation or for a poor foundation, even though a
traditional gravity dam would not be acceptable.

The main progress that has occurred in the practice of this type of dam is as follows:

• The maximum diameter of the aggregates has increased from 80 mm to 150 mm (for dams)
and to 300 mm (for cofferdams). Sand and gravel from the riverbed, excavated material,
artificial aggregate, or a mixture of all of these can be used as the aggregate, which extends
the usage of local materials.
• Rich-mix CSGR and grouting-enriched vibrated CSGR are used for seepage control,
freezing/thawing resistance, and anti-carbonization zones.
• Dam function partition is considered in the structure design.
• Low CSGR dams can be built on a non-rock foundation.
• Cemented artificial sand and gravel (CASG) dams can be built.
• New equipment and systems, such as the material continuous mixer and the digital
automatic quality-control system, have been developed.

9.3 Concept of Rock-Filled Concrete Dam And Cemented Rock-fill Dam

The rock-filled concrete (RFC) dam was proposed and developed by Jin et al. Rock
fill can be cemented with a high-quality self-compacting concrete to build gravity dams and
arch dams. Stones with particle diameters larger than 300 mm are placed in layers that are
1.5–2.5 m in height. A high flow of high strength self-compacting concrete (HSCC) is poured
at the top of the rock fill to fill the voids in the rock fill. The stone size should be at least 10–
15 times greater than the aggregate size (which is usually less than 20 mm) in the HSCC to
ensure the filling performance of the HSCC; however, the preferable size is generally less

96
than 1/8 of the minimum size of the structural section. In some cases, if a heavy vehicle can
be employed to transport the stones to the working face, a few stones larger than 1 m (or even
2 m) can be used; these are usually placed in the middle part of the structure. The saturated
compression strength of the stone is generally required to be greater than double the
compressive strength of the RFC, so as to ensure higher safety factors of the prepared rock fill
concrete.

RFC technology combines the advantages of masonry and concrete, decreasing

cement consumption, lowering the temperature rise of hydration heat, and reducing the
shrinkage of the concrete. According to statistics from more than 50 projects in China, the
HSCC in RFC accounts for only 40%–45% of the volume. Much less cement is used in RFC
than in mass concrete.

The CRD was proposed by Jia based on RFC, although it can be built with a greater
choice of material and of construction methods than an RFC dam. The CRD requires further
investigation with real practice to continue its development.
Generally, the mix proportion of HSCC shall conform to the following requirements:

• The volume ratio of coarse aggregate is between 0.27 and 0.33;

• The water consumption is 170–200 kg·m−3;
• The water-cement ratio varies from 0.80 to 1.15 by volume;
• The volume ratio of mortar is between 0.16 and 0.20; and
• The air content of HSCC is 1.5%–4.0%, and shall be determined according to the frost
resistance, if there is a frost resistance requirement.

Design of RFC dam

The macro properties of RFC are similar to those of concrete. The design criteria used
in a concrete gravity dam can be adopted in order to determine the cross-section and recheck
the anti-sliding stability and dam stress for an RFC gravity dam. Due to the low cement
content, the distance between two transverse joints—that is, the width of a monolith—of an
RFC dam could be larger than that of a normal concrete gravity dam; it could reach 30 m or
more, depending on the amount of aggregate and cement in the HSCC, the property of the
stone in the RFC, the temperature condition, and the geological condition of the dam site.
Similar to an RCC dam, an RFC dam usually has an impervious layer arranged upstream.

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Only two recently built RFC arch dams have been completed. Although the behavior of both
has been very good during the impound process, more attention should be paid to the design
of an RFC arch dam. Since the stress level in an arch dam is higher than that in a gravity dam,
a cemented rock fill with a compression strength of C20 or higher should be adopted in the
arch dam body. The tensile strength of RFC should be 90% of that of HSCC; a factor that is
important in the design of an RFC arch dam. Because much more fly ash is used in HSCC, the
temperature rise of hydration heat will last a long time. The grouting time of the transverse
joint should be determined cautiously.

In 2005, RFC technology was first adopted in a project. To date, it has been
successfully applied in more than 80 projects (including dam rehabilitation) in China, for dam
heights between 30 m and 70 m. Of these RFC projects, 40.3% have dam heights between
30 m and 50 m, and 48.6% have dam heights between 50 m and 70 m. Based on the practice
in China, the cost of an RFC dam can be reduced by 10% to 30% under the same conditions
when compared with a concrete dam or an RCC dam.

9.4 Conclusions
Based on research and worldwide practice on the hard fill dam, CSG dam, CSGRD,
and RFC dam, the main progress and new principles are summarized as follows.

(1) Safety performance. The safety of the CMD is similar to that of a gravity dam with a
larger dam section. Although it can be overtopped or broken, it results in much less secondary
disaster for the downstream area compared with other type of dams when suffering from an
extraordinary flood or earthquake. The Hongkou CSGR cofferdam, with a height of 35.5 m,
demonstrated well during an 8 m overtopping flood. Many other CSGR or RFC cofferdams
have suffered similar loading cases and shown good performance. A CMD can be built in a
very strong earthquake area with a height over 100 m, such as Cindere Dam (107 m) in
Turkey, and have good performance.

(2) Economic and construction advantages. Work on CSGRDs and RFC dams indicates that
10% to 20% of the cost could be saved and the construction period could be significantly
reduced by the use of cemented material. Cemented material is usually prepared in a very
simple way, involving much less processing, and screening, grading, and mixing than
concrete. The consumption of cementitious material such as cement and fly ash is much lower

98
compared with that of a concrete dam or RCC dam. Thermal stress control measures are not
necessary in most construction cases. A digital system based on Global Positioning System
(GPS) and other information technologies (ITs) has been developed for the CSGRD in order
to conduct whole-process and real-time monitoring and quality control for raw material,
mixing, and construction. It demonstrates the ability to improve construction quality, and can
be used for other CMDs.

(3) Environmental benefits. A CSD can be built with local earth material. A CSGRD can be
built with sand, gravel, or artificial rock material when the material diameter is less than
300 mm, and an RFC dam (or a CRD) can be built when the material diameter is larger than
300 m. A dam can be built even on a non-rock foundation when the dam height is lower than
50 m. Therefore, a CMD can be built in a very environmentally friendly way.

(4) Design concept for a CMD. A new design concept has been proposed. The shape design of
a CMD is based on the concepts of optimizing the dam structure to make better use of local
materials and of selecting proper material for different parts of the dam in order to realize
better function of structures. A “symmetrical” or “trapezoidal” shape is not always necessary.
It is better to keep the material of the CMD inner dam body under a dry and compressive
stress status for all load cases. A material with good tensile strength, such as enriched CSGR,
concrete, or reinforced concrete, can be used for the dam’s outer parts with possible tensile
stress during construction or operation.

(5) Structural analysis and calculation method. The dam cross-section is basically determined
as being between those of a concrete dam and an embankment dam. The dam cross-section of
a CMD is enlarged compared with that of a gravity dam, in order to decrease the stress level,
expand the range of material usage, and decrease the requirement on the foundation.

Generally, the stress and stability of a CMD must satisfy the requirements of a gravity dam.
For a CSD, compared with other CMDs, the stability should be rechecked based on the
criteria for an earth dam. CMDs with heights less than 50 m can be built on a non-rock
foundation through investigation. The CMD can be widely used, especially for the large
number of small- or medium-sized projects that will be built in future.

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 Chapter 10

CASE STUDY: MIDDLE VAITARNA DAM

10.1 Introduction

The Brihan Mumbai Municipal Corporation, Mumbai proposed Middle Vaitarna Dam
Project in 2008, in the Sahyadri hill range of Maharashtra state.
The dam is located (Latitude 19o 42’ N, 73o 26’ E) near village Kochale, in Thane District,
located at a distance of 145kms from the city of Mumbai.
The middle vaitarna dam is located approximately 42 kms in the middle of the upper vaitarna
dam and modak sagar dam which are on the upstream and downstream side respectively of
the middle vaitarna dam.
The Middle Vaitarna Dam is 102.40m High and 565 m Long is Roller Compacted
Concrete (RCC) Dam. This dam is Largest and Second RCC Dam to be constructed in India.
The construction of the dam commenced in 2010 and completed in 2012.
60% fly-ash has been used instead of cement which was then transported from Eklahare
Thermal power station at Nashik. The Dam was constructed in 2012. The construction of the
main dam wall was completed in record period of 15 months 15 days, which listed it as the 9 th

100
fastest constructed dam in the world.

10.2 Purpose

The dam was proposed with the intention of supplying water to meet the growing water
demand of Mumbai. The city was receiving 3400 MLD of water compared to the 4000 MLD
of water demand, the construction of the new dam ensured 455 MLD of water vital for the
growing demand which was to be transported through a 40 km long pipeline to Bhandup
treatment plant before supplying to various parts of the city.

One of the purpose of the Brihan Mumbai municipal corporation was also to generate
electricity from the newly constructed dam but has not granted the permission yet. The BMC
had plans for the hydropower project to generate 25 MW of electricity, a BMC- appointed
consultant has been trying to get permission from the state government for a hydropower
project on the Middle Vaitarna Dam. Once the permission is granted, BMC will be the first
civic body in India to generate electricity.

10.3 Technical Details

1. Purpose - Water supply

2. Site start 27.10.2008
3. RCC start 05.05.2010
4. RCC completion 15.04.2012
5. Site completion 31.12.2012
6. Type of Dam – Concrete Gravity Dam
a. Construction type – Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC)
b. Height – 102.4 m
c. Length – 565 m
d. Volume of RCC – 1202 x 103 m3
e. Total volume – 1500 x 103 m3
7. Reservoir Capacity
a. Gross Storage – 202.1 x 106 m3

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 b. Dead Storage – 8.57 x 106 m3
c.
Live Storage – 193.53 x 106 m3
d. Losses due to Evaporation – 7.3 x 106 m3
8. Over-Flow Section
a. Spillway type – Ogee
b. Spillway Gates – Radial Controlled Gates
c. No. of Gates – 5
d. Dimension – 12m x 15m
e. Length – 97m
f. Crest Level – 273.00m
9. Operating Levels (above average sea level)
a. River Bed – 187.78m
b. Min. Draw Down Level – 220.00m
c. Full Reservoir Level – 285.00m
d. Max. Water Level – 285.00m
e. Top of Dam – 287.40m
10. Gallery
a. Foundation Gallery – 1.8m x 2.2m
b. Inspection Gallery – 1.8m x 2.2m
11. Forming of upstream face – RCC against formwork GEVR/GE-RCC Stepped face
12. Upstream slope – 0.15 stepped face
13. Forming of downstream face – RCC against formwork GEVR/GE-RCC Stepped face
14. Downstream slope – 0.75 stepped face
15. Stepped face
a. Depth of Layers – 300mm
b. No. of Steps – 328
16. Forming of spillway face – Reinforced conventional concrete cast after RCC
placement
17. Spillway slope – 0.75
18. Cement content – 75 kg/m3
19. Pozzolan content – 145 kg/m3
20. Code for Pozzolan (F) – Low-lime Fly ash (ASTM Class F)

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10.4 Construction Details

The ambitious Middle Vaitarna Dam is 102.40m High and 565 m Long is Roller Compacted
Concrete (RCC) Dam. This dam is Largest and Second RCC Dam in India. This will supply
additional water of 455 MLD by 2012 to Mumbai with provision to generate 25 MW of
power. The above Project has been awarded to CWE-Soma Consortium in Oct 2008 and the
Project is under execution as per schedule.

Major Concrete Quantities

Roller Compacted Concrete for O.F & N.O.F section 12,15,559 cum
Plain cement concrete (M15 A80) 1,14,493 cum
Plain cement concrete (M20 A80) 12,200 cum
Reinforced cement concrete (M20 A40) 88,283 cum
Reinforced cement concrete (M25 A20) 7,100 cum
Plain cement concrete (M20 A20) 730 cum
Reinforced cement concrete (M15 A80) 62,150 cum
Precast Reinforced cement concrete (M20 A40) 2,000 cum
Cement concrete (M20 A20) 8,450 cum
Plain cement concrete (M10 A20) 4,965 cum
Reinforced cement concrete (M25 A20) 520 cum
Reinforced cement concrete (M30 A20) 13,000 cum
Total Concrete 15, 29,450 cum

Overflow Section
Layout of dam consists of approach channel of 96m width with control structure for
passing the P.M.F of 6538 cumec, consisting of five no’s of 15m x 12m radial gates proposed
between RD 76m to RD 172m on left bank. The overflow structure is ogee shape and
designed as high ogee. As per guide lines given in I.S. 7365:1974 trajectory bucket type
energy dissipation arrangement with sloping apron is proposed. Details of energy dissipation
arrangement were finalized after model study findings. Six R.C.C. piers were spaced at 18.50
m c/c thickness of each pier is 3.50m. Piers are proposed to be constructed in conventional
cement concrete of grade M-20. To facilitate the construction and to take care of contraction

103
and expansion contraction joints are proposed. These joints are proposed at the centre of each
gate span extending from upstream face to downstream face. A deck R.C.C. bridge of 6.40m
is proposed over spillway section.

Non-overflow Section

A length of non-overflow is about 454m between RD 15m to RD 76m and RD 172m

to RD 565m and is proposed to be constructed in roller compacted concrete. The top width of
non-overflow section is proposed as 8.0m.

Water Supply cum Power Outlet

Water stored in Middle Vaitarna is to be released in river and it will flow down to
lower Vaitarna dam i.e. Modak sagar lake. The capacity of this outlet with 24 hrs continuous
flow and allowing for extra releases during certain period to meet extra demand the capacity
of WSCPO is proposed as 45 Cumec. For this discharge the penstock diameter of steel pipe
required is 3.50m. The outlet is proposed on right bank and sluice gates are proposed as per
conventional practice. The pen-stock is to be encased in 1.0m thick conventional concrete.

Construction Sluice

To obtain a dry working area and to permit the activity in river bed portion and to
protect the partly constructed portion of dam, it is necessary to divert the river flow away
from working area. For this purpose construction sluice is proposed with diameter of 3.50m
steel pipe to be encased in 1.0m thick concrete. Sluice gates are proposed as per conventional
practice.

10.5 Construction Planning

Dam- Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC)

The Right Non-Overflow (RNOF) section of 393 m length i.e. from RD 172 m to RD
565 m and spillway of length 96 m i.e. from RD 76 m to 172 m has been constructed in Roller
Compacted Concrete (RCC). Placement of RCC was done by conveyor system which
directly transported RCC from B&M Plants to the Dam location.

104
Roller Compacted Concrete Production and Conveying System.
Two Parallel streams of 240cum/hr batching plants delivered the concrete into 10 cum
each capacity surge bin. Concrete was conveyed from Surge bin to Dam Body location by
600cum/hr Conveyor Belt system which was lifted by Hydraulic Jack.

Galleries and Shafts

Split level method of construction was used for Galleries and shafts. With this it was
possible to erect formwork for the galleries while placement of R.C.C continued in the
remaining half of the dam. The impact of galleries on the rate of placement of R.C.C was
reduced on this account. It was also possible to erect full height formwork. The GEVR (Grout
Enriched Vibratable Roller compacted concrete) was placed against this form work. On top of
galleries 300 mm thick precast concrete slabs were placed. On these slabs GEVR is placed
and then normal R.C.C is placed. The formwork of shafts is designed in two halves and is
fixed with wedges. When the formwork is to be raised the wedges are removed.

Conventional Concrete

The Left Non overflow section (LNOF) is 61 m long i.e. from RD 15 m to RD 76 m

and has to be constructed in conventional concrete. Also the Spillway crest, Glacis and Piers
have to be constructed in conventional concrete. It is proposed to deploy Model Tower Crane
or equivalent, with 80 m jib length for placement of conventional concrete. On upstream side
of Spillway portion One Tower Crane will be installed 10 m away from the Dam face which
will be moving on Tracks for a length of 100 m. This crane will be utilized for placing the
Conventional Concrete in LNOF section, Piers and Spillway Crest portion. Second Tower
Crane will be installed on the downstream side of Spillway section in the middle of Bucket
portion at which will be utilized for placing the Conventional Concrete in Spillway Glacis,
sloping Apron Bucket and guide wall.
The Concrete required for Tower Crane will be fed through Flat trucks carrying 4 cum
capacity Concrete Buckets with hydraulically operated gates.

Radial Gates

5 radial gates have been erected each having a size of 12 m x 15 m.

105
10.6 Engineering Challenges

Duration

This is the first dam height over 102.40 m have very short Project Duration of 54
months which is Inclusive Monsoons, the region which the project located receive annual
average rainfall of 2600 to 3000 from Southwest Monsoon (June to September).The above
challenge could be neutralized by Construction Roller Compacted Concrete Dam with
Conveyor System for Placing.

Aggregate

Total Requirement of aggregates was around 36,00,000 MT, was fulfilled by installing
Three Aggregate Processing Plants of Capacity 1x 320 + 2x200 TPH (total 720 TPH) plants.

Concrete

The Project requirement was to pour Concrete Quantity of around 15,29,450 cum
including Roller Compacted Concrete of Quantity 12,15,559 cum. To Cater above
requirement of two numbers of Batching & Mixing Plants of Capacity 240Cum/hr and one
120 cum (total 600 cum) were planned and are in Operation.

Concrete Placement System

Concrete Placement System of Capacity 600 Cum/hr designed to Place the Roller
Compacted Concrete Longitudinal Conveyor along Dam Axis erected and used for the
transportation of Concrete. Maximum Concrete Placed by this system was 7,536 cum in a
day.

Temperature of RCC

Temperature of Roller Compacted Concrete and GEVR (Grout Enriched Vibratable

Roller compacted concrete) shall not be more than 23.5 0 C and not less than 70 C when
placed. Hence, it was proposed to deploy 2x150 TPD ice plant and 2x315 chilling plant to
maintain the temperature of Roller Compacted Concrete for B&M plants on right bank.

106
Storage of Concrete materials

The fly ash required for RCC works is available at Eklahare Thermal power station at Nashik,
Fly ash was transported in closed containers to site and stored in 5 No silos ( 4*250 +1*500)
of 1500T. Cement was stored in 2 No’s of 250T Silos and Cement godown having capacity
of storing 2000T was also constructed on right bank near B&M plants.

10.7 Stability Checks Of Middle Vaitarna Dam

Figure 10.1: Sectional view of Middle Vaitarna dam

A. Stability Analysis neglecting seismic forces

Case 1: Reservoir Empty Condition

When the reservoir is empty, only self weight of the dam will be acting as dam other
forces namely uplift forces and water pressure will be zero. The resulting force ∑V1 and
resulting moment ∑M1 for this case has been worked out in the table.

107
Position of Resultant from toe:
∑M .
= ∑V
= .
= 58.76m

Its distance from center is,

e= - = − . = -10.76m (i.e. Resultant falls to the left of the center)

Normal Compressive stress at toe:

∑V 𝑒 . ∗ − .
Pn = [1+ ] = [1+ ] = 420kN/m2 (compressive)

Normal Compressive stress at heel:

∑V 𝑒 . ∗ − .
Pn = [1- ] = [1- ] = 2146.98 kN/m2

Principal stress at toe :

1 = Pn sec2 Φ = 420 x 1.49 =625.8 kN/m2

Principal stress at toe:

= Pn sec2 θ = 2146.98 x 1 = 2146.98 kN/m2

Shear Stress at toe:

= Pn tan Φ = 420 x 0.7 = 294 kN/m2

Shear Stress at heel:

= Pn tan θ = 2146.98 x 0.15 = 322.05 kN/m2

NOTE: there cannot be any sliding or overturning when reservoir is empty.

Case 2. : Reservoir full with no uplift

Sometimes values of stresses at toe and heel are worked out without considering uplift
as the vertical forces are maximum in this case.

Calculation of stresses: The values of vertical forces ∑V2 and ∑M2 have been worked out in
the table, where ∑V2 and ∑M2 represent the sum of vertical forces and sum of moments of all
forces when the reservoir is full, but when uplift pressure is acting is not acting.

108
Position of Resultant from toe:
∑M .
= ∑V
= .
= 47.24 m

Its distance from centre is,

e= - = − . = 0.76 m

Normal Compressive stress at toe:

∑V 𝑒 . ∗ .
Pn = [1+ ] = [1+ ] = 1428.44 kN/m2

Normal Compressive stress at heel:

∑V 𝑒 . ∗ .
Pn = [1- ] = [1- ] = 1428.44 kN/m2

Principal stress at toe:

1 = Pn sec2 Φ = 1428.44 x 1.49 = 2128.4 kN/m2

Principal stress at heel:

= Pn sec2 θ – P tan2 θ = 1428.44x1 – 9.81 x 102.4 x 0.0225 = 1276.3 kN/m2

The value of major principal stress at heel = 9.81x102.4 = 1004.54 kN/m2

Shear Stress at toe:

= Pn tan Φ = 1428.44 x 0.7 = 1000 kN/m2

Shear Stress at heel:

= - (Pn – P) tan θ = - (1298.89 - 1004.54) x 0.15 = -44.15 kN/m2

The FOS against sliding and overturning should be found out only when reservoir is
full and full uplift acts, since the condition of overturning and sliding will be more critical in
that case.

Case 3: Reservoir full with uplift:

The values of vertical forces ∑V3 and ∑M3 have been worked out in the table.
Position of Resultant from toe:
∑M .
= = = 41.65 m
∑V .

109
Its distance from center is,

e= - = − . = 6.35 m

Normal Compressive stress at toe:

∑V 𝑒 . ∗ .
Pn = [1+ ] = [1+ ] = 1524.84 kN/m2

This compressive stress is greater than the one obtained for condition 2. Hence this is the
worst case.

Normal Compressive stress at heel:

∑V 𝑒 . ∗ .
Pn = [1- ] = [1- ] = 658.4 kN/m2

Principal stress at toe:

1 = Pn sec2 Φ = 1524.84x 1.49 = 2272 kN/m2

Principal stress at heel:

= Pn sec2 θ – P tan2 θ = 658.4x1.49 – 9.81 x 102.4 x 0.0225 = 958.4 kN/m2

Shear Stress at toe:

= Pn tan Φ = 1524.84x 0.7 = 1067.4 kN/m2

Shear Stress at heel:

= - (Pn – P) tan θ = - (658.4 – 9.81x102.4) x 0.15 = 51.92 kN/m2

Calculation of factor of safety:

∑M + .
Factor of safety against overturning = = = 2.2 > 1.5
∑V − .

ϻ∑ . ∗ .
Factor of safety against sliding = ∑𝐻
= = 1.43 < 2
.

ϻ ∑V + . ∗ . + ∗
Shear friction factor SFF =
∑𝐻
= = 4.04 > 4
.

110
Safety against sliding according to IS 6512: 1984:
Taking FΦ = 1.5 and Fc = 3.6 for load combination

ϻ∗∑𝑉 ∗ . ∗ 9 . ∗9
+𝐹 +
𝐹𝛷 . .
F= = = 1.676 > 1 (Hence safe)
∑𝐻 .

B. Stability check of dam by considering seismic forces

For worst condition consider that:

a) Horizontal earthquake acceleration acts upstream
b) Vertical earthquake acceleration acts downwards

Hydrodynamic pressure due to water caused by earthquake can be found out

from Zanger’s formula. Since the slope is up to middle depth, approximate value of θ can be
found out by joining heel to the upstream edge,

tanθ1 =

θ1=8.56o
.
CM=0.735(1- ) =0.66

At base, C=CM

Therefore, pe=Cm x ᾀh x w.h=0.66 x 0.1 x 9.81 x 102.4= 66.3 kN/m2

Total pressure (pe)= 0.726 x pe.h=0.726 x 66.3 x 102.4= 4928.9 kN/m2

Moment due to this force at A,

Me=0.299 peh2= 0.299 x 66.3 x 102.42= 207866.56 kN.m

Calculation of forces and moments due to inertial earthquake force is done in tabular form.
Values of vertical forces ∑V4 and moment ∑M4 have been worked out in the table:

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 Table no. 10.1: Additional forces and their moments neglecting earthquake forces

Sr Forces(kN) Lever Moment of toe(kN.m)

no. Item Description arm(m) Remarks
Vertical Horizontal +ve -ve
Self-weight of
dam
1) W1 102.4x12x24 29491.2 76 2241331.2 Reservoir
empty
2) W2 0.5x70x93x24 78120 46.67 3645860.4 condition

3) W3 0.5x93x14x24 15624 86.67 1354132.08

∑V1= ∑M1=7241323.8
123235.2
Water Pressure
4) P4 0.5x93x14x9.81 6386.31 91.33 583261.7 Reservoir
5) P5 9.4x14x9.81 1290.99 89 114898.11 full with
H 0.5x93x14x24 51432.65 34.13 175539 no uplift
6.3
7939483.5 -1755396.3

∑V2= ∑H=
∑M2=6184087.2
130912.5 51432.65

6) U6 0.5x(1004.54/3) -12724.3 50.67 -644740.3

x76 Reservoir
7) U7 20x(1004.54/3) -6697 86 -575942 full with
- uplift
8) U8 20x669.69x20 -6696.9 89.33 598243.0
1

+7939483.4 -598243.01
∑V3= ∑H= ∑M3=4365161.9
104794.2 51432.65

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 Table no. 10.2: Additional forces and their moments due to earthquake forces

Sr Item Description Forces Lever Moment of toe(kN.m) Remarks

no. Vertical Horizontal arm(m) +ve -ve
Inertial force
due to Inertial
earthquake on force
1) ∑V1 weight of dam 9858.82 58.76 579304.13 acting at
2) W1 ∑V1 x ᾀv 2949.12 51.2 150994.94 C.G is
3) W2 W1 x ᾀh 7812 31 242172 considered
4) W2 x ᾀh 1562.4 31 48434.4 to be
W3
5) Pe W3 x ᾀh 4928.9 207866.56 acting
Hydrostatic towards
pressure
Total 9858.82 17252.42 7228772.2
Sum of forces ∑V3= ∑H= 7939483.5 -3574321.61
& moments 104794.2 51432.65
from above
7939483.5 -4803093.81
Sum ∑V4= ∑H= ∑M4 = 3136389.69
94935.4 68685.1

Position of resultant from toe is:

∑ .
= = = . m
∑ .

Hence the resultant lies within the middle third. Its distance from center is

𝑒= − = − . = 14.96 m

i.e. the resultant falls to the right of center.

Normal compressive stress at toe:

∑𝑉 𝑒
𝑝 = [ + ]= . 𝑘 /

113
Normal compressive stress at heel:

∑𝑉 𝑒
𝑝 = [ − ]= . 𝑘 /

Calculations for factor of safety:

Factor of safety against overturning

∑ + .
= = = . > . (hence, safe)
∑ − .

Factor of safety against sliding

ϻ∑ . ∗ .
= ∑𝐻
= = . > . (hence, safe)
.

Shear Friction Factor (SFF)

ϻ ∑V +
= ∑𝐻
= . >

Safety against sliding as per IS 6512-1984

Taking 𝐹∅ = . & 𝐹 = . for loading combination E,

ϻ∗∑𝑉 ∗
𝐹𝛷
+𝐹
𝐹= = 1.53 > 1 (Hence, safe)
∑𝐻

114
 Chapter 11

Conclusion

11.1 Introduction

This project report is intended primarily to serve as a subject and the objectives are to
expose the process of Engineering design management and practices through the appropriate
use of skills and knowledge learned throughout the program. Various aspects of analyzing of
forces and checking the stability of gravity dams along with the calculation of factor of safety
was the main aim of this context. For that purpose study of various forces and stability criteria
were performed with all the factors affecting the stability requirements along with different
site conditions were taken into consideration. The context also includes the various
preliminary considerations which are necessary to focus before undertaking some theoretical
and practical terms. These considerations consist of hydraulic, hydrologic, geologic factors
and site investigation. The above context also includes various aspects and technical terms
related to a general gravity dam along with its various types. Further it showcases the detailed
explanation of various forces acting on dam and how it will affect the structural stability. The
stability requirements for various modes of failure and the steps to overcome have been
performed. Remedial measures for dam safety by reducing the magnitude of destabilizing
forces by additional changes in the structure for achieving the most economical section to

115
decrease the extent of other forces.

Innovations and research on dams have been discussed and their structural changes which
proved to withstand challenging site conditions without hampering the economy and also
achieving the same stabilizing properties. These newer type of dams have proved that they are
resistant to higher seismic forces and are capable to be constructed on weak foundations.
According to their construction practices and material availability these types of dam can be
constructed where gravity dam cannot be proposed.

The case study consists of Middle Vaitarna dam, the highest RCC dam in India, the technical
specifications and all the construction details of the dam have been showcased and the
construction planning of the dam was discussed.

11.2 Result

The case study of the RCC type constructed Middle Vaitarna dam was undertaken. The Middle
Vaitarna dam was analyzed by the unit gravity method and its structural stability was calculated.
The calculations consist of checking the stability of the dam under various loading conditions.
The result of the performed calculations signifies that the dam will be safe against all forces as
the factor of safety for different failure modes were in their limiting range depending on its site
conditions

116
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Publishers, Delhi, 2002, pp. 960-1020.

3. Dr. B.C. Punmia, “Irrigation and Water Power Engineering”, 15th Edition, Laxmi
Publications.

4. Design Manual For Concrete Gravity Dams – United States Bureau of Reclamation

5. Gravity Dam Design – US Army Corps of Engineers

6. Criteria For Design of Solid Gravity Dams – Bureau of Indian Standards (IS 6512 -
1984)

7. Module 4: Hydraulic structures for flow diversion & storage, Version 2 CE IIT
Kharagpur

8. Module: Evaluation of concrete dam stability by TADS (Training Aids for Dam
Safety)

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(FERC)

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Technology Enhanced Learning (NPTEL)

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(https://theconstructor.org/structures/analysis-of-gravity-dam/5204)

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(https://www.scientific.net/AMM.238.252)

117
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China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research, Beijing

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College of Civil and Hydropower Engineering, China Three Gorges University,
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