COMRADE.

CHILUFYA

“I love to write. I get real pleasure from taking a ‘perceived complicated subject’ turning it
around until I see it clearly, and then explaining it in simple words. I write to explain chemistry
to pupils today the way I wish it had been explained to me years ago.”

I have made every effort to make this booklet as effective, clear, and readable as possible; to
show the beauty and logic of chemistry; and to make chemistry enjoyable to learn. I believe
that ‘to teach is to learn twice’.

As Naosa D.K of Kambule Technical secondary school in mongu said in his preference when
writing ONE OF THE BEST CHENISTRY BOOK TITTLED – CHEMISTRY 10-12 published
in the year 2013 said and I quote,”

To my chemistry students, if you can’t swim, at least try to float. But if you can’t swim
and you can’t float, then there is very little I can do to help you. Remember, you cannot
fail but you can only discover ways which cannot work.

Just like him, I regret to that I have been unable to contact the copyright holders of some
Publications used in the preparation of this book”

Some Publications used in the preparation of this book

Examination council of Zambia Joint Examination for the School Certificate and General
Certificate of Education Ordinary Level, Chemistry paper 1 and 2

Examination council of Zambia Joint Examination for the School Certificate and General
Certificate of Education Ordinary Level, Science paper 1 and 3

Mukuma J, Swazi H and Chirwa C.S (1997) CHEMISTRY 12. Macmillan Publishers Ltd.
Lusaka, Zambia

Naosa, D.K (2013). Chemistry 20113. Kambule Technical Secondary School P.O Box 910052.
Mongu

© 2021 Page 1
Acknowledgements
I am very grateful to all the people who have provided help in the making of this book.
Special thanks go to MR SIMWINGA my favorite uncle and friend, who was very supportive
and understanding, particularly during the hours that I spent behind my computer under his
roof.
I would like to express my gratitude towards the management of CISCO Networking
Academy and Evelyn Hone College management who through their Library Garget study
room I was able to draw concepts and transform them in a way I believe is easy to understand.
They made me feel at home away from home.
I would also like to thank my parents both in Lusaka and Chinsali who have been so supportive
to me during my studies, especially the Queen mother and my great loving grandmother who
had to miss me for the four years that I've spent away from them.

These notes were made based on the Examination Council of Zambia syllabuses, used by all
secondary schools and teachers across the country (National Examinations)
This book should not be considered as a textbook. Information has been nicely spaced out and
put in such a way, that it should be easy to use during senior secondary science (Chemistry)-
lessons and study-time.
When writing this book, I kept in mind that you, the student, still need tuition from your teachers
and other tutors from your respective tuition centers. He or she can still give you extra
information or leave out some. Therefore, consider this book as a guide to help you get the
needed information.

To be successful in all education subjects and science in particular, a certain amount of time
should be investigated in studying the matter by heart.

© 2021 Page 2
Understanding the subject is ONE thing, being able to explain it yourself to others
(Examination) is another.
I compiled these notes for you, the student, bearing in mind that sometimes classes are left
without a science teachers, for whatever reason (illness, funeral, delays in being posted...)
You can use these notes during your Chemistry lessons, bearing in mind that you first have to
consult your chemistry teachers/ tutor or Head of department.
He/she is the one who will know if the syllabus has changed, or if there is any latest information
on some subject matter. For example, I can imagine that the topic Aids-HIV will be a lot
different in the year 2010, than it is now. Hopefully, we will have found a cure by then.

When using this edition, you will notice that your teacher not always follows the syllabus order.
The reason being that some topics are better dealt with at a later stage, when the student has
obtained the needed knowledge to fully comprehend the subject matter.
The order, he or she chooses is based on their own experiences, and should be taken as ideal. It
is very possible that another lecturer might follow a different order.
It is my sincere hope that you can put this book into good use, and that it might help you to
obtain your desired marks for the course/subject SCIENCE (CHEMISTRY).

HELP?
When you need help you can use these contacts details:
Email: [email protected]
Phone number: +260974850485/0965385620/0953171325
Youtube: www.humphrey chilufya
Faceboook page: Humphrey Chilufya
Facebook page group: INTELLIGENE DEVELOPMENT AGENCY (I.D.A)

Module purpose
To equip you with knowledge, skills and appropriate attitudes required to effectively and efficiently
conceive, deliver and practically and theoretically groom your scientific reasoning in a more perfect
manner.

© 2021 Page 3
 CHEMISTRYNOTES Grade 10 -12

INTRODUCTION

CHEMISTRY is a branch of science which studies matter and its applications. It deals with
both organic and inorganic matter. Chemistry finds its applications in several industrial
processes such as

1. Fractional distillation of petroleum

2. Beer manufacturing processes
3. The chemical processes in the mining industry etc

THE LABORATORY GLASSWARE AND APPARATUS

B: PIPETTE: is filled by suction and is used to accurately measure fixed volumes such as 10 cm3,
20 cm3, 25 cm3 e.t.c.

© 2021 Page 4
A: BURETTE: is used to measure accurately a range of volumes with an accuracy of 0.1 cm3 and it
has a tap used to deliver controlled volumes in other containers.

C: MEASURING CYLINDER: is used to measure approximate volumes of liquids.

D: CONICAL FLASK: is used for estimating volumes of liquids, storage of liquids and it is used for
carrying out chemical reactions.

E: FLAT BOTTOMED FLASK: is used for estimating volumes of liquids, storage of liquids and
it is used for carrying out chemical reactions.

J: ROUND BOTTOMED FLASK: is used for estimating volumes of liquids, storage of liquids and
it is used for carrying out chemical reactions. This flask is better suited for carrying out chemical
reactions involving heating.

F: BEAKER: is used only for estimating volumes and storage of chemicals.

G: TEST TUBE: is mainly used for storage of chemical samples and liquids.
H: TRIPOD STAND AND WIRE GAUZE: are used to provide support when heating reagents.

I: BUNSEN BURNER: is used as a source of heat during heating of reagents.

Yellow flame: is produced when the air hole is closed. This flame produces pollutant gas such as carbon
monoxide.

© 2021 Page 5
Blue flame: is produced when the air hole is half open and it is most generally used.

Blue – Green Flame: is produced when the air hole is completely open. It is used for strong heating.

K: ELECTRONIC BALANCE: is used to measure the mass of chemical samples.

L: TRIPLE BEAM BALANCE: is used to measure the mass of substances in the laboratory.

THE NATURE OF MATTER

MATTER is anything that occupies space and has weight. The three states of matter are

1. Solid
2. Liquid
3. Gas

SOLID

1. Definition: a solid is a substance which has both a fixed shape and a fixed volume

© 2021 Page 6
 2. Arrangement of particles: in a solid the particles are very close to each other and are tightly
packed.
3. Movement of particles: particles in solids are not free to move about but can vibrate about their
fixed positions.
4. Inter-particle distance: the inter-particle distance in solids is very small
5. Inter-particle forces of attraction: the inter-particle forces of attraction in solids are very strong
HEATING

A SOLID

When the temperature of a solid s increased to such an extent that that it melts; the following
changes occur.

1. Arrangement of particles: the particles are set apart and become loosely packed.
2. Movement of particles: the particles tend to have more freedom to move about
3. Inter-particle distance: the inter-particle distance increases
4. The inter-particle forces of attraction: the inter-particle forces of attraction become weaker than
before.

LIQUID

1. Definition: a liquid is a substance which has no fixed shape but has a fixed volume
2. Arrangement of molecules: in a liquid the particles are slightly close to each other
and are loosely packed. The molecules in liquids slid on each other.

© 2021 Page 7
 3. Movement of particles: molecules in liquids are free to move about and slide on each
other.
4. Intermolecular distance: the intermolecular distance in liquids is slightly larger than
that in solids.
5. Intermolecular forces of attraction: the intermolecular forces of attraction in liquids
are weaker than that in solids

COOLING A LIQUID

When the temperature of a liquid is reduced to such an extent that that it solidifies; the following
changes occur.

1. Arrangement of molecules: the molecules are brought closer and become tightly
packed.
2. Movement of molecules: the movement of molecules reduces and the particles
become tightly packed.
3. Intermolecular distance: the inter-particle distance reduces.
4. The intermolecular forces of attraction: the inter-particle forces of attraction
become stronger.

GASES

© 2021 Page 8
 1. Definition: a gas is a substance which neither has neither a fixed shape nor a fixed
volume. 2. Arrangement of molecules: in a gas the molecules very far away from
each other
3. Movement of particles: molecules in gases move continuously and randomly.
4. Intermolecular distance: the intermolecular distance in gases very large.
5. Intermolecular forces of attraction: the intermolecular forces of attraction in gases are very
weak.

THE CHANGE OF STATE

Melting: is the change of state from solid to liquid. E.g. changing of ice to water.

Melting Point: is the temperature at a substance changes from solid to liquid.

Evaporation/Boiling: is the change of state from liquid to gas. E.g. changing of water to water vapor
Boiling Point: is the temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to gas.

Condensation: is the change of state from gas to liquid. Egg. The changing of water vapor to water.

Freezing: is the change of state from liquid to solid. E.g. the changing of water to ice.

Freezing Point: is the temperature at which a substance changes from liquid to solid state.

Sublimation: is the change of state from solid directly to gas or vice versa without
passing through the liquid state.

The following substances can sublime:

1. Iodine
2. Ammonium chloride
3. Naphthalene

© 2021 Page 9
 SUMMARY OF PHASE CHANGE:

PROCESS:

A: Melting.

B: Freezing.

C: Sublimation.

D: Evaporation.

E: Condensation.

Heating and Cooling Curves

We can use kinetic theory to explain changes in state when substances are heated or cooled.

D
Temp

B
C

Time (steady heating)

© 2021 Page 10
 • In a solid the particles are held in position by bonding to their neighbours. (A on the graph).
• As the solid is warmed the particles vibrate but cannot move.
(Between A and B on the graph).
• When heated enough the particles vibrate so much that they can tear themselves free from their
positions, and the substance melts to a liquid.
• At the melting point heat needs to be added to melt the solid and break the bonds between the
particles, so the temperature doesn’t rise until it is all liquid. (Between B and C on the graph).
• As the liquid is heated up the particles gain energy.
(Between C and D on the graph).
• At the boiling point heat needs to be added to change break the forces between the particles in
the liquid turning the substance into a gas.

Exercise

1. When a substance is heated it changes its physical state according to the model shown.

a) What term is used to describe this change of state: …….

Ans: Boiling.
b) Describe what happens to the arrangement and movement of particles when A changes to B
Ans: Arrangement: the particles become scattered and move further away from each other hence
increasing the interparticle distance.
Movement: the particles acquire more freedom to move about and begin to move randomly
and continuously.
c) What happens to the temperature of a pure substance when it melts?
Ans: the temperature will remain constant for some time until a substance melts completely.

© 2021 Page 11
2. The diagram below represents models of physical changes between the three states of matter

a) Name the process

(i) A: ans: melting
(ii) B: ans: Freezing / solidification
(iii) C: ans: Sublimation

b) Substance C melts at 232 °C and boils at 2623°C. The diagram below shows how the particles
of substance C are arranged 0at°C.
20

Draw similar diagrams in the boxes provided to show how the particles would be arranged at

:
.

3. Study the following information given in the table

© 2021 Page 12
 R T S P
Melting -101°C -73°C -77°C -137°C
point
Boiling -35°C -10°C -33°C -0.5°C
point

a) (i) which substance (s) is/are solid(s) at -75°C

(ii) Below what maximum temperature do substance R and P exist as solids?
b) Substance B melts from 10°C to 18°C. is substance B a pure substance? State a
reason for your answer.

Ans:

(a) (i) Substance T (i) below -101 °C

(b) Ans: it is not a pure substance
Reason: A pure substance must have a constant melting point.

© 2021 Page 13
 Kinetic Theory
The properties of solids, liquids and gases can be explained by kinetic theory.
Kinetic theory states that matter is made of tiny particles that move all the time.
The main points of the theory are;
• All matter is made of tiny, invisible, moving particles.
• The particles move all the time. The higher the temperature the faster they move.
• Heavier particles move more slowly than light ones at a given temperature.

BROWNIAN MOTION:
The motion states that, ‘the constant random movement of tiny particles (e.g. smoke particles, or pollen on
a drop of water) is caused by collision with (invisible) air or water molecules, which are themselves in
continuous and random motion. eg

Experiments using gases

diffusing
d in a tube are used
examine
to the moti
on of the particles .

Ammonia and hydrochloric acid particles under Brownian motion as they hit air particles in the tube

When they meet white smoke (ammonium chloride) forms.

As the ammonia travels farthest along the tube we know that;
• The ammonia particles move faster than hydrochloric acid particles.

© 2021 Page 14
 • The ammonia particles are lighter than the hydrochloric acid particles.

DIFFUSION
Diffusion is the movement of particles from the region of higher concentration to the
region of lower concentration of the same substance down the concentration gradient.
Diffusion is said to occur only in
(a) Liquids
(b) Gas
EXAMPLES OF DIFFUSION
1. Evidence of diffusion of a solid: when a crystal of potassium manganite
(VII) is dropped into water, its purple colour slowly spreads throughout the
liquid until a uniform purple colour is observed.

2. Evidence of diffusion of a liquid: When perfume is sprayed in one corner

of a room, the particles spread until the scent is distributed in all parts of the
room.

3. Evidence of diffusion of a gas: when a few drops of bromine is put into a

gas jar as shown below, the bromine will vapourise to fill up the gas jar. A
gas jar full of air is then placed on top of the gas jar full of bromine vapour
and the jar lids are removed. The reddish brown vapour spreads throughout
the gas jar over a period of time, even though the bromine vapour is denser
than air.

© 2021 Page 15
Explanation: the particles of bromine moved around randomly throughout the gas jar. Some
bromine particles moved up from the lower jar into spaces between the air particles in the
upper jar. Likewise, the air particles would have moved downwards into the bottom jar until
the two different kinds of particles get evenly mixed up. Hence the uniformity in colour of
the particles is observed in both jars overtime.

RATE OF DIFFUSION

The rate of diffusion is dependent on two factors:

1. Temperature
2. Molecular mass of the particles.

Temperature:

The higher the temperature, the faster the rate of diffusion. This is due to the fact that
particles at a higher temperature have more kinetic energy and hence are able diffuse at
greater speeds.

Molecular mass:

At a given temperature, lighter particles diffuse faster than heavier particles.

Evidence of the effect of molecular mass:

1. The reaction between hydrogen chloride gas and ammonia gas can be used to show
that molecular mass affects the rate of diffusion.

© 2021 Page 16
A piece of cotton wool is soaked in concentrated hydrochloric acid which gives off hydrogen
chloride gas with molecular mass of 36.5. Another piece of cotton wool is soaked in
concentrated ammonia solution which gives off ammonia gas with molecular mass of 17.
Ammonia gas reacts with hydrogen chloride to produce ammonium chloride which forms a
white ring near the hydrochloric acid side.

Explanation: Since the ammonia gas molecules are lighter, they will move faster than the
hydrogen chloride molecules which are heavier. So the two kinds of molecules will meet and
react nearer to the hydrochloric acid side.

2. A beaker of nitrogen gas is inverted over a porous pot containing carbon monoxide
as shown below.

Nitrogen gas with molecular mass of 28 and carbon monoxide with molecular mass
28 both have the same density and hence their rates of diffusion are the same. Since
the number of molecules that remain in the porous pot are the same, resulting in no
change of pressure, hence no change in the water level.
3. A beaker of oxygen gas is inverted over a porous pot containing carbon monoxide as
shown below.

© 2021 Page 17
 Oxygen gas has molecular mass of 32 while carbon monoxide a molecular mass of 28.
Clearly oxygen gas has a greater density than carbon monoxide. Therefore the diffusion
rate of carbon monoxide is greater than that of oxygen. This means that the rate at which
carbon monoxide diffuses out of the pot will be greater than the rate at which oxygen gas
diffuses into the pot. This lowers the pressure in the pot and the water level moves upwards
towards the porous pot.

COLLECTION OF GASES
The method used to collect a gas depends entirely on its properties. There are therefore three methods
used to collect a gas
1. Upward Delivery
2. Downward Delivery
3. Downward displacement of water.

UPWARD DELIVERY

Gases which are less dense than air are best collected using the upward delivery method which
is sometimes called downward displacement of air.

Examples of gases collected by this method are : hydrogen gas and ammonia gas

© 2021 Page 18
 DOWNWARD DELIVERY
Gases which are denser than air are best collected using the downward delivery method which
is also called upward displacement of air.

Examples of gases collected by this method are: hydrogen chloride and carbon dioxide

DOWNWARD DISPLACEMENT OF WATER.

This method is only suitable for gases whch are insoluble in water.

Examples of gases collected by this method are: hydrogen gas and methane gas

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

A mixture: is a combination of two or more substances which are physically combned and can only be
separated by physical means.

© 2021 Page 19
Examples: i) A mixture of salt and water ii) a mixture of sugar and
wate iii) crude oil which is a mixture of fuels such as petrol, kerosine,
diesel etc.

A solvent: is a liquid substance in which a solute dissolves. E.g water.

A solute: is a solid substance which dissolves in a solvent. E.g sugar, salt.

A solution: is a uniform mixture of a solvent and a solute. E.g salt solution (mixture of salt and water)

COMMON SEPARATION TECHNIQUES

1. Filtration
2. Crystallisaton
3. Simple dstillation
4. Fractional distillation
5. Chromatography
6. Separating funnel
7. Decantation/ sedimantation
8. Maganetism
9. Centrifugation
10. Sublimation

FILTRATION

Filtration is used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid.

The insoluble solid which remains on the filter paper is called Residue while the liquid which passes
through a filter paper is called filtrate.

© 2021 Page 20
INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF FILTRATION

1. In domestic water treatment to remove suspended particles from water.

2. Separation of pencilin from yeast.

CRYSTALLISATION

Crystallisation is used used to separate pure solids in form of crystals from impurities suspended in
solution.

Example: mixture of salt, water and impurities

© 2021 Page 21
 The main difference between crystallisaton and evaporation is that in evaporation the entire
liquid is evapotated while in crystallisation only part of the liquid is evaporated in order to
saturate the solution for crystals to grow. A saturated solution is the one with the maximum
number of solutes which can dissolve in a solvent.

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF CRYSTALLISATION

1. In the prepartion of salts such as copper(II) sulphate

2. Obtaining pure sugar
3. Purification of antibiotics
DISTILLATION
Distillation: is a separation technique used to separate pure liquids from liquids- liquid
mixtures by employing evapoartion and condansation.
THE TWO TYPES OF DISTILLATION
1. Simple distillation
2. Fractional distillation

SIMPLE DISTILLATION

Simple distillation: is a separation technique used to obtain a pure liquid from a solution of
a solid.

© 2021 Page 22
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF SIMPLE DISTILLATION

1. To obtain pure water from sea water.

FRACTIONAL DSTILLATION

Fractional distillation: is the separation technique used to separate miscible liquids by using their
boiling points. E.g ethanol and water.

Miscible liquids: are liquids which do not show any layer of separation when they are mixed.

1. Ethanol-water
mixture 2. Petrol-
kerosine mixture
3. Crude oil.
The liquid with the lowest boiling point will always be distilled first. In the mixture of
ethanol with boiling point (78°C) and water with boiling point (100°C), ethanol will be
distilled first.

© 2021 Page 23
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION

1. Separation of liquid air into oxygen, nitrogen and other useful gases 2.
Separation of crude oil into petrol, kerosine, diesel and other useful
products.
3. Separation of fermented liquor into ethanol and water.

CHROMATOGRAPHY

Chromatography: is a separation technique used separate to different substances have different

solubilities in the same solvent

Uses of chromatography

1. Identify a substance
2. Determine the purity of a substance
3. Separate two or more substances with different solubilites in the same solvent.
It is used mainly to separate dissolved solids such as dyes and pigments by using their
solubility in a solvent.
The main principals of chromatography are
1. Different substances have different solubilities in the same solvent.
2. The more soluble substance will get carried further by the solvent ahead the less soluble
ones.

There are two types of paper chromatography. And these are ascending and descending order.

© 2021 Page 24
 FACTORS AFFECTING CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. The separating or stationary media

used

2. The surface tension of the solvent

3. The viscosity of the solvent.

Steps for carrying out chromatography:

1. Use a pencil and not ink to draw the start line on the paper because the ink from a pen
contains dyes which can also elute or separate and complicate the chromatogram
2. Place the filter paper in the solvent with a start line and spot of sample slightly above the
solvent level. If the startline is below the solvent level, the spot of mixture may dissolve
into the solvent instead of travelling up the chromatography paper.
3. The beaker must be covered when the chromatography is being carried out in order to
reduce evaporation of the solvent from the beaker and from the paper.

RESULTS OF CHROMATOGRAPHY
The piece of paper used in chromatograph which shows the results of separation is called
chromatogram.

The chromatogram can be summarised as follows:

1. Ink X has 4 dyes whereas Y has only 3.

2. Ink X and Y are made up of 2 common dyes.

© 2021 Page 25
 The chromatogram below shows one unknown sample and 4 pure substances (A,B,C,D)

1. How many components are in the unknown sample

Ans: 3 components
2. Which pure substances are contained in the known sample?
Ans: A,C
3. which pure substances are not present are not present in the unknown sample:
Ans: B,D
4. suggest a reason why D did not produce any spot
Ans: because D is insoluble in the solvent.

ATTEMPTS
1. The diagram below shows a chromatogram obtained using solutions of three single dyes (blue,
green and red) and four other solutions (A,B,C and D).

© 2021 Page 26
(a) Which of the solutions A,B,C or D contains

(i) One dye only ………………………………………………………………………....[1]

(ii) Three of the dyes ……………………………………………………………………..[1]

(iii) Green and red only ……………………………………………………………………[1]
(b) In preparing the chromatogram, the following instructions were given. Suggest a reason for each
instruction
(i) The start line should be drawn with a pencil rather than ink

………………………………………………………………………………………..[1]
(ii) At the end of the experiment, the solvent front should be near the top of the paper

………………………………………………………………………………………...[1]
(iii) The spots of solutions and dyes on the starting line should be small

………………………………………………………………………………………….[1]
Solutions
(c)
(iv) Solution
B……………………………………………………..………………………....[1]
(v) Solution
A………………………………………………………….……………………..[1]
(vi) Solution D
…………………………………………………………..……………………[1]
(d)

(iv) Ink contains dyes which may contaminate the solvent and give inaccurate
results…..…...[1]

(v) This is to make sure that the separation of dyes is complete

………………….…………...[1]
(vi) To prevent spreading of the dyes sideways and thereby getting mixed up with other spots
next to them.[1]

© 2021 Page 27
RF VALUES

1. Calculate the RF values for the components A,B,C and D

INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION OF CHROMATOGRAPHY

1. Separating amino acids from proteins

2. Separating antibiotic drugs from their growing media
3. Separating pigments from plants.
4. Indentifying the flavouring components in foodstuff.
SUBLIMATION

Sublimation is the separation technique used to separate substances which can sublime.

e.g. 1. Mixture of iodine and sand

2. mixture of ammonium chloride and sodium chloride

© 2021 Page 28
MAGNETIC SEPARATION

Magnetic separation: is the separation technique used to separate magnetic materials from non-magnetic
materials.

e.g mixture of iron fillings and sulphur powder.

DECANTATION/ SEDIMENTATION

This is the separation technique used to separate insoluble solids from a liquid mainly by allowing the
mixture to settle so that the solids settle to the bottom while the liquid is poured off or decanted. E.g.
mixture of mealie meal and water.
SEPARATING FUNNEL.

A separating funnel is a separating technique used to separate immiscible liquids. The immiscible
liquids are liquids which show layers of separation between them because they don‟t mix. E.g
cooking oil and water.

CENTRIFUGATION

Centrifugation is the separating technique used to separate small suspended solids from a mixture
with a liquid which cannot be effectively separated by filtration. During centrifugation, the mixture

© 2021 Page 29
is put in a test tube which is mounted on a rotor of a centrifuge. The mixture is then span or rotated
at high speed to allow the solids to settle down while the liquid remains on top.

e.g separation of blood into the liquid part and the solid part

SUMMARY

S/N TECHNIQUE SUBSTANCES SEPARATED BY THIS EXAMPLES

TECHNIQUE
1 Filtration Insoluble solid and liquid Sand and water
2 Crystallization Pure soluble solids from its solution Salt solution
3 Fractional distillation Miscible liquids with different boiling Ethanol
points Crude oil
4 Simple distillation Pure solvent from its solution Salt solution e.g sea
water
5 Decantation/ Insoluble solids from solvents. Mealie meal and water.
sedimentation
6 Separating funnel Immiscible liquids Oil and water
7 Floatation Less dense solids and liquids Charcoal and salt in water

© 2021 Page 30
8 Magnetic separation Magnetic materials from non magnetic Iron fillings and sulphur
materials. powder
9 Paper chromatograph Dissolved solid pigments and dyes Dyes and pigments.
THE CRITERIA OF PURITY

The criteria of purity: is the method used to identify a pure substance.

1. By measuring the boiling point of a substance

2. By measuring the melting point of a substance
3. By measuring the freezing point
4. By determining the density of a substance.

The melting point, boiling point, freezing point and density of a pure substance are always constant.

For instance the density of water is 1g/cm3 and its boiling point is 100 °C. This shows that water
is a pure substance.

If the boiling point of water varies from 100 °C to 105 °C then the water must contain impurities.

THE BROWNIAN MOTION

During the Brownian motion experiment, the smoke is put in a glass tube and a source of light
is projected from one side of the glass tube. The microscope is then used to observe the motion
of smoke particles.

1. The air particles cannot be seen with our naked eyes. So their motion cannot easily be
observed.

© 2021 Page 31
2. Therefore, smoke is used to clearly observe the motion of air particles. The air particles
continuously collide with the smoke particles and this exerts some force on the smoke
particles setting them in motion.
3. The smoke particles will be moving in a zig-zag motion as shown below.

4. The Brownian motion experiment shows that air particles move freely, continuously and
randomly.

© 2021 Page 32
THE ATOMIC THEORY
This theory assumes that all elements are made up of "atoms". If you were to divide a lump of an
element into smaller and smaller pieces you would eventually come to a piece that could not be divided
any further - a single ATOM of the element. Atoms are therefore very small. We can see this if we
dilute a solution of potassium manganate(VI) many times. It is still coloured even when it is very
dilute.

Definition: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can exist or take part in a chemical
change.

MOLECULES
All elements are made up of atoms. In some gaseous elements (e.g. argon) single atoms move around
freely. But in other gaseous elements, single atoms cannot exist on their own at ordinary temperatures:
in these elements the free-moving particles consist of pairs of atoms.
The two atoms forming a pair (a MOLECULE) are joined together by a chemical "bond". This is the
case with hydrogen (H2), oxygen (O2) and nitrogen (N2). Such substances are said to be diatomic.

An ELEMENT is a pure substance made up of only one type of ATOM.

A COMPOUND is a pure substance which contains two or more elements, chemically bonded together
in a fixed proportion.

A MIXTURE is a group of substances that are not chemically bonded together.

© 2021 Page 33
Compounds Mixtures
Proportions of elements are fixed. Proportions may vary.

Properties different from those Properties are simply those of

of the elements. the separate elements.

Cannot be separated into elements Can be separated by a physical

without chemical reaction. change (e.g. dissolving one
of the elements)

There is usually an energy change No energy change when the

when a compound is made from its elements are mixed.
elements.

Atomic Structure
Structure of an atom

© 2021 Page 34
Definition: An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a chemical

© 2021 Page 35
reaction.

Atoms are electrically neutral. They have no overall charge. This is because number of
protons is equal to number of electrons.

Fundamental particles of an atom

Atoms are built up from three “fundamental particles”:

Particle Relative Mass Relative charge
Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0
Electron 1/1860 –1

1. Electron

It is a negatively charged particle.

It has a charge of -1

It is found in shells of around the nucleus of an atom

It has a mass of atomic mass units (a.m.u)

2. Proton
It is a positively charged particle

It has a charge of +1

It is found in the nucleus of an atom

It has a mass of 1atomic mass units (a.m.u)

© 2021 Page 36
3. Neutron

It is a neutral particle

It has no charge

It is found in the nucleus of an atom

It has a mass 1 atomi mass unit (a.m.u)

Each atom consists of a very small, very dense nucleus, which contains all the heavy particles (protons
and neutrons), surrounded by orbiting electrons (which take up most of the volume). Atoms are

represented as; mass number 23 Na

Proton number 11
All atoms of a particular element have the same no. of protons. e.g. all atoms with 11 protons are Na
atoms.

• The number of protons in an atom is called its proton number (atomic

number). the number of protons = atomic number

• In an atom, there is no overall electrical charge so; the number of

electrons = the number of protons in the nucleus.

• The total number of protons and neutrons in an atom is called its mass
number. the number of neutrons = mass number –
atomic number
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons and electrons, but

different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus.

For example, natural chlorine (element 17) consists of two types of atom: 35Cl containing 17 protons
and 18 neutrons, and 37Cl containing 17 protons and 20 neutrons.

© 2021 Page 37
© 2021 Page 38
 Hydrogen has three isotopes
12
C p=6
Carbon-12, 6
1
Hydrogen-1, 1H p=1
n=6
n=0
Carbon-13, p=6 (Ordinary hydrogen)
Hydrogen-2, p=1
13
C n=7 2 n=1
6 1H

(Deuterium)
Carbon-14, p=6 Hydrogen-3, p=1
3 n=2
14 n=8 1H
C
6
(Tritium)

Chlorine has two isotopes

Chlorine-35, p = 17
35 n = 18
17 Cl

Chlorine-37, p = 17
37 n = 20
17 Cl

Some uses of isotopes

1. Hydrogen isotopes are used in the study of nuclear energy
60
Co
2. Radio cobalt, 27 is used in the treatment of cancer.

17
C is used to study ancient remains
3. Carbon14 isotope
l
Mass spectrometer

The mass spectrometer is used for the separation of isotopes of an element and determination
of their respective masses.

Relative atomic mass

© 2021 Page 39
 Relative atomic mass

Ar
Symbol:

Definition: Relative atomic mass of an element is the mass of one atom of an element
1compared to 12 the mass of carbon−12 isotope
The Relative Atomic Mass (Ar) of an element is the weighted (to take account of relative
abundance) average of the Relative Isotopic Masses of all of the isotopes of that element. Note
- The mass is relative to the mass of pure C-12 which is given a mass of 12.

Example 1 - Natural chlorine has two isotopes:

35
Cl has a relative abundance of 75%, and 37Cl has a relative abundance of 25%.

The RAM (Ar) of chlorine is therefore the weighted mean of the isotopic masses:

RAM (Ar) = 35 × + 37 × = 35.5 = (to 3 s.f.)

EXAMPLE

Cl and 17Cl with abundances of 75% and 25%

1. Chlorine has two main isotopes, 17

respectively. Calculate the relative atomic mass for chlorine.

= +

= +
= 26.25 + 9.25
= 35.5

Note

The relative atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 (not a whole number) because it is the average of
two isotopes i.e. chlorine-35 and chlorine -37.

Arrangement of electrons
Electrons are arranged in shells.
The first shell can hold up to two electrons, the second up to eight, and the third up to eight.

© 2021 Page 40
 Thus an atom of Li (with three electrons) will have two in the first shell, and one left over in the second
shell.
We write this arrangement 2:1
An atom of Mg (12 electrons) will be 2:8:2
We can show this in a diagram, for example for magnesium:

nucleus containing 12 protons and 12 neutrons

12Mg: 2.8.2
+12

Uses of Electronic Configurations

The chemical properties of elements depend on the number of electrons in the outer shell, so we
place them in vertical groups which all have the same number of electrons in the outer shell:

e.g. Group 1 3Li 2.1

11Na 2.8.1
19K 2.8.8.1

After element 20 the electron arrangement becomes more complicated, but it is always true that
elements in Group 1 have one electron in their outer shell, so we can say that Rb, Cs and Fr will all
have one electron in their outer shell.

Therefore elements in Group 3 always have three electrons in their outer shell.

Elements in Group 7 always have seven electrons in their outer shell.

The elements on the right of the table — labelled Group 0 — are inert (unreactive) and have full outer
shells, normally with eight electrons in them (Ne is 2.8, Ar is 2.8.8 etc).

© 2021 Page 41
Atoms with 1, 2 or 3 electrons in their outer shells are metals (apart from hydrogen, helium and
boron). This means groups 1, 2 and 3 (except B), and also all the transition metals.

Atoms with 4, 5, 6 or 7 electrons in their outer shells are non-metals (i.e. groups 4, 5, 6 and
7). [This is not always true for the lower members (e.g. Sn and Pb in group 4), but works well for the
first four periods.]

Atoms with full outer shells are noble gases. Although these are also non-metals, they fall into a special
category because they are unreactive.

© 2021 Page 42
 • The periodic table is a table of elements arranged in strict order of their atomic numbers
• The horizontal rows are called periods while the vertical columns are called groups. There are 7
periods and 8 groups in the periodic table.
• In each group the elements exhibit similar chemical and physical properties because they have
similar electronic structures. Elements in the same group form ions with same formula and have
the same number of outer electrons.
• There is a change in each period from metallic to non-metallic character as one moves from
the left to the right of the periodic table. This means that all the elements on the left of the periodic
table are metals while those on the right are non-metals.
• The elements in the periodic table are arranged based on the following guidelines.
1. The number of electrons in the outer most shell of an atom of any element determines the
group.
2. The number of shells determines the periods
For example: calcium has electronic structure 2,8,8,2. Since there are 2 electrons in its
outermost shell, calcium must be put in GROUP 2 and since it has 4 SHELLS it must be in
PERIOD 4.

© 2021 Page 43
NB : Hydrogen is placed between the group 1 and group 7 of the periodic table mainly because
hydrogen can form a single positive charge by losing one electron like the elements in group 1 and
can form a single negative charge by gaining one electron like the elements in group 7.

GROUP 1: The alkali metals

The elements in group 1 are called alkali metals because they form oxides which when dissolved in
water form solutions which are highly alkaline or caustic. These elements include lithium, sodium
and potassium.
Physical Properties of the group 1 metals.

1. They all have one electron in the outermost shell of their atoms e.g Li(2,1) Na(2,8,1) and
K(2,8,8,1)
2. They are very soft and silvery metals which can easily be cut with a razor blade
3. They have low melting and boiling points
4. They have low densities and can even float on water
5. They are good thermal and electrical conductors

Chemical properties

1. They are the most reactive metals in the periodic table

2. They are stored under oil because they react vigorously with water and air [their reaction with
water is highly exothermic and can even cause a fire ]
3. Their reactivity increases with increase in the atomic numbers down the group.

4. They burn in oxygen to produce oxides

Metal + oxygen → metal oxide
(i) 4Li(s) + O2(g) → 2Li2O(s)
(ii) 4Na(s) + O2(g) → 2Na2O(s)
(iii) 4K(s) + O2(g) → 2K2O(s)

© 2021 Page 44
 5. They also react with water to produce metal Hydroxide and hydrogen gas. Metal + water
→metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
(i) 2Li(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2LiOH (aq) + H2(g)
(ii) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH (aq) + H2(g)
(iii) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2KOH (aq) + H2(g)
6. Group 1 metals burn in chlorine with a bright flame to produce chlorides 2Na (s) + Cl2(g)
→ 2NaCl(s)

GROUP 2 Alkaline Earth Metals

The group 2 elements are called alkaline earth metals because they form oxides which are slightly
soluble in water and form alkaline solutions. They are also found on the earth‟s surface. These metals
include beryllium, magnesium and calcium

Physical properties

1. They all have 2 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms e.g Be(2,2), Mg(2,8,2) and
Ca(2,8,8,2)
2. They have slightly higher melting and boiling points than the elements in group 2
3. They high densities
4. They are good thermal and electrical conductors

Chemical properties
7. They are also reactive metals but not as reactive as the elements in the sodium family 8.
Their reactivity increases with increase in the atomic numbers down the group.

9. They burn in oxygen to produce oxides

Metal + oxygen → metal oxide
(iv) 2Be(s) + O2(g) → 2BeO(s)

© 2021 Page 45
 (v) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO(s)
(vi) 2Ca(s) + O2(g) → 2CaO(s)
10. They also react with water to produce metal Hydroxide and hydrogen gas. The only exception
which only reacts with hot water (steam)
Metal + water →metal hydroxide + hydrogen gas
(i) Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) → Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2(g)
(ii) Mg(s) + H2O(g) → MgO(s) + H2(g)

GROUP 7 : The halogens

The non-metallic elements in group 7 of the periodic table are called the halogens. The halogens are also
sometimes called the „salt markers‟. These include fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and astatine.

Physical properties

2. They have 7 electrons in the outermost shell of their atoms e.g F(2,7) and Cl(2,8,7)
3. They are the most reactive non-reactive metals which are never found in Free State in nature.
4. They exist as diatomic molecules e.g F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2
5. The first two are gases, the third is a liquid while the rest are solids at room temperature

6. They are non metals with very low melting and boiling points
7. They are poor conductors of both heat and electricity 7. Their colours increase in intensity down
the group

8. Their densities, melting and boiling points increase with increase in atomic numbers down
the group.

© 2021 Page 46
 Chemical properties

1. Their reactivity decreases with increase in atomic numbers down the group.

2. They react with group one metals to form salts

2Na (s) + Cl2(g) →2NaCl(s)
3. They undergo displacement reactions with other halide ions. The most reactive halogen can
displace the less reactive halogen from its compound
Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + Br2(aq)
Cl2(g) + 2KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(aq)
F2(g) + 2KBr(aq) → 2KF(aq) + Br2(aq)
Br2(g) + 2KI(aq) → 2KBr(aq) + I2(aq)

Use of halogens

1. Fluorine is used in toothpaste to help prevent tooth decay

2. Chlorine is put in tap water to kill germs and bacteria
3. Iodine is put in table salt to help prevent a condition called goitre.

GROUP 8 : The noble gases

The group O elements are called the noble gases because they are generally uncreative- they are
chemically stable. They are inert as they have a full outermost shell. These include Helium, neon
and argon

General properties

1. They all have 8 electrons in the outermost shell except Helium e.g He(2), Ne(2,8) and Ar(2,8,8)
2. They have very low melting and boiling points
3. They are all colourless gases

© 2021 Page 47
 4. They are poor thermal and electrical conductors
5. They exist as monatomic molecules. e.g He, Ne, Ar

Use of noble gases.

1. Helium is used to fill hot air balloons due to its low density.
2. Argon is widely used in light bulbs and street lamps to create an inert atmosphere
3. Neon is used in advertising signs as it glows red when electricity is discharged through it.
TRANSITION ELEMENTS

• The transition elements form part of the periodic table between Group IIA and group IIIA of the
periodic table.
• They are also called Heavy metals. These include Zinc, Copper, Manganese, iron, Lead e.t.c

General Properties

1. They have extremely high densities

2. They have high melting and boiling points
3. They are strong and hard metals
4. They form coloured compounds
s/n Coloured compound Colour
1 Copper(II ) sulphate solution blue
2 Iron (II) sulphate solution Green
3 Potassium Manganate(VII) solution Purple

5. Most of them are multivalent

s/n Transition Valency
element
1 Copper (I) 1
2 Copper (II) 2
3 Iron (II) 2
4 Iron (III) 3
6. They are not as reactive as the group 1 and II elements 7. They are good catalysts in many chemical
reactions 8. They often form strong alloys among each other.

© 2021 Page 48
Use of transition elements

1. Due to high melting and boiling point, tungsten is used to make filaments in electric bulbs
2. They are used for making alloys e.g steel
3. They are used as catalysts e.g iron in the manufacture of ammonia
4. They are used for making machine parts due to their hardness

SEMI METALS (MATALLOIDS )

• Semi metals are elements in the periodic table which exhibit both metallic and non-metallic
character
• They are widely used for making computer chips

© 2021 Page 49
A chemical bond is formed when atoms of elements combine together. Atoms combine differently
to form bonds.

Bonding is chemical combination of two or more atoms

 Compounds and molecules result from chemical bonding only outer most shell

electrons take part in bonding.

 Atoms are held together by the forces of attraction or bonds.

 A bond is a force of attraction between atoms

Why do atoms form bonds?

Atoms form bonds in order to be stable

 Atoms react with one another in order to acquire full outer most shells like those of
noble gases

Structure of noble gases

Noble gases are atoms that have eight electrons in the outer most shells except helium which
has only two electrons.

Helium which has only two electrons obeys a duplex rule.

Other noble gases which have eight electrons in their outer most shells obey an octet rule.

Examples of noble gases

Noble gas Symbol Electron configuration

Helium He 2
Neon Ne 2. 8
Argon Ar 2 . 8. 8

There are three main types of chemical bonding:

• IONIC
• COVALENT

© 2021 Page 50
 • METALLIC: when a metal bonds with a metal – a lattice of positive ions is
electrostatically attracted to “a sea of” delocalized electrons.

Electrovalent or Ionic bonding

Ionic bonding is the type of bonding which involves the transfer of electrons from a
metal to a non metal. It is only possible for this type of bond to occur between Metals
and non metals because naturally metals are electron donors while non metals are
electron accepters. When a metal donates electrons it acquires a positively charged ion
while non metals accept the donated electrons and form negatively charged ions. These
oppositely charged ions attract each other through strong electrostatic van der Waal‟s
forces of attraction and form ionic bonds.

Ionic bonding occurs when a metal bonds with a non-metal – complete transfer of one or more
electrons from metal to non-metal, giving charged ions that electrostatically attract.

An IONIC BOND is defined as; the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.
Examples of ionic compounds
Sodium chloride, NaCl
Magnesium oxide, MgO
Magenesium chloride, MgCl2
Dot and cross diagrams

1. Sodium Chloride ; NaCl

–
Sodium(2,8,1) donates one electron to chlorine(2,8,7) ,forming Na+ and Cl ions
respectively. The oppositely charged ions attract each other by electrostatic forces of
attraction forming an ionic bond.

© 2021 Page 51
2. Magnesium oxide, MgO
Magnesium (2,8,2) donates two electron to oxygen (2,6) ,forming Mg2+ and O2 – ions
respectively. The oppositely charged ions attract each other by electrostatic forces of
attraction forming an ionic bond.

3. Magnesium chloride, MgCl2

Magnesium (2,8,2) donates one electron to each of the two atoms of chlorine (2,8,7)
,forming Mg2+ and Cl– ions respectively. The oppositely charged ions attract each other by
electrostatic forces of attraction forming an ionic bond.

Crystalline lattice of ionic compounds

Sodium chloride, magnesium oxide and calcium chloride are all ionic compounds. They are
formed purely between metals and non metals. In these compounds the oppositely charged
ions attract each other by electrostatic van der Waal‟s forces of attraction and result in strong
electrostatic ionic lattice. In the crystal lattice of sodium chloride, sodium ion (Na +) is
centrally positioned and is bonded to six chloride ions (Cl–).

© 2021 Page 52
 1. Sodium chloride crystal lattice 2. Magnesium oxide crystal lattice

CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC COMPOUNDS

1. Ionic compounds are formed between metals and non-metals and involve the transfer of
electrons from one atom to another
2. All ionic compounds conduct electricity in molten or aqueous state
3. Ionic compounds are soluble in water
4. They have high melting and boiling point
5. They are non volatile

Metals in groups 1, 2 and 3 can get to a full outer shell most easily by losing all their outer electrons,
to leave positive ions – this process is called OXIDATION.
e.g. Na → Na+ + 1e– Mg → Mg2+ + 2e–
(2:8:1) (2.8) (2.8.2) → (2.8)

Non-metals in groups 6 and 7 can get to a full outer shell by accepting enough electrons from a
metal to make them up to 8, forming negative ions - this process is called REDUCTION.

e.g. O + 2e– → O2– Cl + e– → Cl–

(2.6) (2.8) (2.8.7) (2.8.8)

When sodium combines with chlorine, an electron is transferred completely from Na to Cl:

© 2021 Page 53
 Cl atom
2.8.7
Na atom
2.8.1

Na+ ion Cl– ion

2.8 2.8.8
oo
×× oo

× +1 × × ×
o o oo
+1 o o o
× ×× o o

×× oo
oo

oo
×× + oo –

× +1 × × ×o o oo
+1 o o o
× ×× o o
oo
××
o o

If magnesium (2.8.2) combines with chlorine, the magnesium has to lose both its outer shell
electrons, even though a chlorine atom can only accept one. Therefore it reacts with two
chlorine atoms: Mg (2.8.2) + two Cl (2.8.7) → Mg2+ (2.8) and two Cl– (2.8.8) i.e. MgCl2

Similarly, when K (2.8.8.1) combines with S (2.8.6), two K atoms each lose one electron, and one S
atom gains two electrons, giving 2K+ and S2– ( formula K2S).

With Ca (2.8.8.2) and O (2.6) two electrons are transferred, giving Ca2+ and O2–.

© 2021 Page 54
Giant Ionic Substances

Once the ions are formed, they attract one another.

A sodium ion attracts negative chloride ions from all directions to form a regular GIANT IONIC
LATTICE.

Ionic solids have lots of strong ionic bonds that require a lot of energy to break. Therefore they have
the following properties;

• high melting point: NaCl melts at 801oC (too high to melt in the bunsen flame), while MgO melts
at 2900oC. The double charge on Mg2+ and O2– means the ions attract much more strongly than
Na+ and Cl–, and this is why the melting (and boiling) points are much higher for MgO.

• they don’t conduct electricity when solid, but they do conduct when molten or in solution, since
the ions become free to move and can carry charge and undergo electrolysis.

© 2021 Page 55
 Usually soluble in water. Water is a polar molecule (with one negative end and one positive end)
and can cluster around the ions, allowing them to separate, and so overcome the strong attractive
electrostatic forces which hold the lattice together.

COVALENT BONDING

Covalent bonding involves the sharing of the outer most electrons between non-metal atoms.

Covalent bonding is the type of bonding formed by sharing electrons between two non metallic
atoms. Each bonding atom contributes an equal number of electrons to the shared pairs. There are
various types of covalent bonding, but the most common and obvious ones are:

1. Single covalent bonding:

Single covalent bonding occurs when each bonding atom contributes one electron to the
shared pair.
(a) Hydrogen gas ; H2

(b) Water, H2O

(c) Methane gas, CH 4

© 2021 Page 56
2. Double covalent bonding
Double covalent bonding occurs when each bonding atom contributes two electrons to the
shared pairs.
(a) Carbon dioxide, CO2

3. Triple covalent bonding

Triple covalent bonding occurs when each bonding atom contributes three electrons to the
shared pairs.
(a) Nitrogen gas, N2

When two non-metal atoms combine they both need to gain electrons, and they can do this by
sharing two electrons (normally one from each atom) in a covalent bond.

A COVALENT BOND is defined as; the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged
protons in the nucleus and the negative shared pair of electrons.

We can draw diagrams of covalent compounds between non-metal atoms by showing how the outer
shells overlap, and using a dot or cross to show the electrons from the different atoms.

© 2021 Page 57
You need to be able to draw “dot-cross” bonding diagrams for H2, Cl2, NH3, CH4, H2O and O2.

In the diagrams below, notice that H atoms always have two electrons in their circles, while all the
others have eight. Outer shells only are shown; a dot is used for electrons from one atom, and a cross
for the other.

H
oo ××
o×
H × H o Cl × Cl ×
o o × ×
o H ×
o C o H
oo ×× o×
H × = C electron
o = H electron
×× ××
o N o × × ×× oo
H
× × H × O o H
×
× O o o
o×
o× o× ×
O o

ammonia: N is 2.5 H H
so 5 × in N’s circle
O2: O is 2.6 so forms 2 bonds
O=O is a double bond

In carbon dioxide, carbon (2.4) needs to form four bonds, and oxygen (2.6) needs to form two, so two
double-bonds result (O=C=O), a linear molecule.

oo oo
o o× C o× O o
o O × × o
o o

The covalent bond is strong, but it binds two specific atoms together (unlike the ionic attractions, which
occur in all directions).
You need to know the shapes of the following molecules; CH4 is a regular tetrahedron and CO 2 is
linear.

© 2021 Page 58
 CO2
Formation of carbon dioxide

Formation of ammonia

NH3
Formula:

Ammonia is formed from bonding between one nitrogen atom and three hydrogen atoms.

Characteristics of covalent compounds

1. They are made up of molecules

2. They have low melting and boiling points because of the weak forces of attraction which
hold the molecules.
3. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents such as ethanol and petrol.
4. They do not conduct electricity in solid or solution form because they are made up of
molecules.
5. They are generally volatile

Exercise

1. With the aid of diagrams, show how covalent bonds are formed in the following molecules:
O
(a) Oxygen, 2
CH 4
(b) Ethane,
(c) Hydrogen chloride, HCl

© 2021 Page 59
 Formation of water molecule

H2O
Formula:

H–O–H

H2O
H + O + H →

Simple Molecular Structures

A molecular structure consists of small molecules, with weak forces of attraction (intermolecular
forces) between molecules.
When a molecular substance is melted or boiled, it is only necessary to provide a small amount of
energy to break these weak attractions, so they have low melting points and boiling points.

Molecular substances are gases, liquids, or low-melting solids at room temperature.

They usually share the following properties:
• Low melting points (melting only involves breaking the weak attraction between molecules).
• low boiling points (like melting)
• Don’t conduct electricity in solid, or when melted, or in solution, as they have no charged
particles.
• Often dissolve in non-polar solvents, like hexane; usually insoluble in water.

As with all molecular structures these have weak forces of attraction between molecules so they too
will have low melting points and boiling points.

© 2021 Page 60
Giant Covalent structures
If a non-metal atom can form three or four bonds, it is possible for it to form giant structures linked by
covalent bonds.
There are two forms of carbon which have giant structures.
In diamond each atom is covalently bonded to four neighbours, and each of those to three others,
and so on throughout the whole crystal.
Graphite consists of layers of hexagons (like a honeycomb) with strong covalent bonds holding each
C atom to its three neighbours.
Both diamond and graphite have very high melting points (above 4000oC) and sublimation points
because it is necessary to break all of the strong covalent bonds to melt them. This requires a lot of
energy.
When elements are found to exist in more than one crystalline form they are referred to as
ALLOTROPES. Diamond and Graphite are therefore Allotropes of Carbon

CARBON in the form of DIAMOND CARBON in the form of GRAPHITE

Giant covalent molecules have the following properties:

• hard (diamond is the hardest substance known)
• high melting points (some of the highest known)
• insoluble in all solvents
• don’t conduct electricity in the solid, nor when molten – as they do not contain charged particles.

A third Allotrope of carbon was discovered twenty years ago: carbon can form a molecule of formula
C60, called Buckminster.

© 2021 Page 61
 C60 is a spherical molecule with all the C atoms on the surface, forming a pattern of pentagons and
hexagons like a modern football. This is not a giant molecule it is simple molecular.

CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS

1. Covalent compounds are strictly formed between atoms of non metals and involve the sharing of
electrons
2. All covalent compounds are cannot conduct electricity in any physical state
3. They have very low melting and boiling points because the intermolecular forces of attraction
between molecules are very weak
4. They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents
5. They are highly volatile

METALLIC BONDING

Metals are electropositive with the ability to give away their outermost electrons to achieve the noble
gas structure. Metallic bonding is the type of bonding in which metallic positively charged ions are
held together by delocalized sea of electrons. Metals are good conductors of electricity in either
solid or molten state due to the presence of these free mobile electrons. These mobile electrons are
free to move from one atom to another within the metallic crystalline lattice.

© 2021 Page 62
 In metallic bonding metals give up their outer electrons to be shared with all their neighbours.
The electrons become “delocalised” in a mobile “sea” of electrons which flows between the positive
ions.
The positive ions themselves pack as tightly as possible in a GAINT STRUCTURE.

A METALLIC BOND is defined as; the electrostatic Attraction between the positively charged metal
ions and the negatively charged delocalized electrons.

Giant Metallic Structures

In metallic bonding metals give up their outer electrons to be shared with all their neighbours.
The electrons become “delocalised” in a mobile “sea” of electrons which flows between the positive
ions. The positive ions themselves pack as tightly as possible in a GAINT STRUCTURE.

A METALLIC BOND is defined as; the electrostatic attraction between the positively charged
metal ions and the negatively charged delocalized electrons.

Giant metallic substances have the following properties:

• They conduct electricity because the electrons are free to flow between the ions and carry charge.
• They are malleable and ductile because the ions can slide over each other, but continue to attract
each other strongly in their new positions, so that the metallic bonds do not break but distorts
instead.
• They have high melting points because the metallic bonds are strong and require a lot of
energy to break.
A chemical formula consist of a symbol or symbols showing the number of atoms in one
molecule of an element or a compound

© 2021 Page 63
Radical
A radical is a group of atoms which is present in several compounds but incapable of independent
existence.
Radicals and their Valencies

Radical Formula Valency

Ammonium NH 4
Chlorate ClO 3
Chloride Cl
Hydrogen carbonate HCO 3 1
Hydrogen sulphate HSO 4
Hydroxide OH
Nitrate NO 3
Nitrite NO 2
Carbonate CO 3
Oxide O
Sulphate SO 4 2
Sulphide S
Sulphite SO 3
Phosphate PO 4 3
Chemical formula
Writing chemical formula
Steps to consider when writing the chemical formula
1. Write the symbol for the combining elements and radicals
2. Write the Valency of each element or radical at the top at its top right hand side
3. Exchange the Valencies of the combining elements and radicals by writing them at the
bottom right hand side of the element or radical. If the number is 1, do not write it. In some
formulae, radicals are written in brackets followed by a small sub script digit.

© 2021 Page 64
State symbols
State symbols are letters that are used to show the physical state of substances in the equation
State symbols are placed in brackets after the name or formula of each substance in the equation
Examples

Physical state State symbol

Gas (g )
Liquid (l)
Solid (s )
Aqueous solution ( aq )

Equations
An equation is a chemical sentence which describes what is happening in a chemical
reaction An equation can be represented in the form:

A + B → C + D
( Reactants) (Products )
The plus (+) sign on the left hand side means “react with”
The plus (+) sign on the right hand side means “and”
The arrow (→) between the reactants and products means “to form”
Word equations
Word equations are chemical equations written in words
Examples

1. Write down the word equation for each of the following reactions including state symbols
(a) Magnesium metal reacts with oxygen gas to form magnesium oxide
(b) Hydrogen sulphide gas reacts with oxygen gas to form sulphur and water
(c) Iron (II) chloride solution and hydrogen gas are produced when iron reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid
(d) Iron reacts with chlorine gas to form iron (II) chloride
Solution
(a) Magnesium(s) + Oxygen(g) → Magnesium oxide( s )

© 2021 Page 65
 (b) Hydrogen sulphide(s) + Oxygen(g) → Sulphur(s) + Water( l )
(c) Iron(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) → Iron (II) chloride(aq) + Hydrogen( g ) (d) Iron(s) +
Chlorine(g) → Iron (II) chloride(s)

Exercise
1. Write down word equations including state symbols for each of the reactions:
(a) Mercury oxide decomposes into mercury and oxygen
(b) Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen to form water
(c) Sodium metal reacts with water to produce a solution of sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas
(d) Calcium oxide dissolves in water to produce calcium hydroxide solution.
Equations with symbols
Writing balanced chemical equations
Balancing the equation is the process of making the number of each type atom equal on both
sides of the equation
Examples
1. Write down balanced chemical equations including state symbols for each of the following
word equations
(a) Mercury oxide(s) → Mercury(l) + Oxygen( g )
(b) Hydrogen(g) + Oxygen(g) → Water( l )
(c) Magnesium(s) + Oxygen(g) → Magnesium oxide( s )
(d) Sodium(s) + Water(l) → Sodium hydroxide(aq) + Hydrogen( g )
(e) Calcium oxide(s) + Hydrochloric acid(aq) → Calcium chloride(aq) + Water( l )
Solution

(a) 2HgO(s) → 2Hg(l) + O2( g )

(b) 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O( l )

(c) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO( s )

(d) 2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2( g )

(e) CaO(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O( l ) Exercise

1. Balance the following equations

(a) H2(g) + Cl2(g) → HCl( g )

© 2021 Page 66
 (b) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O( l )

(c) P(s) + O2(g) → P2O5( s )

(d) H2S(g) + O2(g) → H2O(l) + SO2( g )

(e) CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2( g )

(f) Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl3( s )

(g) KMnO4(s) + HCl(aq) → KCl(aq) + MnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + Cl2( g )

Ionic equations
Ionic equations show only the ions involved in a chemical reaction
Ions not taking part in the reaction (spectator ions) are cancelled out in the construction of ionic
equations
Steps to consider when writing the ionic equation
1. Construct a balanced chemical equation
2. Split only soluble ionic compounds into ions. Insoluble ionic compounds, elements and
covalent compounds remain unchanged.
3. Cancel out spectator ions. These are ions that appear on both the left and right hand side
of the equation.
4. Rewrite the equation without the spectator ions

© 2021 Page 67
Example
1. Write the ionic equations for the reactions below

(a) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3( aq )

(b) CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2( g )

(c) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O( l )

Solution

(a) Ba(NO3)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2NaNO3( aq )

Ba2+(aq) + 2NO3-aq) + 2Na+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s) + 2Na+(aq) + 2NO3-( aq )

Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) → BaSO4(s)

(b) CuCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2( g )

CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2( g )

CuCO3(s) + 2H+(aq) → Cu2+(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2( g )

(c) NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O( l )

Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) + H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O( l )

OH-(aq) + H+(aq) → H2O( l )

Exercise

1. Write the ionic equations for the following reactions

(a) AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3( aq )

(b) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O( l )

© 2021 Page 68
Relative atomic mass (Ar): is the average mass of one atom of an element compared with 1/12th of
the mass of one atom of carbon 12 isotope.

The relative atomic mass has no units.

s/n Atom/element Relative atomic mass

1 Hydrogen 1
2 Carbon 12
3 Calcium 40
4 Chlorine 35.5
5 Magnesium 24
6 Oxygen 16
7 Potassium 39
8 Zinc 65
9 Copper 64
10 Sulphur 32
11 Sodium 23
Relative molecular mass(Mr): is the total mass of one mole of a compound compared with 1/12th of
the mass of one atom of carbon -12 isotope.

The symbol of relative molecular mass is Mr and it has no units.

Example

Calculate the relative molecular masses of the following compounds

1. Carbon dioxide: CO2 2. Water; H2O 3. Calcium
Carbonate; CaCO3

© 2021 Page 69
 4. Ammonium carbonate ;( NH4)2CO3 5. Hydrated copper(II) sulphate; CuSO4.5H2O

THE MOLE CONCEPT

• The masses of the basic units of matter i.e atoms, molecules and ions are too small to be measured
individually. It is therefore more convenient to measure them in a large number.
• Avogadro’s constant; 6.0 x 1023 is the number of particles contained in one mole of a substance.
• A mole: is the amount of substance containing an Avogadro‟s number of particles.

or

Example

1. Calculate the
number of moles
in
(a) 80g of calcium
8040

(b) 19.5g of potassium

19 5

(c) 4g of hydrogen gas, H2

(d) 71g of chlorine gas, Cl2

𝑏𝑓 𝑙 7135.5

(e) 4g of oxygen gas,O2

© 2021 Page 70
 (f) 25g of hydrated copper sulphate, CuSO4.5H2O
We first calculate the relative molecular mass of this compound.

( d ) 0.03 mole s of urea, (NH 2 ) 2 CO

𝑁 𝑢 𝑚 𝑏 𝑒 𝑟 𝑜 𝑓 𝑚 𝑜 𝑙 𝑒 𝑠 = 25
250 = 0.1 moles

( g ) 9 g of water, H 2O

9 = 0.5 moles
𝑁 𝑢 𝑚 𝑏 𝑒 𝑟 𝑜 𝑓 𝑚 𝑜 𝑙 𝑒 𝑠 = 18

2. Calculate the
mass of (a) 0.25
moles of copper.
Mass = n x Ar = 0.25 x 64 = 16g
(b) 0.01 moles of zinc
Mass = n x Ar = 0.01 x 65 = 0.65g
(c) 0.02 mole of ammonium sulphate, (NH4)2CO3
Mass = n x Mr = 0.02 x 96 = 1.92g

© 2021 Page 71
 Mass = n x Mr = 0.03x 60 = 1.8g The number of particles

Examples:

1. How many particles in the following

(a) 0.03 moles of sodium
Number of atoms = n X 6.0 x 1023 = 0.03 mol X 6.0 x 1023 = 1.8 x 1022 atoms of sodium
(b) 48g of maganesium
n= = 2 mol

Number of atoms = n X 6.0 x 1023 = 2 mol X 6.0 x 1023 = 1.2 x 1023 atoms of magnesium
(c) 0.5 mol of oxygen gas
Number of molecules = n X 6.0 x 1023 = 0.5 mol X 6.0 x 1023 = 3 x 1023 molecules of
oxygen gas
(d) 22g of carbon dioxide
n= = 0.5 mol

Number of molecules = n X 6.0 x 1023 = 0.5 mol X 6.0 x 1023 = 3 x 1023 molecules of
carbon dioxide
2. How many moles are in 8 x 1020 atoms of copper

Percentage Mass of an element in a compound

© 2021 Page 72
 1. Calculate the percentage by mass of
(a) Carbon in carbon dioxide , CO2
The relative molecular mass of CO2 must first be determined. Clearly from this
calculation the mass of Carbon in CO2 is 12.

%C= x 100% = 27.27%

(b) Nitrogen in the ammonium sulphate fertilizer, (NH4)2SO4

𝟐𝟖
%N= x 100% = 21.21%
𝟏𝟑𝟐

2. The newly manufactured ammonium sulphate fertilizer weighs 396 tonnes. What is the mass of
nitrogen (in tonnes) in this fertilizer.

Determining The Empirical Formula

Empirical formula: is the simplest formula of a compound formed from its mass compositions.

Rules.

© 2021 Page 73
 1. Identify the elements present in a given compound
2. Identify the mass or percentage composition for each element.
3. Divide each individual mass or percentage composition by the relative atomic mass of each
element
4. Identify the smallest ratio and divide it throughout
5. The resulting simplest ratios should be taken to represent the number of atoms of each element
in the compound
6. Note that if decimal numbers are obtained the simplest even number can be multiplied
through.

Examples.

1. A sample of iron sulphide contains 5.373g of iron and 4.627g of sulphur. What is the empirical formula
of the compound?

2. A compound has the composition of by mass of 29.4% calcium , 23.5% sulphur and 47.1% oxygen.
Find its empirical formula.

© 2021 Page 74
3. What is the empirical formula of a hydrocarbon containing 85.7%
carbon?

4. Sodium carbonate has the molecular formula of NayCO3. The

relative molecular formula of this compound is 106. What is the
value of y and hence what is the molecular formula of the compound?

5. When iron is heated in a stream of dry chlorine, it produces a chloride which contains 34.5% by mass
of iron.

© 2021 Page 75
 ( a ) Calculate the empirical formula of this chloride.

( b ) If the relative molecular mass of this chloride is 325, what is its molecular formula .

6. What is the empirical formula of Glucose; C 6 H 12 O 6 ?

7. Vitamin C has the following structural formula.

What is the empirical formula of vitamin C?

Ans: its molecular formula is C6H8O6, but its empirical formula is C3H4O3

© 2021 Page 76
VOLUME OF GASES:

• The volume of one mole of any gas at room temperature and pressure(r,t.p) (temp.
25°C and pressure of 1atm) is 24 dm3
• The volume of one mole of any gas at standard temperature and pressure(s,t.p) (temp.
0°C and pressure of 1atm) is 22.4 dm3 Volume = number of moles X 24dm3
Volume = n X 24dm3

• 1 litre = 1000cm3= 1000ml = 1dm3

• The volume of any gas is directly proportional to the number of moles.

Examples

1. What is the volume at r.t.p of

(a) 0.05 mol of carbon dioxide
Volume = 0.05 mol X 24dm3 = 1.2dm3
(b) 4mol of hydrogen gas
Volume = 4 mol X 24dm3 = 96dm3
(c) 14g of carbon monoxide n = = 0.5 mol Volume = 0.5 mol X 24dm3 = 12dm3

(d) 4g of oxygen gas

n= = 0.125 mol Volume = 0.125 mol X 24dm3 = 3dm3

2. How many moles are in

(a) 250cm3 of carbon dioxide at r.t.p
We first convert 250 cm3 to dm3

© 2021 Page 77
 (b) 1.2 dm3 of nitrogen gas.

Concentrations of Solutions

Concentration or molarity is the amount of solute in 1 dm3 of a solution

Concentration = in g/dm3

Concentration = molarity = in mol/ dm3 or molar

Concentration can only be called molarity if it is expressed in mol/dm3. In both expressions for
concentration the volume must always be in dm3.

2mol/dm3 = 2 molar.

Examples

1. A solution contains 5.0g of HCl in 1.0dm3. calculate its concentration in both g/dm3 and
mol/dm3
(a) C = = 5g/dm3

(b) n= 0.14 mol M=

= 0.14mol/dm3

2. A 20 cm3 solution contains 5.0g of H2SO4. Calculate its molarity.

n= = 0.05 mol volume = = 0.02dm3 M= = 2.5 mol/dm3

Calculations involving chemical equations

© 2021 Page 78
The following equations can be read stoichiometrically as

1. CaCO3 → CaO + CO2

1 mol 1mol 1mol
One mole of calcium carbonate decomposes to one mole of calcium oxide and one mol of
carbon dioxide
2. N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
1mol 3mol 2mol
One mole of nitrogen gas reacts with 3 moles of hydrogen and produces 2 moles of
ammonia gas
3. Fe2O3 + 3CO →2Fe + 3CO2
1mol 3mol 2mol 3mol
One mole of iron(III) oxide reacts with 3 moles of carbon monoxide and produces 2 moles
of iron and 3 moles of carbon dioxide.

Examples

1. Zinc carbonate reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid as follows

ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
What mass of zinc chloride is produced from the reaction of 36.5g of HCl ?

• If the answer is required in form of mass and what has been provided is form of
mass, then all calculations should be done in form of mass.
• According to the question we shall only relate HCL to ZnCl2 to find the solution.

2. A total volume of ammonia gas produced during the Haber process is 600cm3. The equation
below shows the reaction involved in this process.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

© 2021 Page 79
 What volume of hydrogen gas is required to yield the said volume of ammonia?

Mole – mass calculations

1. A solution Q contains 276g of potassium carbonate (K2CO3) in 1 dm3

(a) Calculate the relative molecular mass of potassium carbonate

(b) What is the concentration in, mol/dm3 of solution Q

We first change the mass of K2CO3 into moles

(c) Potassium carbonate reacts with dilute sulphuric acid as

follows K2CO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → K2SO4 (aq) + H2O(l)
+ CO2(g) (1) How many moles of sulphuric acid are
reacted?
• We know that the moles of K2CO3 supplied are 2 moles calculated from 276g

© 2021 Page 80
 So we use stoichiometric mole ratios to find the moles of H 2 SO 4 reacted.

( 2 ) How many moles of carbon dioxi de are produced

( 3 ) What volume of carbon dioxide is liberated when measured at r.t.p.?

LIMITING REACTANT, REACTANT IN EXCESS, THEORETICAL YIELD, ACTUAL

YIELD, PERCENTAGE YIELD AND PERCENTAGE PURITY

• In most chemical reactions, there are normally two or more reactants involved in the reaction
• The two reactants do not normally finish at the same time, one finishes faster than the other.
• The limiting reactant: is the reactant which gets depleted (finishes) faster than the other in a
chemical reaction.
• In short the reactant that is completely used up during a chemical reaction is called the limiting
reactant. It is limiting in the sense that when it finishes the reaction stops.
• The reactant in excess : is the reactant which is not completely used up at the end of a chemical
reaction
• The limiting reactant determines the amount of product to be produced.
• For instance, if 20g of sodium can be burnt completely in 30cm3 of dry chlorine, but 40cm3 of
chlorine is supplied, despite this excess supply of chlorine, only 30cm3 of chlorine will react

© 2021 Page 81
 with 20g of sodium. Therefore, 10cm3 of chlorine will remain unreacted, while the 20g of
sodium has completely reacted. We can tell that sodium is the limiting reactant while chlorine
is the reactant in excess.
• The amount of product is always calculated using the limiting reactant. Because once the
limiting reactant runs out no more products can be produced.
• Theoretical yield: is the maximum amount of product that can be formed when the limiting
reactant reacts completely.
• Remember that both theoretical and actual yield refer to THE REACTION PRODUCTS
ONLY and not the reactants.
• Actual yield: is the amount of product that is actually formed from the laboratory experiment.
• Percentage yield: is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield expressed as a
percentage.

• Percentage purity: is the ratio of the mass of a pure substance to the mass of the sample
expressed as a percentage.

Example

1. Sodium chloride can be prepared by the reaction of sodium metal with chlorine gas.
2Na(s) + Cl2(g)→ 2NaCl(s)
Suppose that 6.70 mol of Na reacts with 3.20 mol Cl2.
(a) What is the limiting reagent (reactant)?
• According to the reaction we need 2 moles of sodium to react with 1 mole of
chlorine.
• So we need to know how many moles of chlorine can react with 6.70 mol of Na
• From this analysis we shall be able to tell which reactant is in excess and which
one is limiting.

© 2021 Page 82
 • From the calculation above 6.70 mol of sodium needs 3.35 mol of Cl 2, but only
3.20 mol of Cl2 is available. This means that chlorine is in short supply and all the
available 3.20 moles of chlorine will react while some sodium metal will remain
in excess.

(b) What is the mass of NaCl produced during the reaction?

• The calculation of the product, sodium chloride, must be done using the mount of limiting
reactant used up.
• In this case we shall be using 3.20mol of chlorine. It is always important to remember that
the moles of chlorine that reacted are 3.20 mol and not 3.35 mol calculated. This value of
3.35mol refers to the number of moles of chlorine that would have reacted with exactly
6.70 mole of sodium.

2. Calcium carbonate is decomposed by heating, as shown in the following equation.

CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

a. What is the theoretical yield of CaO if 24.8 g of CaCO3 is heated?

© 2021 Page 83
 b. What is the percent yield if 13.1g CaO is produced?
• Actual yield = 13.1 g from the laboratory
• Theoretical yield = 13.8 g estimated stoichiometrically from the equation

3. Manganese dioxide (MnO2) reacts with concentrated hydrochloric acid according to

the following reaction. MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl2(aq) +2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
A 4.35g sample of Manganese dioxide was added to 1.0 mol/dm3 of hydrochloric acid. 48 cm3
of HCl was needed to react with Manganese dioxide in the given sample. Calculate the
percentage purity of Manganese dioxide.
• Our first assumption is that the sample of Manganese dioxide contains impurities.
It is not possible that, the entire 4.35g provided reacted with the acid.
• In order to be sure how much Manganese dioxide actually reacted with the acid,
we must find the number of moles of the acid in 48 cm3 of 1.0mol/dm3 HCl 86

© 2021 Page 84
• There is now need to use the equation to find out how many moles of MnO2 in the
sample actually reacted

• So the amount of pure MnO2 in the sample is 1.044g.

• We can now calculate the percentage purity

© 2021 Page 85
 ACIDS:
An acid; is a chemical substance which when dissolved in water gives hydrogen as the only
positively charged ion.
The presence of an acid can only be determined by the presence of H+ ions
Classification of acids

Acids are classified into two classes and these are mineral and organic acids
Inorganic or Mineral acids: are artificial acids made from the combination of
mineral substances and are mainly found in the laboratory. Examples of
mineral acids
1. Hydrochloric acid ………HCl
2. Sulphuric acid ……………H2SO4
3. Nitric acid ………………….HNO3
Organic acids: are acids obtained from natural sources such as food staffs
Examples of organic acids
1. Ethanoic acid ………….CH3COOH in vinegar and tomato juice
2. Citric acid – found in citrus foods like lemons, oranges and grapefruit
3. Lactic acid – found in sour milk and yoghurt, and in muscle respiration
4. Tartaric acid – found in grapes
5. Formic acid – found in bee stings

Strength of an acid

• The strength of an acid depends on the concentration H+ ions it produces in solution

• The more hydrogen ions an acid produces in solution, the stronger the acid is.
• The instrument used to measure the potential of hydrogen ions in solution is called pH meter.
• pH is the measure of how acidic or alkaline the solution is.

© 2021 Page 86
 • The pH meter runs from 1 to 14. pH 7 indicates neutral media. All pH values below 7 indicate
acidic media while those above 7 indicate alkaline media.
• Note that the higher the concentration of H+ ions in solution, the lower the pH value and the
more acidic the solution is.

TYPES OF ACIDS

There are two types of acids and these are strong and weak acids
Strong acids:

A strong acid is one that is completely ionized in water or aqueous solution

e.g 1. Sulphuric acid …………………………….H2SO4 (aq) → 2H+ (aq) + SO42 (aq)

2. Hydrochloric acid ……………………………….. HCl (aq) → H+ (aq) + Cl(aq)

3. Nitric acid ………………………………………………… HNO3 (aq) → H+ (aq) + NO3 – (aq)

A weak acid is one that is only partially ionized in water or aqueous solution. The ionization of
most weak acids is reversible. A reversible reaction: is a reaction which can either proceed to the
product or reactant side depending on the equilibrium conditions available.

Dilute acid: solution containing small amount of acid dissolved in water

concentrated acids: solution containing large amount of acid dissolved in
water

Physical properties acids

1. Acids have a sour taste

2. Acids have pH below 7

© 2021 Page 87
3. Acids turn blue litmus paper red
Indicators and pH values
The universal indicator solution shows a rainbow of colours in neutral, acidic or alkaline
media. These colours include ROYGBV i.e Red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet.
The green colour indicates neutral media (pH 7), all colours on the left (red, orange and
yellow) indicate acidic media while those on the left (blue, violet) indicate alkaline media.

Other indicators
s/n Indicator Colour in acidic media
1 Blue Litmus paper Red
2 Methyl orange Red
3 Bromothymol blue Yellow
4 Phenolphthalein colourless

Chemical properties of acids.

There are three characteristic chemical reactions of acids and these are:
1. Acids react with fairly reactive metals to produce a salt
and hydrogen gas. Hydrogen gas burns with a „pop‟
sound.

Metal + acid → salt + hydrogen

Ca(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + 2HCl(s) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)
(No reaction with metals below hydrogen in the electrochemical series)

2. Acids undergo neutralization reactions with bases

(oxides and hydroxides) to produce a salt and water
only.
Base(hydroxide) + acid → salt + water

© 2021 Page 88
 1. 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) +
2H2O(l)
2. NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O(l)
Base(oxide) + acid → salt + water
1. CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
2. CaO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
3. Acids react with carbonates to produce a salt, water and carbon dioxide.

Carbonate + acid → salt + water + carbon dioxide

1. CaCO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2. ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → Zn(Cl)2 (aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Ionic equations

Rules

1. Complete the given equation and balance it carefully

2. Indicate state symbols i.e (g) for a gas, (s) for a solid, (l) for a liquid and (aq) for aqueous substances
or substances which are soluble in water.
3. Ionize the terms in the equation by using the following guidelines:
(a) The solid products shall not be ionized
(b) All free or uncombined elements shall not be ionized
(c) All molecules be it liquids or gases shall not be ionized.
(d) The solid compound on the reactant side must be ionized.
4. Get rid of spectator ions or ions existing on both sides of the equation.
Example

1. Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen gas Ca(s) +

H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4 (aq) + H2(g)
Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + SO42– (aq) + H2(g)

Ca(s) + 2H+(aq) → Ca2+(aq) + H2(g)

2. Base (hydroxide) + acid →salt + water

© 2021 Page 89
 2NaOH (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → Na2SO4 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
2Na+(aq) + 2OH –(aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq) → 2Na+(aq) + SO42– (aq + 2H2O(l)

2OH –(aq) + 2H+(aq) → 2H2O(l)

2H+(aq) + 2OH –(aq) → 2H2O(I)

3. Base (oxide) + acid → salt + water CaO(s) + H 2SO4

(aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Ca2+(aq) + O2– (aq) + 2H+(aq) + SO42– (aq) → Ca2+(aq) + SO42– (aq) + H2O(l)

2H+(aq) + O2– (aq) → H2O(l)

4. Acid + carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide

ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) → Zn(Cl)2 (aq) + H2O(l) +
CO2(g)
Zn2+(aq) + CO32– (aq) + 2H+(aq)+2Cl –(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + 2Cl –(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2H+(aq) + CO32– (aq)→ H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Bases

A base is a chemical substance which reacts with an acid to produce a salt and water only. Bases are
usually metal oxides or metal hydroxides

Examples of bases

1. Sodium hydroxide ….NaOH

2. Sodium oxide …………Na2O

© 2021 Page 90
3. Potassium hydroxide…KOH
4. Potassium oxide ………K2O

5. Calcium hydroxide ….Ca(OH)2

6. Ammonia……………NH3
7. Ammonium hydroxide ….NH4OH
• An alkali is a soluble base. All soluble bases are alkalis.
• Not all bases are soluble. Most bases of group 1 metals are alkalis while those of group two
elements are either slightly soluble or insoluble.
• Bases containing transition metals or group three metals are usually insoluble in water.
• The AMASOPO bases are alkalis i.e Ammonium hydroxide, sodium and potassium (hydroxide,
oxide) are soluble.
s/n Base Formula Solubility in water
1 Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH Soluble
2 Sodium hydroxide NaOH Soluble
3 Sodium oxide Na2O Soluble
3 Potassium hydroxide K2O Soluble
4 Calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 Slightly soluble
5 Calcium oxide CaO Insoluble
6 Copper (II) hydroxide Cu(OH)2 Insoluble

© 2021 Page 91
 Physical Properties of bases (alkalis)

1. Bases have a bitter taste and feel soapy to a touch

2. Bases have a pH above 7 or between 8 and 14
3. Bases turn red litmus paper blue

Other indicators

s/n Indicator Colour in Alkaline media

1 Red Litmus paper Blue
2 Methyl orange yellow
3 Bromothymol blue blue
4 Phenolphthalein Red
Chemical properties of bases

There are two characteristic reactions of bases. These are

1. Bases undergo neutralization reactions with acids to produce salt and water only. A
neutralization reaction is the reaction between a base and an acid to produce a salt and water.
Base (hydroxide) + acid → salt + water

NaOH (aq) + HNO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l)

Mg(OH)2 (aq) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + 2H2O(l)
Base (oxide) + acid → salt + water

ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

CaO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

2NH3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) → (NH4) 2SO4 (aq)

2. Bases react with ammonium salts to produce a salt, water and ammonia gas

Base (alkalis) + ammonium salt → salt + water + ammonia gas

NaOH (aq) + NH4NO3 (aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3 (g)
Classification of oxides

There are four kinds of oxides and these include

1. Basic oxides

© 2021 Page 92
 2. Acidic oxides
3. Neutral oxides
4. Amphoteric oxides

Basic oxides

Basic oxides are oxides of metals which react with acids to produce a salt and water only
Examples:

1. Calcium oxide CaO(s) + H2SO4 (aq) → CaSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

2. Copper(II) oxide CuO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Cu(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

Acidic oxides

Acidic oxides are oxides of non-metals which when dissolved in water produce acidic solutions.

Examples

1. Sulphur dioxide SO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2SO3(aq)

2. Carbon dioxide CO2(g) + H2O(l) → H2CO3(aq)
3. Nitrogen dioxide NO2(g) + H2O(l) → HNO3(aq)

Neutral oxides

Neutral oxides: are oxides of non metals with a single oxygen atom in their molecules. They do not
exhibit either acidic or alkaline properties.

Examples

1. Carbon monoxide ….CO

2. Nitrogen monoxide …NO

3. Water ……….H2O

Amphoteric oxides

Amphoteric oxides: are oxides of metals which react with both acids and bases to produce a salt
and water.

© 2021 Page 93
Examples.

1. Zinc oxide ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)

ZnO(s) + 2NaOH(aq) → Na2ZnO2(aq) + H2O(l)
Sodium zincate
2. Lead (II) Oxide PbO(s) + 2HNO3(aq) → Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
PbO(s) + 2NaOH (aq) → Na2PbO2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Sodium plumbate
3. Aluminium oxide Al2O3(s) + 6HNO3(aq) → 2Al(NO3)3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2NaOH (aq) → 2NaAlO2 (aq) + H2O (l)
Sodium aluminate Soil

Acidity
Crops grow well in a nearly neutral soil with the pH between 6.5 and 8.5. If the soil is acidic a
base is added to neutralize the acid in the soil. Most farmers use solid calcium hydroxide (slaked
lime) to neutralize acidic soil. This is because slaked lime is only slightly soluble in water and
thus does not make the soil any more alkaline.

Salts

A salt is a substance formed when hydrogen in an acid is wholly or partially replaced by a metal.
Most salts are named after the acids from which they are formed.

s/n Acid Formula Salt

1 Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Sulphates
2 Hydrochloric HCl Chlorides
acid
3 Nitric acid HNO3 Nitrates
4 Carbonic acid H2CO3 Carbonates

© 2021 Page 94
Classification of salts

Salts are classified as Normal and acidic salts.

A normal salt: is a salt formed when all the hydrogen atoms in an acid are replaced by a
metal. e.g 1. Sodium chloride NaCl

2. copper (II) sulphate CuSO4

An acidic salt is a salt formed when only part of the hydrogen atoms in an acid are replaced by a
metal. An acidic salt still contains hydrogen atoms in its molecule.

e.g. 1. Calcium hydrogen sulphate Ca(HSO4)2

2. Sodium hydrogen carbonate NaHCO3

Preparation of salts

The method used to prepare a salt depends entirely on its solubility in water.

SOLUBILITY RULES:

1. All AMASOPO (Ammonium, sodium and potassium) salts are soluble

2. All nitrates are soluble
3. All sulphates are soluble except BACALES i.e Barium, calcium, lead and silver sulphates
4. All chlorides are soluble except LES i.e Lead and silver chlorides
5. All carbonates are insoluble except AMASOPO i.e ammonium, sodium and Potassium
carbonates

Preparation of insoluble salts

• Insoluble salts are prepared by the process known as precipitation

• Precipitation is the method used to prepare an insoluble salt from two soluble salts
• The solid product produced during precipitation is called precipitate (ppt).
• A double decomposition reaction occurs during precipitation. This means that ions are
exchanged between salts.
• Some of the insoluble salts prepared by precipitation include

© 2021 Page 95
 1. Barium sulphate BaSO4
2. Calcium sulphate CaSO4
3. Lead (II) sulphate PbSO4
4. silver sulphate Ag2SO4
5. Lead (II) Chloride PbCl2
6. silver Chloride AgCl
7. Lead (II) iodide PbI2

Mechanism of preparing an insoluble salt

• During precipitation the two starting materials are SOLUBLE salts.

• One of the two salts contains the Cation (positive ion) of the salt to be prepared
while the other contains the Anion (negative ion) of the same salt.
• The choice of soluble salts is made simple by the use of AMASOPO (ammonium,
sodium and potassium) salts and nitrates because all these salts are always soluble.

• For instance, if we are asked to prepare barium sulphate, BaSO4. We need to

separate the two ions i.e Barium and sulphate. To barium we add a nitrate to make
a soluble Barium
Nitrate while to sulphate we can add sodium to make soluble sodium sulphate
Ba(NO3)2 Na2SO4 BaSO4(s) NaNO3

© 2021 Page 96
Examples

1. Preparation of lead (II) iodide, PbI2

Starting materials:
(a) Lead(II) nitrate; Pb(NO3)2
(b) Potassium iodide; KI

Equation

Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KI (aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3 (aq)

Preparation method:

• The solution of lead(II) nitrate is added t the solution of potassium iodide. The precipitate
(Lead(II) iodide) is filtered and removed. The precipitate is washed with distilled water
and dried between pieces of filter paper.

Preparation of soluble salts

• There are two methods used to prepare insoluble salts and these are
Crystallization
Titration

Crystallization

• Crystallization is the method used to prepare all soluble salts except (AMASOPO) salts.
• This method involves the following three reactions
(a) Action of acids on a fairly reactive metal
(b) Action of acid on an insoluble base
(c) Action of acid on an insoluble carbonate
• One important fact to remember is that during the preparation of a soluble salt using this
method is that one of the starting materials must be an acid.

Example:

© 2021 Page 97
 Preparation of copper (II) sulphate, CuSO4
Starting materials:
(a) Copper(II) Oxide, CuO
(b) Sulphuric acid, H2SO4
Equation

CuO (s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Method of preparation
The copper (II) oxide powder is continuously added to dilute sulphuric acid whilst stirring until
the oxide is in excess. The excess oxide is then filtered off. The salt solution is then heated
(evaporated) until a saturated solution is obtained. The saturated solution is cooled to grow salt
crystals. The crystals are then filtered, washed and dried between two pieces of filter paper.
Precautions

1. The water should not be evaporated completely and cooling must be done shortly after
saturation.
2. Cooling reduces the solubility of the soluble salt to saturation point until salt crystals are formed
3. The salt crystals must not be heated directly to the source of heat, but must be dried between
two pieces of filter paper. This is to prevent the crystals from losing the water of crystallization.

Titration:

Titration is the method used to prepare a soluble salt from the reaction between an acid and a an alkalis

• One important condition for this method is that one of the starting materials is a dilute acid while
the other is a soluble base.

• Only AMASOPO (Ammonium, sodium and potassium) salts are prepared by titration
• This method works on the basis of neutralization.
• Since no solid is involved in this method, the end point of the reaction can only be determined
by the use of indicator solution.

© 2021 Page 98
Example

Preparation of sodium chloride, NaCl

Starting materials

(a) Sodium hydroxide, NaOH

(b) Dilute Hydrochloric acid, HCl

Equation

NaOH(s) +2HCl(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Preparation method

About 25 cm3 of sodium hydroxide of known concentration is pipetted into the conical flask
.Two drops of phenolphthalein are then added to the flask. The burette is filled with dilute
hydrochloric acid. The acid is later delivered from the burette bit by bit into the flask until the
pink colour of the indicator changes to colourless. The volume of the acid used is noted.
The solution formed is a neutral solution of sodium chloride. This solution is then heated to
evaporate the water to saturation point. The solution is cooled and crystals are formed. The
pure crystals of sodium chloride are filtered, washed and dried between two filter papers.
Identification of ions Test of

Anions :

Anion Test Test result

Carbonate Add any dilute acid Effervescence, carbon dioxide
(CO2– produced
)
Chloride (Cl – ) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add White precipitate
aqueous silver nitrate
Iodide (I – ) Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add Yellow precipitate
aqueous lead (II) nitrate

© 2021 Page 99
 Nitrate (NO3 –) Add aqueous sodium hydroxide then Ammonia produced
aluminium foil; warm carefully
Sulphate (SO42– Acidify with dilute nitric acid, then add White precipitate
) aqueous barium nitrate

Equations

1. CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

2. NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) → AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)
3. 2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
4. (NH4)2SO4(aq) + Ba(NO3)2 → BaSO4(s) + 2NH4NO3(aq)

Test for aqueous ammonia

Cation Effect of aqueous sodium hydroxide Effect of aqueous ammonia

Aluminium White ppt, soluble in excess giving a White ppt, insoluble in
(Al3+) colourless solution excess
Ammonium Ammonia produced on warming -
(NH4+)
Calcium White ppt, insoluble in excess -
(Ca2+)
Copper(II), Light blue ppt, insoluble in excess Light blue ppt, soluble in
2+
(Cu ) excess giving a dark blue
solution
Iron(II), Green ppt, insoluble in excess Green ppt, insoluble in
(Fe2+) excess
Iron(III), Red-brown ppt, insoluble in excess Red-brown ppt, insoluble in
3+
(Fe ) excess
Zinc (Zn2+) White ppt, soluble in excess giving a White ppt, soluble in excess
colourless solution giving a colourless solution

Equations

© 2021 Page 100

 1. Al3+(aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Al(OH)3(s) +3 Na+(aq)
2. NH4+(aq) + NaOH(aq) → H2O(l) + NH3(g) + Na+(aq)
3. Ca2+ (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Ca(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq)
4. Cu2+ (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Cu(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq)
5. Fe2+ (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq)
6. Fe3+ (aq) + 3NaOH(aq) → Fe(OH)3(s) + 3Na+(aq)
7. Zn2+ (aq) + 2NaOH(aq) → Zn(OH)2(s) + 2Na+(aq)

Test for gases

Gas Test and test result

Ammonia (NH3) Turns damp red litmus paper blue
Carbon dioxide (CO2) Turns lime water milky
Chlorine (Cl2) Bleaches damp litmus paper
Hydrogen (H2) “pops” with a lighted splint
Oxygen gas (O2) Relights a glowing splint
Sulphur dioxide (SO2) Turns aqueous potassium dichromate(VI) green

Equations

1. NH3(g) + H2O(l) → NH4OH(aq)

2. CO2(g) + Ca(OH)2(aq)→CaCO3(s) +
H2O(g) 3. H2(g) + O2(g) → H2O(l)

O2-(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2O( l )

Method of preparation

Copper (II) sulphate crystals CuSO4.5H2O are prepared from copper (II) oxide and
sulphuric acid.

Put dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker, warm the acid but don’t boil.

© 2021 Page 101

 Add an excess of copper (II) oxide to the acid in the beaker and stir until the reaction is
over. Excess copper (II) oxide is added to ensure that all the sulphuric acid is converted
to copper (II) sulphate.
Filter off excess copper (II) oxide to have a blue solution of copper (II) sulphate.
Evaporate the filtrate to obtain a saturated solution.
Cool the filtrate in an ice bath to allow crystals of copper (II) sulphate to form.
(b) Metal carbonate + Acid → Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide

Example: Preparation of Magnesium sulphate

Reagents

• Magnesium carbonate, MgCO3

• Dilute sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Products

• Magnesium sulphate, MgSO4

• Water, H2O
• Carbon dioxide, CO2

Reaction equation

MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2( g )

Ionic equation

CO32-(s) + 2H+(aq) → H2O(l) + CO2( g )

Method of preparation

Put dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker, warm the acid but don’t boil.
Add an excess of magnesium carbonate to the acid to ensure that all the sulphuric acid is
converted to magnesium sulphate.
Stir the mixture and filter to have a clear solution of magnesium sulphate.
Evaporate the mixture to obtain a saturated solution.
Cool the filtrate (saturated solution) in an ice bath to allow crystals of magnesium sulphate
to form. Hydrated salt
This is a salt that contains water of crystallization. They contain a fixed amount of water in
their crystal lattice. This is called water of crystallization. The water of crystallization is part of
the structure. If this water is removed, by heating for example, the colour and shapes of the
crystals may change.
Examples of hydrated salts

© 2021 Page 102

Name of crystallized salt Formula

Copper (II) sulphate -5 water CuSO 4 .5 H 2 O

Sodium carbonate -10 water Na 2 CO 3 .10 H 2 O

Cobalt (II) chloride - 6 water CoCl 2 .6 H 2 O

Iron (II) sulphate - 7 water FeSO 4 .7 H 2 O

Anhydrous salts
A salt which has lost its water of crystallization is called an anhydrous salt.
When water is added to an anhydrous salt, the salt becomes hydrated.
For example, when blue copper (II) sulphate crystals are heated, stem is produced and a pale-
blue or white powder.
CuSO4.5H2O(s) → CuSO4(s) + 5H2O( g )
( Hydrated copper sulphate) (Anhydrous copper sulphate) (Steam )

When water is added to anhydrous copper (II) sulphate heat is produced and a blue
solution is formed:
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l) → CuSO4.5H2O(aq) + heat

This process is called hydration.

Efflorescence
This is the loss of water of crystallization to the atmosphere.
Example
Crystals of sodium carbonate - 10- water become Powderly when exposed to air.
Na2CO3.10H2O(s) → Na2CO3.H2O(s) + 9H2O( l )

Deliquescence
This is the absorption of water from the atmosphere to form a solution. Calcium chloride is
a deliquescent salt. It is used as a drying agent in desiccators. A desiccator is a piece of
equipment used to dry substances. Hygroscopic

A hygroscopic substance absorbs water from the air but does not the change its state.
Anhydrous cobalt chloride is a hygroscopic salt.
Water changes anhydrous cobalt chloride from blue to pink.
CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) → CoCl2.6H2O(s) + heat
( Blue) (Pink )
This reaction is often used as a test for the presence of water. The process can be reversed by
heating the pink hydrated salt:

© 2021 Page 103

CoCl2.6H2O(s ) → CoCl2(s) + 6H2O( g )
(Pink) (Blue)

Concentrated sulphuric acid is also hygroscopic. It can be used to dehydrate blue

crystals of hydrated copper (II) sulphate forming the pale blue anhydrous salt. 2.
Replacement (Displacement)

This is a method where the hydrogen ions in an acid are replaced by a metal. It can also be
defined as a reaction in which one element displaces another from a compound Reactive
metal + Acid → Salt + Hydrogen

Example: Preparation of iron (II) sulphate

Method

Add iron fillings to warm dilute sulphuric acid in a beaker until no more hydrogen gas is
evolved.
Filter off the solution when the reaction is complete to remove excess iron.

Reaction equation

Fe(s) + H2SO4(aq) → FeSO4(aq) + H2( g )

Note

• Iron should be in excess so that all the acid is used up.

• Air must be excluded to prevent oxidation of iron (II) sulphate.
3. Synthesis

This method involves the direct combination of elements for binary salts.

In this method, a salt is prepared directly from its elements i.e. a metal and a halogen.

Metal + Halogen → Salt

Example: Preparation of iron (II) chloride

Iron (II) chloride can be prepared by passing chlorine gas over heated iron.

Reaction equation

Fe(s) + Cl2(g) → FeCl2(s)

© 2021 Page 104

 4. Precipitation

Precipitation is the formation of an insoluble product and may occur on mixing two solutions.

Precipitation is an example of double decomposition. In double decomposition, two solutions are

mixed to form an insoluble salt and a soluble solution.

Soluble salt + soluble salt → insoluble salt + soluble salt

Soluble solution + soluble solution → insoluble solid + soluble solution

In double decomposition reactions, cations and anions are exchanged.

Precipitation is also an example of ionic association which is the attraction of oppositely

charged ions to one another to form a solid called precipitate abbreviated as ppt.

Exercise

1. Copper (II) sulphate crystals, CuSO4.5H2O, are soluble in water. Describe how these
crystals could be prepared from a named acid and a suitable compound of copper.

2. Will the method in 1 above be suitable to prepare a sample of potassium chloride? Give a
reason for answer.

3. Barium sulphate (BaSO4) is an insoluble salt which is prepared by precipitation.

a) Using sodium sulphate as one of the reactants:

(i) Name the other reactant you would use to prepare barium sulphate

(ii) Write a balanced chemical equation for the reaction. Include state

symbols.

(iii) Write an ionic equation for the reaction.

b) Briefly explain how you would obtain a fairly pure dry sample of the salt.

c) Name one salt that can be prepared by the reaction of a metal with a dilute acid.

4. Silver chloride is an insoluble salt where as magnesium sulphate is a soluble salt.

© 2021 Page 105

 (a) Describe how you would prepare a pure dry sample of silver chloride naming the
reagents used.

(b) Write an ionic equation for the reaction involved.

(c) The following procedure was used by Darlington Naosa junior to prepare
magnesium sulphate crystals: “Dilute sulphuric acid was put in a beaker and an
excess of magnesium carbonate was added to the acid. The mixture stirred and
filtered. The filtrate obtained was evaporated to half its original volume. The
filtrate was then cooled in an ice bath”. State why ;-

(i) An excess of magnesium carbonate was added to dilute sulphuric acid.

(ii) The reaction mixture was filtered.

(iii) The filtrate was evaporated to half its original volume.

(iv) The filtrate was cooled.

5. Sodium phosphate, Na3PO4, is a soluble salt, used as water softener in washing powders.

It is made by reacting dilute phosphoric acid, H3PO4, with an alkali.

(a) Give the formula of the ions present in sodium phosphate.

(b) ( i) Name the alkali which reacts with phosphoric acid to make sodium phosphate.

( ii) Write an equation for this reaction.

(c) Given solutions of phosphoric acid and an alkali, a suitable indicator and standard
laboratory apparatus, explain how you would obtain crystals of sodium phosphate.

(d) Sodium carbonate also reacts with phosphoric acid to make sodium phosphate.

(i) Name the gas formed during this reaction.

(ii) Describe the test for this gas.

(e) Calcium sulphate is used to make fertilizers.

(i) Deduce the formula of calcium phosphate.

(ii) What essential plant element does calcium phosphate provide?

© 2021 Page 106

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF METALS

1. Metals have High density, melting and boiling points 2. Malleable and ductile
malleable: can be bent and beaten into different shapes ductile: can be stretched to form
wires
3. metals are excellent conductors of electricity and heat
4. metals are electropositive – they for positive ions by losing electrons
Metals always from positive ions
5. metals are sonorous : ability to produce sound when struck
6. They are lustrous: they have a shine appearance when polished
7. They are solids at room temperature and pressure except mercury.

REACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS

‘POSOCAMAZILHCOMES’
1. Potassium
2. Sodium
3. Calcium
4. Magnesium
5. Aluminium
6. Zinc
7. Iron
8. Lead
9. Hydrogen
10. Copper
11. Mercury
12. Silver

© 2021 Page 107

DISPLACEMENT REACTIONS
1. The more reactive metals high in the reactivity series can displace weak metals lower in the
reactivity series from their compounds. For instance, zinc can displace copper from all its
compounds
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
This explains why copper (II) sulphate solution cannot safely be stored in a zinc container. The
copper (II) sulphate solution can be contaminated with Zinc sulphate produced from the
reaction between copper (II) sulphate solution and atoms of zinc in a zinc container.
2. All metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series can displace hydrogen from acids and water.
While those metals below hydrogen cannot displace hydrogen from any compound.
Zn (s) + H2 SO4(aq)→ ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
3. Aluminium though high in the reactivity series does not react with cold water because it forms
an oxide layer which prevents further reactions

REDUCTION OF METAL OXIDES BY HYDROGEN GAS AND CARBON MONOXIDE

1. The removal of oxygen from a substance is called reduction.
2. Both hydrogen and carbon monoxide can reduce METAL OXIDES to free METALS and
WATER OR CARBON DIOXIDE.
3. Note that the oxides of potassium and sodium can NEVER be reduced by either hydrogen
gas or carbon monoxide gas.
4. Other OXIDES of metals can be reduced to free metals.
e.g CaO(s) + H2(g) →Ca(s) + H2O(l)
CuO(s) + CO(g) →Cu(s) + CO2(g)
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) →2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
THERMAL DECOMPOSITION OF METAL CARBONATES
1. Most metal carbonates decompose into metal oxides and carbon dioxide
2. Note that potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate can NEVER BE decomposed
3. Carbonates of metals between calcium and copper can decompose into metal oxides and carbon
dioxide
(a) CaCO3 (s) → CaO(s) + CO2 (g)
(b) MgCO3 (s) → MgO(s) + CO2 (g)
(c) CuCO3 (s) → CuO(s) + CO2 (g)

© 2021 Page 108

4. Less reactive metals such as silver form carbonates which decompose completely into a
metal, oxygen gas and carbon dioxide. (d) Ag2CO3 → Ag(s) + O2(g)+ CO2 (g)

METAL EXTRACTION
The method used to extract a metal depends entirely on its reactivity. The more reactive the
metal is, the harder it is to extract from its compounds. All reactive metals are always
extracted by electrolysis.
s/n Element Method of extraction
1 Potassium These metals can only be extracted by electrolysis of their molten
2 Sodium salts e.g. Na from molten NaCl
3 Calcium
4 Magnesium
5 Aluminium
6 Zinc These metals can be extracted by heating with a chemical reducing
7 Iron agent such as hydrogen, carbon and carbon monoxide
8 Lead
9 Copper
10 Silver These metals occur naturally and remotely in the ground
11 Gold

Metals are extracted from their ores. A METAL ORE is a chemical substance from which
a precious mineral is obtained. The metals ores are normally in form of OXIDES,
SULPHIDES OR CARBONATES. The following are the CHIEF ORES for the listed
metals.

s/n Metal Ore Chemical present

1 Iron Haematite Iron (III) oxide , Fe2O3
2 Copper Cuprite Cu2O
Malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
3 Aluminium Bauxite Aluminium oxide, Al2O3
4 Zinc Zinc blende Zinc Sulphide, Zn2S

© 2021 Page 109

 ALLOYING METALS

Pure metals are usually too soft and weak for most uses. To improve the strength and hardness,
metals are usually alloyed.

An alloy is a uniform mixture of a metal with another element. This other element can be a metal
or a non metal.

Pure metal alloy

Advantages of alloying metals

1. Alloying improves the hardness of metals

2. It also improves the resistance of a metal to corrosion
3. Alloying improves the appearance of the metal

SOME COMMON ALLOYS

S/N ALLOY ELEMENTS PROPERTIES USES

PRESENT

IN THE ALLOY
1 Mild steel Iron, carbon It is hard Making car bodies

It is strong Making machinery

2 Stainless Iron, chromium, nickel Its resistant to Making cutlery
steel corrosion It is
hard Making surgical
instruments

© 2021 Page 110

 3 brass Copper , zinc Resistance to corrosion Making screws
4 bronze Copper , tin Good appearance Making ornaments
5 solder Lead , tin Low melting point Welding metals
RECYCLING METALS

Recycling metals refers to the conversion of scrap metal into useful products again.

ADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING METALS

1. Recycling saves energy

2. Recycling preserves scarce and non renewable materials
3. Recycling creates employment
4. It is cheaper to recycle some metals like aluminium than it is to extract them from their ores.
5. Reduces air and water pollution due to the mining activities.
6. Reduces the amount of land required for the disposal of scrap metal

DISADVANTAGES OF RECYCLING METALS

1. Recycling is a time consuming process and requires massive human resources and efforts.
2. It is expensive to transport scrap metal and sort through wastes for scrap metal.

IRON

Uses of iron

1. It is used for making alloys such as steel.

2. It is in construction work

Rusting of iron

Rusting is the corrosion of iron or steel to form hydrated iron (III) oxide ; Fe2O3 . nH2O. The only two
conditions required for rusting to occur are : WATER and OXYGEN. Only when the two conditions are
present that is when rusting can occur.

Experiment

© 2021 Page 111

METHODS USED FOR PREVENTING RUSTING

1. Painting
2. Oiling or greasing
3. Metal plating – coating iron with a less reactive metal such as tin (tin – plating) prevents rusting
4. Galvanizing – coating iron with a more reactive metal such as zinc. This is also called sacrificial
protection. The more reactive metal corrodes instead of the iron.

IRON EXTRACTION

Iron is extracted from its CHIEF ORE Haematite, iron (III) Oxide; Fe2O3. One other important ore
of iron is magnetite: Fe3O4, though it is not used for extraction.

RAW MATERIALS: 1. Haematite; iron (III) oxide; Fe2O3 2. Limestone; calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
3. Coke; C

© 2021 Page 112

THE BLAST FURNACE

Process of extraction:

• The three raw materials; haematite, limestone and coke are collectively fed from the top of the
furnace as charge.
• The hot air (oxygen) is blasted from the bottom of the furnace at a temperature of about 1500
°C.
• Coke burns in hot air to produce carbon dioxide. This reaction is highly exothermic and raises
the temperature in the furnace to about 2000°C. C (s) + O2 (g) → CO2(g)
• Carbon dioxide(CO2) is reduced to Carbon monoxide(CO) by more coke
CO2 (g) + C (s) → CO(g)

• CO is a reducing agent which reduces haematite to iron metal. This is a REDUCTION reaction.
Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(l) + 3CO2 (g)
• The molten iron obtained is still filled with sand particles called silica (SiO2). Limestone is used
to remove these impurities.
• The calcium carbonate is first decomposed to Calcium Oxide(CaO) and carbon dioxide(CO2)
CaCO3(s) → CaO(s) + CO2(g)

© 2021 Page 113

 • The calcium oxide(quick lime ) reacts with sand (silica) to produce silicon Dioxide (CaSiO2)
CaO(s) + SiO2(s) → CaSiO3(s)
• Slag, being less dense than iron, floats on iron and is tapped off from the top tap Molten iron
is removed from the bottom as it is much denser than slag.
NB: slag is used in road surfacing and it is sometimes used as fertilizer.

ALUMINIUM

Properties
1. It is a light weight metal (it has low density)
2. It is a very good conductor of heat and electricity
3. It is highly resistant to corrosion (due to its protective oxide layer.)
4. It is a relatively strong metal

s/n Use Useful Property

1 Making overhead electrical cables It has low density and it is a good conductor of
electricity
2 Making kitchen utensils and food It is a good conductor of heat and does not
containers corrode easily
3 It is used for making aircraft bodies It is strong and has low density
4 It is used for making bicycle and It is strong and has low density
window frames

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is extracted from its CHIEF ORE Bauxite; Al2O3. Aluminium is a fairly reactive metal
which is extracted by electrolysis.

Electrolysis is the process by which an electrolyte is split up or decomposed by an electric current

passing through it.

An electrolyte: is an aqueous ionic compound, an aqueous acid or alkalis which allows an electric
current to pass through and get decomposed by it.

© 2021 Page 114

 An Electrode: is a conductor or electric plate which allows electric current to enter or leave an
electrolyte.

The two main types of electrodes are anode and cathode

Anode: is an electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery and this is where negative
ions are attracted.

Cathode: is an electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery and this is where positive
ions are attracted.

PROCESS OF EXTRACTING ALUMINIUM

• Aluminium is extracted from bauxite (Al2O3) by the process of electrolysis.

• The solid bauxite is first heated in order to make a molten electrolyte
• This process is however very expensive and uneconomical because the melting point of bauxite is very
high about 2045 °C . This means that huge energy is required to melt bauxite.
• In order to lower the working temperature and make the process economical, bauxite (Al 2O3) is dissolved
in cryolite (Na3AlF6) which reduces the melting point of bauxite from 2045 °C to 900°C.
• The mixture of bauxite and cryolite becomes the electrolyte.

• Electrolyte: molten mixture of cryolite(Na3AlF6) and bauxite (Al2O3)

• Electrodes : (i) Anode : Graphite

© 2021 Page 115

 (ii) Cathode:
Graphite
Ions present : Al3+ and O2 –
• Reaction at the anode:
The O2 – ions migrate to the anode and get discharged by losing electrons to form oxygen gas
2O2 –(l) → O2(g) + 4e–
At a working temperature of 900 °C, oxygen gas produced at the anode reacts with carbon in the
graphite anode to produce carbon dioxide. This explains why the graphite anode is continuously
replaced at the anode as it is continuously depleted by this oxidation with oxygen.
• Reaction at the cathode:
The Al3+ ions migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons to form aluminium
metal. The aluminium metal is deposited at the cathode and settles at the bottom.
Al3+(l) + 3e–→ Al (l)
The molten aluminium metal is tapped off at intervals through an outlet at the
bottom. Overall reaction:
Al2O3(l)→Al(l) + O2(g)

COPPER : USES OF COPPER

• Copper is widely used for making electrical wires because it is an excellent conductor of electricity
• It is used for making boilers and water pipes mainly because it is resistant to corrosion and conducts heat,
• Copper is also used for making bullets due to its high density and poisonous nature.
• Copper is also used for making alloys.

COPPER EXTRACTION

Copper is extracted mainly from the following ores;

1. Cuprite : copper(I) oxide , Cu2O

2. Malachite: Copper (II) carbonate – copper (II) hydroxide, CuCO3.
Cu(OH)2 3. Chalcocite : copper(I) sulphide; Cu2S
4. Copper pyrites: copper –iron sulphide; CuFeS2.

Copper is an uncreative metal which is extracted by heating with carbon.

© 2021 Page 116

 COPPER PROCESSING

• the copper ore is first crushed before being taken for flotation, roasting and smelting
• the copper ore is sometimes leached in sulphuric acid before being taken for electrolysis

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

ELECTROLYSIS

• very pure copper is needed for electrical conductors

• electrolysis is therefore used to produce very pure copper

• Electrolyte: copper (II) sulphate solution

• Electrodes: (i) Anode: impure copper
(ii) cathode: pure
copper Ions present: Cu2+ , SO42+
, H+ and OH–
• Reaction at the anode:
Copper dissolves in solution from the impure anode by losing electrons
Cu(s)→ Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
The impurities at the anode falls away as sludge and settles at the
bottom. This explains why the anode reduces in both size and weight.

© 2021 Page 117

• Reaction at the cathode:
The Cu2+ ions migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons forming copper
atoms.
The yellowish green copper metal is deposited on the cathode
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
This explains why the cathode increases in both size and mass
• Overall reaction: there is no overall reaction as the concentration of the reactants remains the same.

AIR

Air is a mixture of different gasses. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere which contains air.
In air there is oxygen needed by animals for respiration and carbon dioxide essential for
photosynthesis in plants.

General composition of air.

1. Nitrogen gas
2. Oxygen gas
3. Carbon dioxide
4. Noble gases
5. Water vapour
6. Dust particles.

The composition of dry and clean air is :

1. Nitrogen gas 79%

2. Oxygen gas 20%
3. Carbon dioxide 0.04%
4. Noble gases mainly argon 0.96%

© 2021 Page 118

The percentage of oxygen can be calculated using the apparatus below.

Oxygen % =

Example:

• The only gas in air that supports combustion is oxygen

• If for instance the initial volume of air in the two syringes is 80cm3.
• After burning copper powder the volume of air remaining is 64cm3. Volume of air used up
3 3 3
during combustion = 80cm - 64cm = 16cm .
• The obvious assumption is that 16cm3 of air used up during combustion is definitely oxygen gas
as it is the only gas that supports combustion.
• Therefore: oxygen % = = 20%

• Hence the percentage composition of oxygen in air is calculated as 20%

AIR POLLUTION

© 2021 Page 119

Air pollution: is the presence of a substance in air to such an extent that it becomes harmful to
both living things and damages the environment.

An air pollutant: is a substance which accumulates in air to such an extent that it becomes harmful
to both the living things and damages the environment.

The major common air pollutants:

1. Sulphur dioxide SO2

2. Carbon monoxide CO
3. Nitrogen oxides NOX
4. Lead compounds
5. Methane gas CH4
6. Chlorofluorocarbons CFCs

SULPHUR DIOXIDE SO2

Source

1. Burning of fossil fuels containing sulphur e.g coal and petroleum products
2. In Car exhaust gases
3. From the copper processing industries
4. From the sulphuric acid manufacturing plants

Harmful effects

1. It irritates the eyes and causes breathing difficulties

2. It causes acid rain which damages buildings made of limestone, destroys vegetation and affects
aquatic life

Preventive measure:

© 2021 Page 120

 1. Exhaust gases from factories in industries are sprayed with calcium hydroxide or limestone which
absorb the sulphur dioxide
CARBON MONOXIDE CO

Source

1. From incomplete combustion of carbon containing compounds

2. In Car exhaust gases

Harmful effects

1. Carbon monoxide poisoning causes suffocation as it reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of the
blood.

Preventive measure:

1. Use more air during combustion

2. Use a catalytic converter to convert carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide in vehicles.

NITROGEN OXIDES NO

Source

1. At high temperatures especially during bush fires and lightning, the nitrogen in the air combines
with oxygen to form nitrogen oxides.
2. From car exhaust gases
3. From nitric acid manufacturing plants

Harmful effects

1. Nitrogen oxides form acid rain which affects vegetations, buildings and aquatic life
2. Nitrogen oxides can damage lungs

Preventive measure:

1. The cars should use a catalytic converter to convert nitrogen oxides to harmless nitrogen gas

© 2021 Page 121

 2. Lower the temperature of the burning fuel

METHANE GAS, CH4

Source

1. Bacterial decay of vegetable matter, animal dung and rubbish.

Harmful effects

1. It is a greenhouse gas which may cause global warming

2. It can combine with nitrogen oxides to produce a photochemical smog
Preventive measure:

1. Use methane gas a fuel for cooking.

LEAD COMPOUNDS

Source

1. From Car exhaust gases as lead compounds are added to some fuels in order for the car
engeines to run properly

Harmful effects

1. Lead poisoning can cause brain damage and is especially harmful to young children

Preventive measure:

1. Use unleaded fuels

CHLOROFLUOROCARBONS CFCs

© 2021 Page 122

Source

1. They are used as refrigerants in air conditioners and refrigerators

2. They are released into the air when aerosols are used.

Harmful effects

1. The chlorine produced when CFCs are decomposed by ultraviolet rays from the sun destroys the
ozone layer.

Preventive measure:

1. Use CFC –free aerosols

WATER

• Water is the most abundant liquid on earth

• Liquid water covers about 70% of the earth‟s surface

Domestic use of water

Water for domestic use does not have to be pure but safe to drink

1. For cooking
2. For washing
3. For drinking

Industrial use of water

1. Water is an essential ingredient in beer brewing

2. it is used as a coolant in oil fired and electricity powered machines
3. water is an important source of hydroelectric power
4. water is a universal solvent and dissolves several chemicals in industries

water pollution

© 2021 Page 123

Water pollution: is the presence of a substance in water to such a high concentration that it becomes
harmful to both aquatic life and damages the environment.

The major water pollutants:

1. Acids
2. Nitrates and phosphates
3. Heavy metals
4. Sewage
5. Oil

ACIDS

Source of pollutant

1. Acid rain

Harmful effects

1. Kills aquatic creatures. Marine life cannot survive in low pH

2. Damages vegetation in the water.
3. Makes the water unfit for domestic use

NITRATES AND PHOSPHATES

Source of pollutant

1. Excess fertilizers washed off from farmers crops

Harmful effects

1. Causes eutrophication which is the excessive growth of vegetation in the water which removes
dissolved oxygen from the water and suffocates marine life

HEAVY METALS

© 2021 Page 124

Source of pollutant
1. Wastes from the mining industry

Harmful effects

1. Poisonous to mankind

SEWAGE

Source of pollutant

1. Untreated household wastes

2. Excretion from animals

Harmful effects

1. Serious health infections to humans

2. Causes eutrophication in the water sources.

OIL

Source of pollutant

1. Oil spills from water vessels e.g ships

Harmful effects

1. Suffocates and kills marine life

WATER TREATMENT

Water is purified for both industrial and domestic use.

The main stages involved in water treatment are:

© 2021 Page 125

 1. Sedimentation
2. Filtration
3. Chlorination

Screening:

The raw water obtained from the rivers is first screened to remove large solid impurities.

Sedimentation:

At this stage the coagulating agent called alum (aluminium sulphate) is added to the water to make the
suspended particles stick together into bigger sizes. This is called coagulation.

After coagulation, sedimentation takes place in which the solid particles settle to the bottom of the
sedimentation tank so that they can easily be removed.

Filtration:

The water is then filtered to remove all the remaining solid particle. It is at this stage that activated
carbon is added to remove foul odour from the water. Lime (calcium oxide) is also added to water
to remove acidity.

Chlorination:

Chlorine is added to the water in order to kill the germs and bacteria.

Water Distribution:

At this stage the water can be distributed in water pipes to consumers as it is clean and safe to drink
but it is not pure. This means that the water contains mineral salts needed by the human body.

© 2021 Page 126

AMMONIA PRODUCTION IN THE BLAST FURNACE

Properties of ammonia

1. It is the only alkaline gas which turns dump red litmus blue
2. It has a pungent smell
3. It has the relative molecular mass of 17.

Uses of ammonia

1. Ammonia is used in the manufacture of nitric acid

2. It is used in the manufacture of fertilizers such as ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate.
Plants need NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) for proper growth. The two fertilizers
mentioned provide nitrogen essential for vegetative growth and making proteins in plants.
3. It is used in the manufacture of explosives
4. It is used for making nylon

Chemical properties of ammonia:

1. Aqueous ammonia (NH3) reacts with acids to produce ammonium salts
2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) → (NH4)2SO4(aq)
NH3(aq) + HNO3(aq) → NH4NO3(aq)
2. Ammonia gas in the laboratory is produced from the reaction between an ammonium salt and an
alkalis(soluble base)
NH4NO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaNO3 (aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

© 2021 Page 127

THE HABER PROCESS

The raw materials for the reaction.

1. Hydrogen gas(H2) from the reaction between methane and steam [CH4(g) + H2O(g) →CO(g) +
3H2(g)]
2. Nitrogen gas (N2) from fractional distillation of liquid air.

Reaction conditions

1. Iron as catalyst
2. Temperature of about 450°C
3. Pressure of about 200 atm – 350 atm

Chemical equation

The haber process

• The two gases nitrogen and hydrogen are mixed together in the ratio 1 : 3 and the mixture is
passed over heated finely divided iron catalyst.
• At a temperature of 450°C and pressure of 200 atm to 350 atm the two gases combine to form
ammonia gas.
• The reaction is reversible and highly exothermic. Since the reaction is exothermic relatively
low temperature favours a shift of equilibrium to the right and more ammonia is produced
• The unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen gases are recycled back to the reaction chamber and
passed over heated iron catalyst.

© 2021 Page 128

REACTION FLOW CHART

HYDROGEN GAS

Properties

1. Hydrogen is the first and the lightest

element ever known
2. It is also the most abundant element
in the universe 3. it puts out a flame with a „pop‟
sound uses of hydrogen

© 2021 Page 129

 1. It is used as fuel in rocket engines. [ it is the best fuel as its product during combustion is water
which is not a pollutant]
2. It is used in the manufacture of margarine.
3. It is used in the manufacture of ammonia in the Haber process

Industrial preparation of hydrogen gas

Hydrogen gas is prepared by the process known as steam reforming during which methane gas
reacts with steam to produce carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas. This occurs at a temperature of
about 800°C to 1000°C and pressure of 10 – 50atm. CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + H2(g)

Electrolysis is another method used industry to prepare hydrogen gas.

laboratory preparation of hydrogen gas

Hydrogen in the laboratory is prepared by two processes

1. The action of a fairly reactive metal on water

2. The action of a fairly reactive metal on an acid
The action of a metal on water

When calcium metal reacts with water, calcium hydroxide and hydrogen gas are produced
Ca(s) + H2O(g) → Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

The action of a metal on dilute acid

© 2021 Page 130

When zinc metal reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid, hydrogen gas is produced together with zinc
Chloride salt

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → Zn(Cl)2(aq) + H2(g)

OXYGEN GAS

Properties of oxygen gas

1. Oxygen makes up about 20% of the atmospheric air

2. The two allotropes of oxygen are oxygen gas (O2) and ozone(O3)
3. Oxygen also has two isotopes namely oxygen-16 (168O) and oxygen-17 (178O)
4. Oxygen rekindles or relights a glowing splint.

Uses of oxygen

1. Oxygen is used to produce an oxyacetylene flame for welding

2. It is used in steel making
3. It used in hospitals to aid patients who have difficulties in breathing
4. It is used by mountain climbers and sea divers
5. It is used by animals and humans for respiration

© 2021 Page 131

Industrial preparation of oxygen gas

Oxygen gas is prepared industrially by the following processes

1. Electrolysis of acidified water [2H2O (l) → O2(g) + 2H2(g)]

2. Liquefaction and fractional distillation of liquid air

Liquefaction and fractional distillation of liquid air

• The air is first cooled to remove dust particles, carbon dioxide and water vapour
• The air is then compressed to a pressure of 100 atmospheres. Compressing the air raises its
temperature.
• The compressed is then cooled and allowed to expand as result of which it turns into a liquid
(liquefaction)
• The liquid air is then fractionally distilled and nitrogen gas is obtained at –196°C , nobles gases
at –186°C while oxygen gas is collected at –183°C

Laboratory preparation of oxygen gas

Oxygen gas is prepared in the laboratory from three reactions

1. Thermal decomposition of sodium nitrate

2. Thermal decomposition of potassium manganate(VII) or potassium permanganate
3. Catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

Thermal decomposition of sodium nitrate or potassium manganate(VII)

© 2021 Page 132

2NaNO3(s) → NaNO2(s) + O2(g) [sodium nitrate →sodium nitrite + Oxygen gas]

2KMnO4(s) →K2MnO4(s) + MnO2(s) + O2(g)

[potassium manganate(VII) →potassium manganate(VI) + manganese dioxide + oxygen gas ]

Catalytic decomposition of hydrogen peroxide

• Dilute hydrogen peroxide decomposes smoothly to water and oxygen gas when dropped
in a catalysts of powdered manganese dioxide (MnO2)
• 2H2O2(l) →2H2O(l) + O2(g)

© 2021 Page 133

CARBON AND ITS ALLOTROPES

Properties

• Carbon is one of the most abundant elements on earth. It is a major constituent in food
stuffs and many other organic compounds. Carbon forms the basis of life chemistry.
• It has two main isotopes and these are carbon – 12(126C) and Carbon – 14(146C).
• Allotropes: are the different crystalline forms of the same element existing in the same
physical state but with different physical properties. The two most important crystalline
allotropes of carbon are (1) Diamond and
(2) Graphite
One other allotrope of carbon, though not very common, is buckminsterfullerene which consists
of 60 (C60) carbon atoms arranged in a circular fashion.

Diamond

Diamond is the hardest substance ever known. In its molecule each carbon atom is bonded to four other
carbon atoms forming a tetrahedral crystal. There are no free electrons in the molecule of diamond.
This explains why diamond does not conduct electricity.

© 2021 Page 134

Properties of diamond

1. It has very high melting and boiling point

2. It is a very poor conductor of electricity [no free electrons]
3. It is the hardest substance ever known
4. It has a density of 3.5g/cm3

Uses of diamond

1. It is used for making jewels due to its brilliant lustre

2. Diamond is used for making drill bits due to its hardness
3. It is also used for making cutting and grinding tools mainly because of its hardness

Graphite

Graphite has carbon atoms arranged in layers. There are weak van der waal‟s forces of attraction
between layers, allowing the layers to slide over each other. This gives graphite a soft, smooth and
greasy feeling. In its molecule each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms while the
forth electron is delocalized.

© 2021 Page 135

Properties of graphite

1. It is a soft, shiny and black substance

2. It is a good conductor of electricity
3. it has a density of 2.25g/cm3 4. it writes well on paper uses of graphite

1. It is used as a lubricant in moving parts of machines because

it is soft and layered.
2. it is used for making electrodes because it conducts electricity
3. it is used for making leads in pencils because it writes well
on paper.

SULPHUR AND SULPHURIC ACID

Properties of sulphur.

• Sulphur is a crystalline yellowish solid

• The most important isotopes of sulphur are sulphur – 32 (3216S)and sulphur – 34(3416S)
• Sulphur occurs as a free element. It is also found in the following compounds
(1) Galena – lead(II) sulphide PbS
(2) Zinc blende – zinc sulphide ZnS
(3) Gypsum – calcium sulphate CaSO4

The allotropy of sulphur

At ordinary temperature Sulphur exists as molecules containing eight sulphur atoms (S8).

© 2021 Page 136

The two most important allotropes of sulphur are
(i) Rhombic sulphur
(ii) Monoclinic sulphur

Uses of sulphur

1. It used in vulcanization of rubber

2. Sulphur is used in the production of sulphur dioxide
3. It is used as a fungicide
4. It is used in the preparation of gun powder

Uses of sulphur dioxide

1. it is used as a bleaching agent

2. it is used as a food preservative
3. it is used in the manufacture of sulphuric acid
4. it is used in the vulcanization of rubber.

SULPHURIC ACID

© 2021 Page 137

Sulphuric acid is manufactured by the Contact process

Raw materials

1. sulphur
2. air
3. water

Reaction Conditions

1. Temperature of 450° C
2. Pressure of 1 atm
3. Vanadium (V) oxide(vanadium pentoxide); V2O5 as catalyst

The contact process

• Sulphur is burned in the air to produce sulphur dioxide S(s) + O2(g) → SO2(g)

• The sulphur dioxide is cooled and further reacted with oxygen to produce sulphur
trioxide
2SO2(g) + O2(g) → 2SO3(g)
• In the presence of a catalyst vanadium(V) oxide , at a temperature of 450° C and
pressure of 1atm sulphur trioxide is dissolved in concentrated sulphuric acid to
produce fuming sulphuric acid called oleum (H2S2O7) H2SO4(l) + SO3(g) → H2S2O7(l)
• When oleum is finally dissolved in water, sulphuric acid is formed
H2S2O7(l) + H2O(l)→ 2H2SO4(aq)

Uses of sulphuric acid

© 2021 Page 138

 1. It used to make detergents
2. It is used for making fertilizers
3. It is used in making dyes
4. It is used as an electrolyte in car batteries.

NITRIC ACID

Properties of nitric acid

1. Pure nitric acid is colourless

2. It is a fuming and highly corrosive liquid
3. It is a strong acid
4. It is highly volatile

Laboratory reparation of nitric acid

Nitric acid is prepared in the laboratory from the reaction between sodium nitrate and sulphuric acid

NaNO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) → NaHSO4(aq) + HNO3(aq)

Industrial preparation of nitric acid

Nitric acid is prepared by the process known as the OSTWALD process

Raw materials

1. Ammonia gas
2. Air
3. Water

Reaction conditions

1. Temperature of 900°C
2. Platinum – Rhodium alloy(Pt-Rh) as catalyst
3. Pressure of about 8 atm

The Ostwald process

© 2021 Page 139

• Ammonia is oxidized to Nitrogen monoxide and water at a temperature of 900°C, pressure of 8 atm
and over a catalyst of platinum-rhodium alloy
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO (g) + 6H2O(l)
• Nitrogen monoxide produced further reacts with air at 25 °C to produce Nitrogen Dioxide
2NO(g) + O2(g) → 2NO2 (g)
• The nitrogen dioxide is then dissolved in water to produce Nitric acid and nitrogen monoxide
3NO2(g) + H2O(g) → 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
• Nitrogen monoxide produced as a side product is recycled back to the reactor.
• If very concentrated nitric acid is needed, the dilute nitric acid is fractionally distilled with sulphuric acid.

Uses of nitric acid

1. it is used in the manufacture of explosives e.g (TNT) trinitrotoluene

2. it is used in the manufacture of fertilizers
3. it is also used in the manufacture of dyes

© 2021 Page 140

 A redox reaction: is the one where both oxidation and reduction occur simultaneously.

Redox in terms of oxygen transfer

• oxidation : is the gain in oxygen

NB: Any substance which gains oxygen is oxidized
• Reduction: is the loss in oxygen
NB: Any substance which loses oxygen is said to be reduced
• Oxidizing agent: is a substance which adds oxygen to another substance

NB: An oxidizing agent is always reduced.

• Reducing agent: is a substance which removes oxygen from another
substance

NB: A reducing agent is always oxidized.

Examples:

1. CuO (s) + H2(g) → Cu(s) + H2O(l)

Oxidized: H2 (gained oxygen)

Reduced: CuO (lost oxygen)
Oxidizing agent: CuO (added oxygen to H2)
Reducing agent: H2 (removed oxygen from CuO)
2. Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

Oxidized: CO (gained oxygen)

Reduced: Fe2O3 (lost oxygen)

© 2021 Page 141

 Oxidizing agent: Fe2O3 (added oxygen to CO)
Reducing agent: CO (removed oxygen from Fe2O3)

Redox in terms of Hydrogen transfer (OIL RIG )

• oxidation : is the loss in hydrogen

NB: Any substance which loses hydrogen is oxidized
• Reduction: is the gain in hydrogen
NB: Any substance which gains hydrogen is said to be reduced
• Oxidizing agent: is a substance which gains hydrogen.
NB: An oxidizing agent is always reduced.
• Reducing agent: is a substance which loses hydrogen NB: A reducing agent is always
oxidized.

Examples

1. H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)

Oxidized: H2S (lost hydrogen)

Reduced: Cl2 (gained hydrogen)
Oxidizing agent: Cl2 (gained hydrogen)

© 2021 Page 142

 Reducing agent: H2S (lost hydrogen)

Redox in terms of electron transfer (OIL RIG )

• oxidation : is the loss of electrons

NB: Any substance which loses electrons is oxidized
• Reduction: is the gain in electrons
NB:
Any substance which gains electrons is said to be reduced
Oxidizing agent: is a substance which gains elctrons.
NB: An oxidizing agent is always reduced.
• Reducing agent: is a substance which loses electrons NB: A reducing agent is always
oxidized.
Examples:

1. Zn(s) + CuSO4(s) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

• Zinc is oxidized as it loses electrons to form Zn2+ (Zn to Zn2+ ) [it is a reducing agent]
• Copper is reduced as it gains electrons to form Cu(s) (Cu2+ to Cu ) [ it is an oxidizing agent]

Redox in terms of oxidation numbers

• oxidation : is the increase in oxidation number

NB: Any substance whose oxidation state increases is said to be
oxidized Reduction: is the decrease in oxidation number.
NB: Any substance whose oxidation state decreases is said to be reduced.
Oxidation state guidelines

1. The oxidation number of any element in its free state or uncombined state is zero(0)

© 2021 Page 143

 s/n Element Oxidation state
1 H2(g) 0
2 Mg(s) 0
3 Cl2(g) 0

2. For a single monatomic ion its oxidation number is equal to its charge.
s/n Element Oxidation state
1 Mg2+ +2
2 O2– -2
3 Cl– -1
3. The total sum of oxidation numbers of elements in a compound is equal to its overall charge.
4. The oxidation number of oxygen in all of its compounds is –2.
5. The oxidation number of hydrogen in almost all its compounds is + 1 except in hydrides where it
shows – 1 oxidation state.
6. The oxidation number of almost all metals is equal to their ionic charge
s/n Element Oxidation state
1 Mg2+ +2
2 Na+ +1
3 Al3+ +3
Examples

1. What is the oxidation state of

(a) Sulphur in sulphur dioxide, SO2
 We know that the overall charge for SO2 is zero, 0
 We also know the oxidation state of oxygen as –2.

(b) Manganese in manganate(VI), MnO42-

• The overall charge is now –2

© 2021 Page 144

 Some common oxidizing agents
1. Oxygen gas, O2
2. Chlorine gas, Cl2
3. Ozone, O3
4. Nitric acid, HNO3
5. Potassium dichromate, K2Cr2O7
Some common reducing agents
1. Hydrogen gas, H2
2. Carbon monoxide, CO
3. Carbon, C
4. Sulphur dioxide, SO2

EXPERIMENT TO TEST FOR AN OXIDIZING AGENT

1. When aqueous chlorine is added to aqueous potassium iodide containing starch, a dark blue
colourization occurs indicating the presence of iodine (I2) in solution. Cl2(aq) + 2KI(aq) →
2KCl(aq) + I2(s)
2. When aqueous copper (II) sulphate is added to aqueous potassium iodide, a dark blue colourisation
is seen indicating the presence of iodine (I2) in solution.
2CuSO4 (aq) + 4KI (aq) → 2K2SO4 (aq) + 2CuI(aq) + I2(s)

EXPERIMENT TO TEST FOR A REDUCING AGENT

1. When acidified potassium manganate(VII), KMnO4, is added to any suspected reducing

agent, the purple colour of the permanganate is decolourised to a pink colour.
2. When a suspected reducing agent is passed through a solution of potassium dichromate,
K2Cr2O7, the orange colour of the dichromate is discharged to a green colour.

© 2021 Page 145

Attempts

1. for each of the reactions below give the formula of the substance which is oxidized.
(a) Zn (s) + H2SO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)
Oxidized: Zn (its oxidation number increases from 0 to +2)
(b) Cl2(g) + KI(aq) → 2KCl(aq) + I2(s)
Oxidized: KI (Iodine (I) in KI has its oxidation number increased from -1 to 0)
(c) Fe 2+
(aq) + NO3– (aq) + 2H+(aq) →Fe3+(aq) + NO2(g) + H2O(l) Oxidized: Fe 2+
(its
oxidation number increases from +2 to +3)
(d) Cl2(g) + Br –(aq) →Br2(g) + 2Cl –(aq)
Oxidized: Br –(its oxidation number increases from - 1 to 0)
(e) Fe 2+ (aq) + Cl2(g) → Fe3+(aq) + 2Cl –(aq)
Oxidized: Fe 2+ (its oxidation number increases from +2 to +3)
(f) Fe 2+ (aq) + 8H+(aq) + MnO4 – (aq) → Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l) + Mn2+
Oxidized: Fe 2+ (its oxidation number increases from +2 to +3)

AND

Reduction and oxidation can be defined in terms of oxygen, hydrogen, electrons and oxidation
number.

Oxidation

Oxidation in terms of oxygen

Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a chemical substance.
Examples
(i) 2Mg(s) + O2(g) → 2MgO( s )
Magnesium has been oxidized to magnesium oxide since oxygen has been added
(ii) 4FeO(s) + 3O2(g) → 2Fe2O3( s )
Iron (II) oxide (FeO) has been oxidized to iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) since oxygen has been added.

© 2021 Page 146

Oxidation in terms of hydrogen
Oxidation is the removal of hydrogen from a chemical substance.
Examples
(i) 2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2( g )
Ammonia (NH3) has been oxidized to nitrogen (N2) since hydrogen has been removed.
(ii). H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S( s )
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) has been oxidized to sulphur (S) since hydrogen has been removed.
Oxidation in terms of electrons.
Oxidation is the loss of electrons from a chemical substance.
Examples
(i) Cu → Cu2+ + 2e
Copper atoms (Cu) have been oxidized to copper (II) ions (Cu2+) since two electrons have
been lost.
(ii) Al → Al3+ + 3ẽ
Aluminum atoms (Al) have been oxidized to aluminum ions (Al3+) since three electrons have been
lost.
(iii) 2Cl- → Cl2 + 2ẽ
-
Chloride ions (Cl ) have been oxidized to chlorine molecules (Cl2) since electrons have been lost.

Oxidation number.
Rules to consider when assigning the oxidation number
1. The oxidation number of neutral particles like atoms and molecules is equal to
Zero.
Examples
0 0 0
Cu Oxidation number = 0 Al Oxidation number = 0 Cl 2 Oxidation number = 0

0 0 0
Na Oxidation number = 0 Fe Oxidation number = 0 H 2 Oxidation number = 0

0 0 0
Mg Oxidation number = 0 Zn Oxidation number = 0 O 2 Oxidation number = 0

2. The oxidation number of hydrogen in all compounds except metallic halides is

+1 3. The oxidation number of oxygen in all compounds except in peroxides and
in OF2 is -2.
4. For some metals the oxidation number is equal to the group number on the periodic table or the
valence.
5. The oxidation number of a simple ion is equal to the charge it carries.

© 2021 Page 147

Examples
Ion Formula oxidation number

Aluminium ion 3+ ¿ +3
¿
Al

Calcium ion 2+ ¿ +2
¿
Ca

Chloride ion −¿ -1
¿
Cl

Nitride ion 3− ¿ -3
¿
N

Oxide ion 2− ¿ -2
¿
O

Sodium ion +¿ +1
¿
Na

6. In neutral compounds, the sum of individual elements present is equal to zero.

Examples
a) Find the oxidation number of
(i) Sulphur in
SO2
(ii) Sulphur in
H2SO4 Solution
(i) x + (-2)
2=0
x + (-4) = 0 x
–4=0
x = +4
(ii) (1 x2)
+ x + (-
2) 4 =0
2 +x–
8= 0
x–6=
0 x=
+6

© 2021 Page 148

 7. The sum of all oxidation numbers of all elements in a complex ion is equal to the charge on
the ion.
Examples
a) Find the oxidation number of
(i) Carbon in HCO3-
(ii) Sulphur in SO42-
Solution
(i) 1 + x + (-2)3 = -1 x+1–6=-1
x – 5 = -1 x = +5 - 1
x = +4
(ii) x +
(-2)4
= -2
x–8
= -2
x=
+8 -
2
x = +6
Oxidation in terms of oxidation number
Oxidation is the increase in the oxidation number of a substance.
Examples
(i) Cuo → Cu2+ + 2ẽ
Copper atoms (Cu) have been oxidized to copper (II) ions (Cu2+) because the oxidation number has
increased from 0 in Cu to +2 in Cu2+.
(ii) Cl- → Clo + ẽ
-
A Chloride ion (Cl ) has been oxidized to chlorine atom (Cl) since the oxidation number has
increased from -1 in Cl- to 0 in Cl.
(iii) So(g) + O2o(g) → S+4O2-2( g )
Sulphur (S) has been oxidized to sulphur dioxide (SO2) since the oxidation number has
increased from 0 in S to +4 in SO4. Oxidizing agents (oxidants)
An oxidizing agent is a chemical substance which brings about oxidation of another
substance but end up being reduced. Examples of oxidizing agents.
• Oxygen, O2
• Chlorine, Cl2
• Hydrogen peroxide, H2O2
• Potassium permanganate, KMnO4
• Manganese dioxide (manganese (IV) oxide), MnO2
• Concentrated Sulphuric acid, H2SO4

Characteristics of an oxidizing agent.

An oxidizing agent: -
(a) Supplies or donates oxygen to another substance
Example
PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O( g )

© 2021 Page 149

Lead (II) oxide (PbO) is an oxidizing agent because it has donated oxygen to
hydrogen (b) Removes hydrogen from another substance Example
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S( s )
Chlorine (Cl2) is an oxidizing agent because it has removed hydrogen from hydrogen sulphide
(H2S)
(c) Accept electrons from another substance.
(d) Increases the oxidation number of another substance.
Example
Zno + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cuo
Copper (II) ion (Cu2+) is an oxidizing agent because it has caused the increase in the oxidation
number of Zinc from 0 in Zn to +2 in Zn2+.
Test for oxidizing agents.
An oxidizing agent can be tested by using acidified potassium iodide, KI or concentrated
hydrochloric acid.
Oxidizing agents liberate iodine from a solution of acidified potassium iodide.
They turn moist starch iodide paper from white to blue. Starch iodide paper contains starch and
potassium iodide. The iodide ion is oxidized to form iodine.
2I-(aq) → I2(s) + 2ẽ
The iodine reacts with starch to produce a blue colour.

Reduction
Reduction in terms of oxygen
Reduction is the removal of oxygen from a chemical substance.
Examples
(a) CO2(g) + C(s) → 2CO( g )
Carbon dioxide (CO2) has been reduced to carbon monoxide (CO) since oxygen has been removed.
(b) PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O( g )
Lead (II) oxide (PbO) has been reduced to lead (Pb) by the removal of oxygen.
(c) 3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2( g )
Iron (III) oxide (Fe2O3) has been reduced to iron (Fe) by the removal of oxygen.

Reduction in terms of hydrogen.

Reduction is the addition of hydrogen to a chemical substance.
Examples
(a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3( g )
Nitrogen (N2) has been reduced to ammonia (NH3) since hydrogen has been added.
(b) C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6( g )
Ethene (C2H4) has been reduced to ethane (C2H6) by the addition of hydrogen
(c) 2C(s) + H2(g) → C2H2( g )
Carbon (C) has been reduced to ethyne (C2H2) by the addition of
hydrogen. Reduction in terms of electrons Reduction is the gain of
electrons.

Examples
(a) Cu2+ + 2 ẽ → Cu

© 2021 Page 150

Copper (II) ions (Cu2+) have been reduced to copper atoms (Cu) by gaining two electrons.

(b) Cl2 + 2ẽ → 2Cl-

Chlorine molecules (Cl2) have been reduced to chloride ions (Cl-) by gaining two electrons.

Reduction in terms of oxidation number

Reduction is the decrease in the oxidation number of a chemical substance.

Examples
(a) Zn2+ + 2 ẽ → Zno
Zinc ions (Zn2+) have been reduced to Zinc atoms (Zn) since the oxidation number has decreased
from +2 in Zn2+ to 0 in Zn.
Reducing agents (Reductants)
A reducing agent is a chemical substance which brings about reduction but end up being oxidized.
Examples of reducing agents.
• Hydrogen, H2
• Carbon monoxide, CO
• Carbon, C
• Ammonia, NH3
• Hydrogen sulphide, H2S
• Sulphur dioxide, SO2
Characteristics of a reducing agent.
A reducing agent: -
(a) Removes oxygen from another substance Example
3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2( g )
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a reducing agent because it has removed oxygen from iron (III) oxide
(Fe2O3)
(b) Donates or supplies hydrogen to another sustenance
Example
H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S( s )
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a reducing agent because it has donated hydrogen to chlorine.
(c) Donates electrons to another substance
(d) Decreases the oxidation number of another substance
Example
Zno + Cu2+ → Zn2+ + Cuo
Zinc atom (Zn) is a reducing agent because it has caused the decrease in the oxidation number of
copper (II) ions from +2 in Cu2+ to 0 in Cu.

Test for reducing agents.

Reducing agents can be tested by using acidified potassium per manganate or acidified potassium
dichromate (VI)

1. Reducing agents change the colour of the solution of potassium permanganate (VII) from
purple to colourless.
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5ẽ → Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O( l )

© 2021 Page 151

 (Purple) (Colourless)

2. Reducing agents change a solution of acidified potassium dichromate (VI) from orange to
green.
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6ẽ → 2Cr3+ + 7H2O( l )
(Orange) (Green)
In both tests, the electrons come from the reducing agent.
Redox reactions
Reduction and oxidation reactions are called redox reactions because they occur simultaneously.
When one substance is reduced, the other one is oxidized.

Examples of redox reactions

(I) Fe2O3(s) + 2Al(s) → Al2O3(s) + 2Fe

Iron (III) oxide (Fe

2O3) has been reduced to iron (Fe) while aluminium (Al) has been oxidized to

aluminium oxide, Al 2O3.

( II ) PbO(s) + H2(g) → Pb(s) + H2O(l)

Lead (II) oxide (PbO) has been reduced to lead (Pb) while hydrogen (H 2) has been oxidized to
water (H2O).

( III ) 2CuO (s) + 2NH 3(g) → 2Cu (s) + 2N 2(g) + 2H 2O(l)

Copper (II) oxide (CuO) has been reduced to copper (Cu) while ammonia (NH 3) has been oxidized
to nitrogen (N2)

© 2021 Page 152

 ( IV ) Zn + Cu 2+ → Zn 2+ + Cu

Zinc (Zn) has been oxidized to zinc ion (zn2+) while copper (II) ion (Cu2+) has been reduced to
copper (Cu).

(V) H2S(g) + Cl2(g) → 2HCl(g) + S(s)

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) has been oxidized to sulphur (S) while chlorine molecules (Cl
2) have

been reduced to hydrogen chloride (HCl)

Exercise
1. Which of the following reactions is oxidation and which is reduction?
(a) Al3+ + 3ẽ → Al
(b) Cl2 + 2ẽ → 2Cl-
(c) 2O2- → O2 + 2
ẽ
(d) Fe 2+
→ Fe3+ + ẽ
(e) Cu+ + ẽ → Cu
2. State whether the underlined substance has been oxidized or reduced.
(a) CO2 + C → 2 CO
(b) 2FeO3 + 2Al → Al2O3 + 2Fe (c) 2CuO + 2NH3 → 2Cu + 3N2 +
2H2O
3. Indicate reduction and oxidation in the following redox reactions.
(a) Ag2O(s) + H2(g) → 2Ag(s) + H2O( l )
(b) CO(g) + CuO(s) → Cu(s) + CO2( g )
(c) Zn(s) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) → Pb(s) + Zn(NO3)2 (aq )
(d) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) → MnCl 2(aq) + 2H 2 (l) + Cl2( g )
O
2+
(e) Zn (aq) + Mg(s) → 2+
Mg (aq) + Zn( s )

© 2021 Page 153

• The speed of a chemical reaction is very important in a chemical industry.

Collision theory

• A chemical reaction can only occur when the particles of the reactants collide with each other.
However, not all collisions will result in the formation of products
• Therefore, effective collisions are required in a chemical reaction. Effective collisions only occur
when the reactant particles have enough energy to overcome the activation energy of the reaction and
when particles collide in the correct orientation.
• Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy required to make the reaction take place.

© 2021 Page 154

 • The speed of any chemical reaction depends on the number of effective collisions between reactants.
• The greater the number of effective collisions, the higher the rate of reaction

Factors that affect the rate of chemical reaction

1. Particle size
2. Pressure
3. Temperature
4. Catalyst
5. Concentration of the reactants.

Effect of Particle size.

• Decreasing the size of reactant particles will increase the speed of reaction. This is because by
breaking the reactant particles, the surface area increases, and this in turn results in more particles
being able to collide more frequently.

Effect of Pressure.

• If one of the reactants is a gas, increase in pressure will increase the speed of reaction. Increasing the
pressure brings the reactant particles closer to each other in a smaller volume, resulting in increased
effective collisions.

Effect of Temperature.

• Increasing the temperature of the reactants will result in increased speed of reaction. This is because
at high temperatures, the reactant particles will have greater kinetic energy, resulting in more frequent
effective collisions.
Effect of Concentration

• An increase in the concentration of one or more of the reactants will increase the speed of reaction.
This is due to the fact that increasing the concentration introduces more particles in a given volume
and this results in frequent effective collisions.

© 2021 Page 155

 Effect of Catalyst

• A catalyst is a chemical substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction without itself undergoing
any chemical change.
• Addition of a catalyst to a chemical reaction will increase the speed of the chemical reaction because
the catalyst lowers the activation energy of the reaction. Apart from colliding with each other, the
reactant particles can also collide effectively with the catalyst. This will in turn increase the rate of
reaction.

Measurement of the rate of reaction

The speed of any reaction can be determined by the following three methods.
1. Measuring the time taken for the reaction to be completed.
2. Measuring the volume of gaseous product over a fixed time interval
3. Measuring the amount of reactant left over a fixed time interval.

Measuring the time taken for the reaction to be completed.

• Two pieces of magnesium ribbon 2 cm in length each are put in two separate beakers
• A sample of hydrochloric acid is added to one beaker while sulphuric acid is added to the other.
• Time taken for the magnesium ribbon to react in each beaker is recorded.

© 2021 Page 156

 • With HCl, the relative rate of reaction = 1/100= 0.01 s –1
• With H2SO4, the relative rate of reaction = 1/50 = 0.02 s –1
• There the speed of reaction between magnesium and sulphuric acid is twice as fast as that with
hydrochloric acid.

Measuring the volume of gaseous product over a fixed time interval

• Calcium carbonate is reacted with dilute hydrochloric acid as shown by the equation
CaCO3(s) + 2HCl (aq) →CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
• Every half a minute the volume of carbon dioxide produced is measured and recorded using the
apparatus below.

• The volume is tabulated as follows

Time(s) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Volume of 20 35 40 40 40 40 40 40
CO2(cm3)
• The graph is then drawn to determine the rate of reaction

© 2021 Page 157

 • The graph is steepest at the start of the experiment showing that the reaction is fastest at the start.
• When the graph is flat, the reaction is complete.
• Some important questions
(a) Calculate the average rate of reaction during the first 0.5 seconds.
• A tangent must be drawn on the graph where t= 0.5 seconds and its gradient is equal to the rate of
reaction

(b) Use your graph to determine the volume of carbon dioxide obtained after 0.8 seconds
Volume of carbon dioxide at 0.8 seconds = 30
cm3 (c) How long did it take for the reaction to end?
Time taken for the reaction to come to an end= 1.5 seconds

Measuring the amount of reactant left over a fixed time interval.

• Calcium carbonate is first added to sulphuric acid in a beaker.

• During this reaction carbon dioxide is produced and lost to the atmosphere
• The decrease in the total mass of the reactants can be monitored over a fixed time
• The beaker and its contents are put on the electronic balance.

© 2021 Page 158

 • The loss of mass is measured and recorded as follows.

Time(s) 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420 480

Loss in
mass 50 40 30 22 17 14 12 11 11
• The graph is plotted as follows

• Some important questions

(a) What was the mass lost after 30 seconds?
Mass lost = 50g- 44g = 6g
(b) After what time did the reaction lose 25g
Mass remaining = 50g – 25g = 25g
From the graph time = 150 sec.

Comparing the rates of reaction

© 2021 Page 159

 • Two experiments for the reaction between Calcium carbonate, CaCO3 and hydrochloric acid,
HCl are carried out using the same concentration of HCl but different sizes of calcium
carbonate.

• The volume of carbon dioxide produced in each case are recorded as follows
Time(s) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
Experiment 1. 0 20 35 40 40 40 40 40 40
Volume of
CO2(cm3)
Experiment 2 0 10 20 30 40 40 40 40 40
Volume of
CO2(cm3)

• Some important questions

(a) What is the total volume of carbon dioxide collected in each experiment?
Experiment 1, volume = 40 cm3
Experiment 2, volume = 40 cm3
(b) How long did it take for each reaction to reach completion?
Experiment 1, time for the reaction to stop = 1.5seconds

© 2021 Page 160

 Experiment 2, time for the reaction to stop = 2
seconds
(c) What conclusion can be drawn from the graphs drawn?
The graph levels off much earlier and it is steeper in experiment 1 with small pieces
of calcium carbonate. Therefore, experiment 1 with smaller sizes of calcium
carbonate is faster than experiment 2.

© 2021 Page 161

 An exothermic change is one in which heat is given out to the surroundings. e.g.
burning a fuel. An endothermic change is one in which heat is absorbed from the
surroundings. If an endothermic change occurs in a beaker (or calorimeter), the
temperature of the vessel and its contents will fall.
When chemical reactions occur, energy is either taken in or given out to the surroundings
in form of heat or light energy. Reactions are described as either exothermic or
endothermic, depending on whether the energy is absorbed or given out to the
surroundings.

Exothermic reactions

Exothermic reaction: is the chemical reaction which involves the loss of heat energy to the
surrounding resulting in an increase in the surrounding temperature.
In an exothermic reaction the total energy of the products is lower than that of the reactants due to
the loss of energy to the surrounding.
The change in heat energy ∆𝐻 is negative (∆𝑯 = – ve ) in an exothermic reaction. The negative
sign indicates energy loss
• When two atoms are joined together to form a chemical bond, heat energy is given out. Bond
making is therefore an exothermic reaction.
Examples of exothermic reactions
1. Combustion of methane gas is highly exothermic
CH4(g) + O2(g) →CO2(g) + H2O(g) ∆𝐻 = –882 KJ
2. The production of ammonia in the Haber process is also exothermic N2(g) + H2(g) → 2NH3(g)
∆𝐻 = –184KJ
3. Neutralization reactions between acids and alkalis are exothermic.
4. Addition of sulphuric acid to water is also exothermic
5. All freezing and condensing reactions are exothermic

Endothermic reactions

© 2021 Page 162

 Endothermic reaction: is the chemical reaction in which heat energy is absorbed from the surrounding
resulting in a temperature drop in the surrounding.

• The temperature of the surrounding decreases and the container becomes colder.
• In an endothermic reaction the total energy of the products is greater than that of the reactants
• The change in heat energy ∆𝐻 is positive (∆𝑯 = + ve ) in an endothermic reaction. The positive
sign indicates gain in energy.
• When bonds are being broken, heat is absorbed. Bond breaking is therefore an endothermic
reaction.
Examples of endothermic reactions
1. The decomposition of limestone
CaCO3(s) →CaO(s) + CO2(g) ∆𝐻 = +222 KJ
2. Photosynthesis
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) → C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g) ∆𝐻 = + 2816KJ

3. Decomposition of silver halide crystals by light

AgCl(s) → Cl2 + Ag(s) ∆𝐻 = +
254KJ 4. Dissolution of ammonium
nitrate in water.

Energy diagrams

Exothermic reactions

1. Combustion of methane gas is highly exothermic CH4(g)

+ O2(g) →CO2(g) + H2O(g) ∆𝑯 = –882 KJ

© 2021 Page 163

 2. The production of ammonia in the Haber process is also
exothermic
N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g) ∆𝑯 = –184KJ

Endothermic reactions
1. The decomposition of limestone
CaCO3(s) →CaO(s) + CO2(g) ∆𝑯 = +222 KJ

© 2021 Page 164

2. Photosynthesis
6CO2(g) + 6H2O(g) → C6H12O6(g) + 6O2(g) ∆𝑯 = + 2816KJ

ENERGY AND BONDS

Energy is given out when a new bond is formed and energy must be supplied in order to break a
bond.
A chemical change will be exothermic if less energy is needed to break the old bonds than is
given out when the new ones are formed.

An example is the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine molecules:

H2 + Cl2 → 2 HCl
or, showing the bonds: H—H + Cl—Cl → 2 H—Cl

Energy must be put in to break H—H and Cl—Cl, but formation of two H—Cl bonds gives out
more energy than this, so overall the reaction gives out heat.

Bond energies are measured in kJ/mol, e.g. H—H 436; Cl—Cl 242; H—Cl 431 kJ/mol

ΔH = + energy to break bonds – energy when new bonds made

= + (H—H + Cl—Cl) – (2 × H—Cl)
= + ( 436 + 242 ) – ( 2 × 431 )

© 2021 Page 165

 = + 678 – 862
= – 184 kJ/mol (negative sign means 184 kJ given out when 2 mol of HCl are formed)

We can show this on an energy diagram which represents the heat energy content of the
molecules. 678kJ/mol is put in to split the H—H and the Cl—Cl up into atoms, and then 862
kJ/mol is given out when the two new H—Cl bonds are formed:

2H + 2Cl
atoms
heat energy +678
content –862
H— H +
Cl—Cl –184 kJ/mol
before net change 2 H—Cl
after
progress of reaction Final
level is below level on left, since reaction gives out heat — i.e. the heat
content of the compound is less e.g. Use,the bond energies given to
find the energy released when one mole of methane is burnt:

CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Data: C—H 413; O=O 497; C=O 803; H—O 463 kJ/mol

ΔH = + energy to break bonds – energy when new bonds made

= + ( 4 C—H + 2 O=O) – ( 2C=O + 4 H—O )
= + (4 × 413 + 2 × 497) – ( 2 × 803 + 4 × 463)
= – 812 kJ/mol (i.e. 812 kJ released for each mole of methane)

We can use bond energies to predict the amount of energy which will be given out when we burn any
particular alkane or alcohol, and so can compare their effectiveness as fuels.

Average bond dissociation energies

The bond energies used to calculate enthalpy changes are average values obtained from a wide array
of compounds.

© 2021 Page 166

 They may not be the exact values for the compounds in any particular example.

For this reason enthalpy changes calculated using bond dissociation energies only give a rough value
of the enthalpy change for the desired reaction.

The bond energy is the energy absorbed in breaking a covalent bond.

Covalent bond Bond energy,KJ
H–H 436
Cl – Cl 242
C–C 348
C–H 412
O–H 463
Cl – H 431
N–H 388
O=0 496
C=O 743
945
C=C 838

EXAMPLES.

1. The decomposition of ammonia is represented by the equation below.

2NH3(g) → N2(g) + 3H2(g)
(a) Calculate the heat of reaction for this decomposition reaction.

© 2021 Page 167

∆ 𝑯 = 6(N – H) – [ + 3 H – H]

= 6 X 388 - [ 945 + 3 X 436]

= 2328 - 2253
= + 75 KJ
(b) What type of reaction is this decomposition
It is an endothermic reaction
(c) What will be the heat of reaction if 4 moles of ammonia decomposed

(d) Draw the energy diagram for the decomposition of ammonia.

© 2021 Page 168

Electrolysis: is the process by which an electrolyte is decomposed by the passage of electricity through it.

An electrolyte: is an ionic compound which conducts an electric current when molten or dissolved
in water and is decomposed by electric current.

Electrolytes are usually molten or aqueous solutions of ionic compounds(salts) and aqueous
solutions of acids or alkalis

NB: Ionic compounds (salts) conduct electricity by the movement of ions. All ionic compounds do
not conduct electricity in solid state because their ions are held in fixed positions by strong
electrostatic forces. In order for the ions to move, the solid must be in molten state or dissolved in
water thereby making the ionic compound conduct electricity.

TYPES OF ELECTROLYTE

NON- ELECTROLYTES WEAK ELECTROLYTES STRONG ELCTROLYTES

All organic liquids e.g Weak acids e.g Strong acids e.g
(a) Ethanol (a) Ethanoic acid (a) Sulphuric acid
(b) Tetrachloromethane (b) Carbonic acid (b) Hydrochloric acid
(c) Pure water (c) Sulphurous acid
(d) Sugar Weak alkalis e.g Strong alkalis e.g
(e) Molten sulphur (a) Limewater (Ca(OH)2) (a) Sodium hydroxide
(f) All covalent compounds

Salts
(a) Sodium chloride
(b) Copper(II) sulphate
(c) Lead(II) Bromide

© 2021 Page 169

ELECTRODES

Electrodes: are metallic conductors or terminals through which electrons enter or leave the electrolyte.
There are two types of electrodes and these are

(a) anode and

(b) cathode

ANODE:

An anode: is an electrode connected to the positive terminal of the battery

• Anions (negative ions) are attracted to the anode.

• Oxidation is the loss of electrons
• Oxidation occurs at the anode where anions discharge by losing electrons
• The anion which loses electrons becomes a neutral atom.
• The lost electrons at the anode are pumped to the cathode by the battery leaving the anode
positively charged.

CATHODE:

Cathode: is an electrode connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

• Cations (positive ions) are attracted to the cathode.

• Reduction is the gain of electrons
• Reduction occurs at the cathode where cations discharge by gaining electrons.

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN ELCTROLYTES

• Electrolysis of molten electrolytes involves simple binary ionic electrolytes containing only
two ions i.e – metallic ion and non-metallic ion.
• The most common molten electrolytes are: (i) Lead(II) Bromide (PbBr2)
(ii) Sodium chloride (NaCl)
• The electrodes used during the electrolysis of the molten electrolyte are inert electrodes. E.g
carbon and platinum

© 2021 Page 170

 • During this type of electrolysis the electrolyte is usually in solid state, it is only made molten
by direct heating.
ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN LEAD(II) BROMIDE – PbBr2

Electrolyte: molten lead(II) bromide(PbBr2)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode Ions

present: lead(II) ions Pb2+ , Bromide ions Br –

Reaction at the anode:

• The bromide ions(Br –) drift or migrate to the anode and get discharged by losing electrons to
form bromine atoms thereby getting oxidized.
• The bromine atoms combine to form bromine gas. The brownish bromine gas is seen at the
anode.
2Br – (l) → Br2 (g) + 2e –

Reaction at the cathode:

© 2021 Page 171

 • The lead (II) ions (Pb2+) migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons to
form lead atoms thereby getting reduced.
• A silvery deposit of lead metal is seen at the cathode.
Pb 2+ (l) + 2e – → Pb(l)

Overall reaction:

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN SODIUM CHLORIDE – NaCl

Electrolyte: molten sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode Ions

present: sodium ions Na+ , chloride ions Cl –

© 2021 Page 172

 Reaction at the anode:

• The chloride ions(Cl –) drift or migrate to the anode and get discharged by losing electrons to
form chlorine atoms thereby getting oxidized.
• The chlorine atoms combine to form chlorine gas. The yellowish- green chlorine gas is seen at
the anode.
2Cl – (l) → Cl2 (g) + 2e –
Reaction at the cathode:

• The sodium ions (Na+) migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons to form
sodium atoms thereby getting reduced.
• A shiny, silvery deposit of sodium metal is seen at the cathode. Na+ (l) + e – → Na(l) Overall
reaction:

ELECTROLYSIS OF MOLTEN MAGNESIUM OXIDE – MgO

© 2021 Page 173

 Electrolyte: molten magnesium oxide (MgO)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode Ions

present: magnesium ions Mg2+, oxide ions O 2–

Reaction at the anode:

• The oxide ions (O 2– ) drift or migrate to the anode and get discharged by losing electrons to
form oxygen atoms thereby getting oxidized.
• The oxygen atoms combine to form oxygen gas. The bubbles of the colourless and odourless
oxygen gas are liberated at the anode.
O 2– (l) → O2 (g) + 2e –

Reaction at the cathode:

• The magnesium ions (Mg2+) migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons to
form magnesium atoms thereby getting reduced.
• A shiny, silvery deposit of magnesium metal is seen at the cathode. Mg 2+ (l) + 2e – → Mg(l)

Overall reaction:

ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS ELECTROLYTES

The factors that affect the electrolysis of aqueous electrolytes

1. Concentration: the level of concentration of the electrolyte will determine which ions will
discharge.
2. Types of electrodes: the electrodes used can either be inert or active electrodes depending on
required outcome of electrolysis.

© 2021 Page 174

NB: Every aqueous solution must contain water which ionizes into Hydrogen ion and hydroxide ion.
Therefore, an aqueous electrolyte must contain atleast 4 or 3 ions

For example1: aqueous sodium chloride produces: H+ , OH – , Na+ and Cl – in solution.

For example2: aqueous hydrochloric acid produces: H+ , OH – and Cl – in solution.

The question of which ion out of the four will discharge is based on the selective discharge rule or potential
discharge rule.

THE SELECTIVE DISCHARGE RULE

The selective discharge rule states that the less reactive metal (or less electropositive metal) will be easier
to discharge than the more reactive metal ( or more electropositive metal).

i.e POSOCAMAZINILHCOMES

ACRONYM ION NAME REACTIVITY

PO K+ Potassium Most reactive
SO Na+ Sodium
CA Ca+2 Calcium
M Mg+2 Magnesium
A Al3+ Aluminium
2+
Z Zn Zinc
I Fe2+ Iron
NI Ni2+ Nickel
L Pb2+ Lead
H H+ Hydrogen
CO Cu2+ Copper
ME Hg2+ Mercury
+
S Ag Silver
GO Au+ Gold
PLA Pt2+ Platinum Least reactive
Similarly, the less reactive (or less electronegative) non- metals are easier to discharge than the most
electronegative non-metal.

© 2021 Page 175

The actual selective discharge rule:

CATHODE REACTIVITY ANODE REACTIVITY

K+ Difficulty to discharge SO4 2+ Difficulty to discharge
Na+ NO3 –
Ca+2 Cl –
Mg+2 Br –
Al3+ I–
Zn2+ OH – Easier to discharge
2+
Fe
Ni2+
Pb2+
H+
Cu2+
Hg2+
Ag+
Au+
Pt2+ Easier to discharge

IONS THAT WILL NEVER BE DISCHARGED

1. Ions of very reactive metals such as potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and aluminium
can never be discharged whether in dilute or concentrated solutions.
2. Sulphate and nitrate ions will never discharge
CONCENTRATED ELECTROLYTES OR SOLUTIONS ANODE:
• All the negative ions in aqueous solution will drift to the positively charged anode.
• In concentrated aqueous solutions the halide ions (Cl – , Br – or I –) are preferentially discharged by
virtue of being highly concentrated compared to the Hydroxide ions(OH –)

© 2021 Page 176

 CATHODE:

• All the positively charged ions migrate to the cathode

• In a concentrated aqueous solution containing H+ and either Ni2+ or Pb2+ ions, the Ni2+ or Pb2+ will
preferentially be discharged by virtue of their concentration instead of the H+ ions.
DILUTE AQUEOUS ELCTROLYTES
• For all dilute aqueous electrolytes the discharge rules apply at both the anode and cathode.
THE ELECTROLYSIS OF CONCENTRATED AQUEOUS SODIUM CHLORIDE - NaCl

Electrolyte: concentrated sodium Chloride (NaCl)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode

Ions present: Na+, Cl – , H+, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

• Both hydroxide ions ( OH – ) and chloride ions(Cl –) will migrate to the anode but only the Cl – ions
will preferentially be discharged or oxidized because they are in a higher concentration.
• A yellowish green chlorine gas Cl2 is observed at the anode. 2Cl – (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e – Reaction at
the cathode:

• The sodium ions (Na+) and the hydrogen ions (H+) will both migrate to the cathode but only H+ ions
will preferentially be discharged or reduced.

© 2021 Page 177

• Bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated at the cathode. 2H+ (aq) + 2e – → H2(g)

Overall reaction:

THE ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE AQUEOUS SODIUM HYDROXIDE – NaOH

Electrolyte: Dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode

Ions present: Na+ , H+, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

• Hydroxide ions ( OH – ) will migrate to the anode and get discharged or oxidized by losing electrons
to form water and oxygen gas.
• Bubbles of the colourless and odourless oxygen gas are seen at the anode.

4OH – (aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e –

© 2021 Page 178

 Reaction at the cathode:

• The sodium ions (Na+) and the hydrogen ions (H+) will both migrate to the cathode but only H+ ions
will preferentially be discharged or reduced because H+ ion is lower in the electrochemical series.
• Bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated at the cathode. 2H+ (aq) + 2e – → H2(g)

Overall reaction:

THE ELECTROLYSIS OF DILUTE SULPHURIC ACID OR THE ELECTROLYSIS OF WATER

– H2SO4

© 2021 Page 179

 Electrolyte: Dilute sulphuric acid (H2SO4)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode

Ions present: H+, OH –, SO42 –

Reaction at the anode:

• Both the Hydroxide ions ( OH – ) and sulphate ions (SO42 –) will migrate to the anode but only the
Hydroxide ions ( OH – ) will preferentially be discharged or oxidized by losing electrons to form
water and oxygen gas.
• Bubbles of the colourless and odourless oxygen gas are seen at the anode .

4OH – (aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e – Reaction

at the cathode:

• The hydrogen ions (H+) will migrate to the cathode and get discharged or reduced forming hydrogen
atoms which letter combine to form hydrogen gas.
• Bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated at the cathode.
2H+ (aq) + 2e – → H2(g) Overall
reaction:

NB: Water is a non- electrolyte but with the addition of sulphuric acid, water can be electrolyzed to
hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2: 1.

© 2021 Page 180

THE ELECTROLYSIS OF CONCENTRATED HYDROCHLORIC ACID. - HCl

Electrolyte: concentrated aqueous hydrochloric acid (HCl)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode

Ions present: H+, Cl –, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

• Both hydroxide ions (OH – ) and chloride ions(Cl –) will migrate to the anode but only the Cl – ions
will preferentially be discharged or oxidized because they are in a higher concentration.
• A yellowish green chlorine gas Cl2 is observed at the anode. 2Cl – (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e – Reaction at
the cathode:

• The hydrogen ions (H+) will drift to the cathode and get discharged or reduced forming hydrogen
atoms which letter combine to form hydrogen gas.
• Bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated at the cathode. 2H+ (aq) + 2e – → H2(g)

© 2021 Page 181

Overall reaction:

ELECTROLYSIS BY THE TYPE OF ELCTRODES

There are two types of electrodes and these are

1. Inert electrodes
2. Active electrodes
Inert electrodes: are electrodes which do not react with the electrolyte or the products of
electrolysis. E.g carbon (graphite) and platinum
Active electrode: are electrodes which react with the electrolyte or the products of electrolysis. E.g
metals such as : copper, silver, aluminium e.t.c.

THE ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS COPPER (II) SULPHATE – CuSO4 USING INERT

ELECTRODES.

© 2021 Page 182

 Electrolyte: Dilute aqueous copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4)

Electrode: carbon anode and carbon cathode

Ions present: Cu2+, SO42- , H +, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

–
• Both the Hydroxide ions ( OH ) and sulphate ions (SO42 –) will migrate to the anode but
–
only the Hydroxide ions ( OH ) will preferentially be discharged or oxidized by losing
electrons to form water and oxygen gas.
• Bubbles of the colourless and odourless oxygen gas are seen at the anode.

4OH – (aq) → 2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e – Reaction

at the cathode:

• Both the hydrogen ions (H+) and copper(II) ions (Cu2+) will drift to the cathode but only the
copper(II) ions (Cu2+) will preferentially be discharged by gaining electrons to form copper
atoms.
• The pink copper metal will be deposited at the cathode. Cu+2 (aq) + 2e – → Cu(s)

Overall reaction:

© 2021 Page 183

THE ELECTROLYSIS OF AQUEOUS COPPER (II) SULPHATE – CuSO4 USING ACTIVE
(COPPER ) ELECTRODES

Electrolyte: Dilute aqueous copper (II) sulphate (CuSO4)

Electrode: Anode: Impure copper anode cathode: pure copper cathode

Ions present: Cu2+, SO42- , H +, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

–
• Both the Hydroxide ions ( OH ) and sulphate ions (SO42 –) will migrate to the anode but
neither of the two ions will discharge. Instead the copper atoms in the anode dissolve in
solution by losing electrons to form copper(II) ions (Cu2+ ) . This is because it is easier for
copper to lose electrons than it is for OH – ions.
• The anode will reduce in mass and size as the copper atoms dissolve away.

Cu(s)) → Cu 2+(aq) + 2e –

© 2021 Page 184

 Reaction at the cathode:

• Both the hydrogen ions (H+) and copper(II) ions (Cu2+) will drift to the cathode but only the
copper(II) ions (Cu2+) will preferentially be discharged by gaining electrons to form copper
atoms.
• The pink deposit of copper metal will be seen at the cathode.
• The mass of the cathode will significantly be increased due to the copper deposits. Cu+2 (aq) +
2e – → Cu(s) Overall reaction:

There is no overall reaction because the concentration of the electrolyte remains contant. The copper(II)
sulphate solution remains blue because the copper ions discharging at the cathode are replenished by the
copper dissolving from the anode.

ELECTROLYTIC CELL Vs ELECTROCHEMICAL CELL.

1. Electrolytic cell
• An electrolytic cell is the type of cell which converts electrical energy to chemical energy.
• It uses a battery as a source of power or electricity to effect the chemical reactions in the cell.
• An electrolytic cell mainly involves inert electrodes or some electrodes of the same kind.( e.g. copper
anode and copper cathode)
• The two electrodes are always put in the same container.
2. Voltaic cell or electrochemical cell or simple cell or galvanic cell
• Electrochemical cell or voltaic cell is the type of cell which converts chemical energy to electrical
energy.
• The electrodes in a voltaic cell are metals of two different metals with different reactivity.
• In a voltaic cell, a resistor or a voltmeter is connected in place of a battery.
• The electrodes are usually dipped in an aqueous solution of an ionic salt or an acid.
• The two electrodes may both be dipped in one cell with a common electrolyte or they may be put in
separate containers such that the electrolyte in each cell must be a salt of the metal being used as an
electrode.
• If two separate containers are used they are normally connected by a salt bridge which completes the
circuit by allowing the flow of ions from one to another.

© 2021 Page 185

• The more reactive metal (more electropositive metal) has a higher tendency of losing electrons.
Therefore, in a voltaic cell a more reactive metal supplies the electrons through the external circuit to
the less reactive metal.
• The more reactive metal with a higher tendency of losing electrons is called a negative terminal while
the less reactive metal is called the positive terminal.
• Oxidation therefore occurs at the negative terminal while reduction occurs at the positive terminal.
• The anode is the negative terminal which a more reactive metal
• The cathode is the positive terminal which is the less reactive metal.
• The wider the difference in reactivity between the two metals used as electrodes, the larger the voltage
supplied into the external circuit.

NB: The selective discharge does not apply at the anode but only applies at the cathode.

EXAMPLE OF VOLTAIC CELL

© 2021 Page 186

 Electrolyte: Cell One: ZnSO4
Cell Two: CuSO4 Electrode:
Anode: Zinc cathode:
Copper.

2+ –
Ions present: Cell One : Zn , SO42+ , H+, OH
Cell Two : Cu2+ , SO42+ , H+, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

• The atoms in zinc will dissolve in solution by losing electrons through the external circuit to the copper
electrode thereby getting oxidized to Zn2+ ions.

Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e –

Reaction at the cathode:

• Both the copper ions (Cu2+ ) and hydrogen ions (H+) will drift to the cathode but only Cu2+ ions will be
discharged by gaining electrons thereby getting reduced to pink copper metal which is deposited at the
cathode.
Cu+2 (aq) + 2e – → Cu(s)

Overall reaction:

EXAMINATION QUESTIONS

1. A silver rod and a copper rod were connected together dipped in dilute sulphuric acid as shown in
the diagram. An electric bulb connected between the metals glowed.

© 2021 Page 187

(a) At which rod does oxidation occur?
ANS; iron rod
(b) What term is used to describe the device above?
ANS: electrochemical cell or voltaic cell or simple cell (c)
Which of the rods is the ..
(i) Anode? Ans: iron rod
(ii) Cathode? Ans: silver rod
(iii) The positive pole? Ans: slver rod
(d) State atleast three differences between the above cell and the electrolytic cell.
Ans: (i) the above cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy while the electrolytic cell
converts electrical energy to chemical energy.
(iii) the above cell uses two metals of different reactivivity as electrodes while an
electrolytic cell mainly uses inert electrodes.
(iv) In the above cell oxidation occurs at the negative terminal while in an ectrolytic
cell oxidation occurs at the positive electrode. (e) What energy changes occur
in the device?
ANS: chemical energy → electrical energy.
(f) How would the replacement of the iron rod with zinc alter the brightness of the bulb? ANS: the
bulb will grow brighter than before because of the increase in voltage produced as zinc and
silver metals are further apart in terms reactivity.

© 2021 Page 188

APPLICATION OF ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis is widely used in the following processes

1. Extraction of copper
2. Extraction of aluminium
3. Electroplating process
4. Manufacture of sodium hydroxide EXTRACTION OF COPPER

Properties of copper

1. It is generally unreactive
2. It does not corrode
3. It is an excellent conductor of electricity and heat.
4. It is hard and poisonous

COPPER

USES OF COPPER

• Copper is widely used for making electrical wires because it is an excellent conductor of electricity
• It is used for making boilers and water pipes mainly because it is resistant to corrosion and conducts
heat,
• Copper is also used for making bullets due to its high density and poisonous nature.
• Copper is also used for making alloys.

COPPER EXTRACTION

Copper is extracted mainly from the following ores;

5. Cuprite : copper(I) oxide , Cu2O

6. Malachite: Copper (II) carbonate – copper(II) hydroxide, CuCO3 . Cu(OH)2
7. Chalcocite : copper(I) sulphide; Cu2S
8. Copper pyrites: copper –iron sulphide; CuFeS2.

Copper is an uncreative metal which is extracted by heating with carbon.

© 2021 Page 189

COPPER PROCESSING

• the copper ore is first crushed before being taken for flotation, roasting and smelting
• the copper ore is sometimes leached in sulphuric acid before being taken for electrolysis

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) → CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

ELECTROLYSIS

• very pure copper is needed for electrical conductors

• electrolysis is therefore used to produce very pure copper

• Electrolyte: copper (II) sulphate solution

• Electrodes: (i) Anode: impure copper
(ii) cathode: pure copper
Ions present: Cu2+ , SO42+ , H+ and OH–
• Reaction at the anode:
Copper dissolves in solution from the impure anode by losing electrons
Cu(s)→ Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
The impurities at the anode falls away as sludge and settles at the bottom. This
explains why the anode reduces in both size and weight.
• Reaction at the cathode:
The Cu2+ ions migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons forming copper
atoms.
The yellowish green copper metal is deposited on the cathode
Cu2+(aq) + 2e– → Cu(s)
This explains why the cathode increases in both size and mass

© 2021 Page 190

Overall reaction: there is no overall reaction as the concentration of the reactants remains the same.

EXTRACTION OF ALUMINIUM

Aluminium is extracted from its CHIEF ORE Bauxite; Al2O3. Aluminium is a fairly reactive metal which
is extracted by electrolysis.

Uses of aluminium

1. It is used for making overhead electrical cables due to its low density and good electrical
conductivity
2. It is used for making kitchen utensils because it is a good conductor of heat and it has low density
3. It is used for making aircraft bodies because of its density and resistance to corrosion
4. It is used for making bicycle frames because of it resistance to corrosion and being a light weight
metal.
PROCESS OF EXTRACTING ALUMINIUM

• Aluminium is extracted from bauxite (Al2O3) by the process of electrolysis.

• The solid bauxite is first heated in order to make a molten electrolyte
• This process is however very expensive and uneconomical because the melting point of bauxite is
very high about 2045 °C . This means that huge energy is required to melt bauxite.
• In order to lower the working temperature and make the process economical, bauxite (Al 2O3) is
dissolved in cryolite (Na3AlF6) which reduces the melting point of bauxite from 2045 °C to 900°C.
• The mixture of bauxite and cryolite becomes the electrolyte.

• Electrolyte: molten mixture of cryolite(Na3AlF6) and bauxite (Al2O3)

© 2021 Page 191

 • Electrodes : (i) Anode : Graphite
(ii) Cathode: Graphite
Ions present : Al3+ and O2 –
• Reaction at the anode:
The O2 – ions migrate to the anode and get discharged by losing electrons to form oxygen gas
2O2 –(l) → O2(g) + 4e–
At a working temperature of 900 °C, oxygen gas produced at the anode reacts with carbon in the
graphite anode to produce carbon dioxide. This explains why the graphite anode is continuously
replaced at the anode as it is continuously depleted by this oxidation with oxygen.
• Reaction at the cathode:
The Al3+ ions migrate to the cathode and get discharged by gaining electrons to form aluminium
metal. The aluminium metal is deposited at the cathode and settles at the bottom.
Al3+(l) + 3e–→ Al (l)
The molten aluminium metal is tapped off at intervals through an outlet at the bottom.
Overall reaction:
Al2O3(l)→Al(l) + O2(g)

ELECTROPLATING

Electroplating : is the coating of metallic substance or plastic material with a non-corrosive metallic
substance.

The two main advantages of electroplating are:

1. It improves the resistance to corrosion
2. It also improves the appearance of a substance.
• The most common metals used for electroplating are gold and silver because of their brilliant
lustre and resistance to corrosion. The metallic substance to be plated must be connected to the
cathode.
• The anode is usually a metal which is used for plating .
• The electrolyte should be a salt of a metal which is plated (anode)

© 2021 Page 192

ELECTROPLATING AN ALUMINIUM SPOON USING SILVER METAL.

Electrolyte: Aqueous Ag2SO4

Electrode: Anode : Silver cathode:

Aluminium spoon.

Ions present: Ag + , SO42+ , H+, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

• Both the sulphate (SO42+) ions and hydroxide ( OH – ) ions will migrate to the anode but neither
of them will discharge because silver loses electrons more readily than the two ions. Therefore,
atoms in silver will dissolve in solution by losing electrons through the external circuit thereby
getting oxidized to Ag + ions.

Ag(s) → Ag+ (aq) + e –

Reaction at the cathode:

• Both the silver ions (Ag + ) and hydrogen ions (H+) will drift to the cathode but only Ag + ions
will preferentially be discharged by gaining electrons thereby getting reduced to silver metal
Ag+ (aq) + e – → Ag(s)
• The silver metal is deposited and coated on the aluminium spoon.

© 2021 Page 193

Overall reaction:

There is no overall reaction because the concentration of the electrolyte remains unchanged.

MANUFACTURE OF SODIUM HYDROXIDE BY THE ELECTROLYSIS OF BRINE (SODIUM

CHLORIDE)

The source of brine(NaCl)

From the electrolysis of concentrated sea water.

The use of sodium hydroxide (NaOH)

1. It is used for making soap

2. It is used for making bleaching agents

There are two electrolysis processes used to manufacture sodium hydroxide from brine. These include:

1. The diaphragm cell

2. The mercury cell

THE DIAPHRAGM CELL

The porous membrane: Allows for the exchange of ions between two electrolytes.

Electrolyte: Concentrated brine or concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)

Electrode: Anode : Titanium cathode: Nickel

Ions present: Na + , Cl – , H+, OH –

© 2021 Page 194

Reaction at the anode:

• Both hydroxide ions ( OH – ) and chloride ions(Cl –) will migrate to the anode but only the
–
Cl ions will preferentially be discharged or oxidized because they are in a higher
concentration.
• A yellowish green chlorine gas Cl2 is observed at the anode.
2Cl – (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e –
• The sodium ion (Na+ ) will diffuse through the porous membrane towards the cathode

Reaction at the cathode:

• The sodium ions (Na+) and the hydrogen ions (H+) will both migrate to the cathode but only
H+ ions will preferentially be discharged or reduced.
• Bubbles of hydrogen gas are liberated at the cathode.
2H+ (aq) + 2e – → H2(g)
• The removal of hydrogen ions leaves a high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH – ) around
the cathode
• Therefore, the sodium ions (Na+) are drawn from the anode through the porous membrane to
the cathode.
• The reaction occurs between the two ions forming sodium hydroxide, NaOH

Na+ (aq) + OH – (aq) → NaOH(aq) Reaction at the cathode:

NaCl(aq) + 2H2O (l) →2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)

© 2021 Page 195

THE MERCURY CELL

Disadvantage of manufacturing NaOH using a mercury cell.

1. Mercury is very expensive.

2. Mercury is porous

Electrolyte: Concentrated brine or concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (NaCl)

Electrode: Anode : Graphite (carbon)

Cathode : Mercury

Ions present: Na +, Cl –, H+, OH –

Reaction at the anode:

• Both hydroxide ions ( OH – ) and chloride ions(Cl –) will migrate to the anode but only the
–
Cl ions will preferentially be discharged or oxidized because they are in a higher
concentration.
• A yellowish green chlorine gas Cl2 is observed at the anode. 2Cl – (aq) → Cl2 (g) + 2e –

Reaction at the cathode:

• The sodium ions (Na+) migrate to the cathode and get reduced by gaining one electron.
• In the process the sodium mercury amalgam is produced.

© 2021 Page 196

 Na+ (aq) + e – + Hg(l) → Na/Hg(l) … sodium mercury amalgam
• The sodium mercury amalgam reacts with cold water to produce sodium hydroxide and
hydrogen gas.
• Na/Hg(l) + 2H2O(l) → 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + 2Hg(l)

Overall reaction :

2 NaCl(aq) + 2H2O (l) →2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)

FARADAY’S LAW

FACTORS THAT DETERMINE THE MASS OF PRODUCTS DURING ELECTROLYSIS

1. The magnitude of electric current flowing through the cell
2. The time of flow of electric current.
3. The charge on the element being deposited.
Faraday’s law: States that the mass of the product deposited or liberated during electrolysis is
directly proportional to the electric current passing through the cell.

Charge(Q) = Current(A) X time(s)

Where Q= Charge in coulombs
I = current(A)
t = time(s)

It was experimentally discovered that 96500C of charge needed to liberate one mole of the singly charged
ion during electrolysis.

Therefore, 96500C is called the FARADAY‟s CONSTANT

Q= nF

Where
Q= Charge in coulombs

© 2021 Page 197

 n = number of moles
F =faraday‟s constant (96500C)

Summary of the needed expressions:

Q = it , Q = nF

ATTEMPTS

1. Given that 2A of electric current flows through a cell in 20 minutes. What is the volume of oxygen
gas at r.t.p produced at the anode during he electrolysis of dilute aqueous sodium chloride.

2. Calculate the mass of copper deposited when a current of 0.9A passed through a solution of
copper (II) sulphate for 1hour 20 min [Mr = 64]

3. When moltn lead (II) bromide is electrolyzed by a current of 0.8A for 100A. Calculate the mass of
lead metal deposited at the cathode.

© 2021 Page 198

4. Calculate the quantity of charge required to deposit 10g of silver metal during electrolysis.

NB: End of electrolysis.

© 2021 Page 199

Organic chemistry: is the branch of science which studies carbon and its compounds except carbonates,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, carbon disulphide etc. and oxides.

• The food we eat, plastics, rubber, drugs and detergents are all organic comounds.
• Carbon has a tendency of forming covalent bonds with other carbon atoms. Apart from bonding
with its own kind, carbon also forms covalent bonds with other elements such as hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur. Organic chemistry, however, is centered on compounds of carbon
and hydrogen.
Common terms used
1. Organic compounds
Organic compounds are compounds which contain carbon except carbonates, carbon monoxide,
carbon dioxide, carbon disulphide etc.

Hydrocarbons
A hydrocarbon is a compound which consists of the elements carbon and hydrogen only,

In simpler terms, Hydrocarbons are organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen
only. These include:
1. Alkanes
2. Alkenes
3. Alkynes

Examples of hydrocarbons
CH 4
• Methane,

C2 H4
• Ethene,

C2 H2
• Ethyne,

© 2021 Page 200

 Homologous series
A homologous series: is a group of organic compounds having the same general formula, functional
group and chemical properties
A homologous series is a family of similar organic compounds
Each member in a family is called homologue

Characteristics of the homologous series

(a) Members in the family show a gradual change in physical properties i.e. change
from gas to liquid and solid as the carbon chain increases.
(b) Members in the family have similar methods of preparation
(c) Members in the family have similar chemical properties because they have the
same functional group.
(d) Members in the family can be represented by the general molecular formula:
Examples
• Alkanes, Cn H2n+2

Cn H2n
• Alkenes,

• Alkynes, Cn H2n−2

Cn H2n+1 OH
• Alkanols (alcohols) ,

Cn H2n 1 COH
• Alkanoics ( carboxylic acids), , + .

• Esters

Characteristics of a homologous series

1. All the members conform to the same general formula.

2. Each member of the homologous series differs from the next by - CH2
3. Members of the homologous series have the same chemical properties
4. They have the same functional group.
5. Their physical properties such as melting and boiling points increase with increase in the number of
carbon atoms.
Functional Groups

• A functional group: Is the special group of atoms available in homologous series

compounds which is responsible for the chemical properties of the compound.

© 2021 Page 201

 • All compounds in homologous series have functional groups except alkanes.

s/n Homologous series Functional group name Functional group formula

1 Alkanes Carbon - carbon single bond C–C
2 alkenes Carbon - carbon double bond C=C
3 Alkynes Carbon - carbon triple bond C=C
4 Alcohols Hydroxyl group -OH
5 Carboxylic acid Carboxylic group -COOH
6 Esters Carbonyl group -COO

NOMENCLATURE

Nomenclature: refers to system of naming organic compounds.

s/n Number of carbon atoms Name

1 One Meth-
2 Two Eth -
3 Three Prop-
4 Four But -
5 Five Pent-
6 Six Hex-
7 Seven Hept -
8 Eight Oct-
9 Nine Non-
10 Ten Dec-

ALKANES.

• Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons with a general formula CnH2n+2.

• n represents the number of carbon atoms.
• Saturated hydrocarbons: are hydrocarbons with single bonds between carbon atoms

© 2021 Page 202

 • alkanes have no functional group though sometimes the C – C is considered as a
functional group for alkanes
• The

CH 2 or by 14.
(e) Each member in the family differs to the next by

4. Functional group
A functional group is a group is a group which determines the chemical properties of organic
compounds
Organic family Functional group Name of functional group
Alkanes ─C─C─ Single carbon – carbon
covalent bond

Alkenes C=C Double carbon – carbon

covalent bond

Alkynes C≡C Triple carbon – carbon

covalent bond

Alkanols ( alcohols) ─ OH Hydroxyl group

─ COOH
or
Alkanoics (carboxylic acids) Carboxyl group

Functional group

© 2021 Page 203

Nomenclature of organic compounds
Nomenclature is a standardized way of naming organic compounds.
Nomenclature takes into account the following:
• Prefix
• Suffix

The prefix shows the number of carbon atoms in an organic compound.

Prefix Number of carbon atoms
Meth 1
Eth 2
Prop 3
But 4
Pent 5
Hex 6
Hept 7
Oct 8
Non 9
Dec 10

The suffix shows the organic family of the organic compound.

Organic family Suffix
Alkanes ane
Alkenes ene
Alkynes yne
Alcohols anol
Carboxylic acids anoic
Esters anoate

Alkanes
Alternative term: Saturated hydrocarbons
Cn H2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…….
General molecular formula:

Alkanes have single carbon – carbon covalent bonds between carbon atoms.
They are called saturated hydrocarbons because they have the required (maximum)
number of hydrogen atoms. They end with ane

© 2021 Page 204

Examples of alkanes

Name Molecular Structural formula Condensed Mr

formula formula

Methane CH 4 CH 4 16

Ethane C 2H 6 CH 3CH 3 30

Propane C 3H 8 CH 3 CH 2CH 3 44

Butane C 4H 10 CH 3 (CH 2) 2CH 3 58

Pentane C 5H 12 CH 3 (CH 2) 3CH 3 72

© 2021 Page 205

Preparation of methane
CH3 COONa,
Methane can be prepared by heating a mixture of anhydrous sodium ethanoate,

and soda lime (sodium hydroxide), NaOH.

CH3
Reaction: COONa(s) + NaOH(s) → CH4(g) + Na2CO3(

s ) Diagram:

Physical properties of alkanes

1. Their physical states vary at room temperature and pressure. Lower members are gases;
others are liquids while higher members are solids.
2. Their melting and boiling points increases as the carbon chain (relative molecular masses)
increases.
3. Their densities increases as the carbon chain increases.
Chemical properties of alkanes
1. Combustion
(a) In a plentiful supply of air (complete combustion), alkanes reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide and water.
Example
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
(b) In a limited supply of air (incomplete combustion), alkanes react with oxygen to form
carbon monoxide and water
Example

2C2H6 + 5O2 → 4CO + 6H2O

(c) In a very limited supply of air (incomplete combustion), alkanes react with oxygen to
form carbon and water

Example
C3H8 + 2O2 → 3C + 4H2O

© 2021 Page 206

 2. Substitution reaction
A substitution reaction is a reaction in which one atom or group of atoms in a molecule is
replaced by another.
Alkanes undergo substitution reactions with halogens in the presence of ultraviolet light.
Example
Halogenation of methane
Methane can react with chlorine gas in the presence of sunlight to form chloromethane and
hydrogen chloride.
CH4(g) + Cl2(g) → CH3Cl(g) + HCl( g )

Condition

Temperature: 200oC

Catalyst: Sunlight (ultraviolet light)

Isomerism of alkanes

Isomerism is the existence of compounds with the same same molecular formula but different
structural formula

Isomers

Isomers are compounds which have the same molecula formula but different structural formula.

Alkanes with more than three carbon atoms exhibit isomerism

Nomenclature of alkane isomers

The International Union for Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) rules for naming alkanes

• Choose the longest continous carbon chain in the molecule.

• Number the carbon atoms in the longest chain chosen starting from the end that gives
the smaller set of numbers nearer the branched methly group
• Write the number of carbon atom at which the branched methyl group is attached to the
main chain in alphabetical order.
• Put a comma after each group number and a hyphen between the group number and the
methyl group.
• Name the compound as a derivative of the normal alkane having the same number of
carbon atoms as in the longest chain chosen.

© 2021 Page 207

Examples 1: Butane has two isomers

C4 H10 C4 H10
Molecular formula: Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: Normal butane IUPAC name: 2 – methyl propane

Examole 2: Pentane has three isomers

C5 H12
Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: Normal pentane

C5 H12
Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: 2 – methyl butane

© 2021 Page 208

 C5 H12
Molecular formula:
IUPAC name: 2, 2 – dimethyl propane

Exercise

1. Draw the structure of the compound with the IUPAC name; 2, 3, 4, 4 – tetra methylpentane

Cracking of alkanes

Cracking is the breaking down of large hydrocarbon molecules into simpler and smaller molecules.
Alkanes break down to produce alkenes, short chain alkanes and in some cases hydrogen gas.

Types of cracking

1. Thermal cracking
This is where heat is used to break down large molecules into smaller ones.

Example

C4H10 → C2H6 + C2H4

C2H6 → C2H4 + H2

2. Catalytic cracking
This is where both heat and a catalyst are usedto break down large molecules into
smaller ones.
Common catalysts used include aluminium oxide (Al2O3) and silica (SiO2).

© 2021 Page 209

Example

C17H36(l) → 3C2H4(g) + C8H18 + C3H6( g )

Conditions

Catalyst: Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

Temperature: 600oC

Importance of cracking

1. It is used in the production of raw materials for petrol chemicals like ethene and hydrogen.
Hydrogen is used in making plasitics and margarine.
2. It is used in the production of petrol.

Exercise

C11 H24
1. One of the hydrocarbons found in crude oil is undecane,
Under suitable conditions, undecane under goes the reaction below
C11 H24 → C7 H16 + C4 H 8

(a) What term is used to describe this type of reaction in the petrochemical
industry? (b) State two conditions necessary for this reaction to take place

Fuels

A fuel is a substance which burns in air to produce useful energy.

Sources of fuels
(a) Natural gas
The main component of natural gas is methane.
Natural gas is usually mined and purified before use.
(b) Petroleum (crude oil)
Crude oil is a mixture of long chain hydrocarbons and some elements like sulphur and
nitrogen
Crude oil was formed millions of years ago by the decomposition of animals and plants
under pressure.
Crude oil can be refined by fractional distillation.
Fractional distillation is a process of separating components of a mixture based on their
boiling points.
The diagram below shows a fractionating tower and different fractions obtained from
crude oil.

© 2021 Page 210

Fractions of crude oil and their uses

Fraction Number of carbon atoms Use

Petroleum gases C1 – C4 Used in camping stoves and cookers as

bottled gas
Petrol (gasoline) C4 – C10 Used as a fuel in internal combustion
engines in vehicles

Kerosine ( paraffin) C10 – C17 Used as a fuel in jets

Used in paraffin lamps for lighting
Used in paraffin lamps for cooking
Diesel oil (gas oil) C17 – C20 Used as a fuel in diesel engines like trains,
hammer mills, tractors, lorries
Lubricating oil C20 – C30 Used as a lubricant in machines to reduce friction

Fuel oil C30 – C40 Used as a fuel in ships, power stations and
industrial machinary

Paraffin waxes C40 – C50 Used in making waxes, polishes and wax papers

© 2021 Page 211

Bitumen (residue) C50 upwards Used to tar roads
Used as a roofing material
Note

1. Petroleum gases have the smallest boiling point and have the smallest relative
molecular mass.
2. Bitumen has the highest boiling point and have the largest relative molecular
mass. In addition, bitumen has the longest chain. 3. Octane is the main
component of petrol

Production of hydrogen from methane

Methane reacts with steam to form carbon monoxide and hydrogen gas.

CH4(g) + H2O(g) → CO(g) + 2H2( g )

Conditions

Temperature: 200oC

Catalyst: Nickel metal

Alkenes

Alternative term: Unsaturated hydrocarbons

Cn H2n where n = 2, 3, 4, 5
General molecular formula:

Functional group: Double carbon – carbon covalent bond,

C = C They have one or more double bonds between carbon

atoms.

They end with ene.

They are called unsaturated hydrocarbons because they have a double bond between carbon atoms.

They have two hydrogen atoms less than their corresponding alkanes

© 2021 Page 212

Examples of alkenes

Name Molecular formula Structural formula Condensed formula Mr

Ethene C 2H 4 CH 2= CH 2 28

Propene C 3H 6 CH 2= CHCH 3 42

Butane C 4H 8 CH 2 = CHCH 2CH 3 56

Pentene C 5H 10 CH 2 = CH(CH 2)2CH 3 70

Preparation of ethene gas

There are two methods used to prepare ethene.

1. Catalytic cracking of alkanes

This is where a catalyst is used to break down large hydrocarbon molecules into smaller ones.

© 2021 Page 213

Reaction: C17H36(l) → 3C3H4(g) + C3H6(g) + C8H18(l)

Conditions

Temperature: 600oC

Catalyst: Aluminium oxide, Al2O3

Note: The broken pot can act as a catalyst.

2. Dehydration of ethanol

Ethene can be prepared by the dehydration of ethanol using concentrated sulphuric acid as a
dehydrating agent.

Sulphuric acid removes water.

C2H5OH(s) → C2H4(g) + H2O( l )

Conditions

Temperature: 180oC

Dehydrating agent: Concentrated sulphuric acid.

Test for unsaturation

Alternative term: Test for alkenes

© 2021 Page 214

There are two ways you could test a hydrocarbon, to see whether it is an alkane or

alkene Test 1: Shake an alkene with bromine water.

Result: The brown colour of bromine disappears immediately. In other words alkenes decolorize
bromine water.

Explanation: When ethene react with bromine water, a colourless compound (liquid) called 1, 2 –
dibromoethane is formed.

C2H4(g) + Br2(l) → C2H4Br2 (l)

Note

When an alkane is shaken with bromine water, there is no reaction. Alkenes do not undergo
addition reactions because they are saturated.

Test 2: Add acidified potassium per manganate (VII) solution to the hydrocarbon.

Result: The purple colour of potassium per manganate (VII) turns colourless if an alkene is
present.

Chemical properties of alkenes e.g. ethene

Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes because the double bond opens up to allow chemical
reactions.

Alkenes undergo two notable chemical reactions.

1. Combustion
Alkenes react with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water.

© 2021 Page 215

Example

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) → 2CO2(g) + 2H2O( l )

2. Addition reactions

An addition reaction is a reaction where a molecule is added to an unsaturated molecule by

breaking a double bond.

Examples of addition reaction involving ethene

(a) Halogenation – reaction with halogens

Ethene reacts with chlorine to form 1, 2 – dichloroethane.

C2H4(g) + Cl2(g) → C2H4Cl2 (l)

Hydrogenation – reaction with hydrogen

Alkenes react with hydrogen to form corresponding alkanes. Hydrogen makes the
unsaturated compounds to become saturated. Ethene reacts with hydrogen to form
ethane C2H4(g) + H2(g) → C2H6 (g)

Conditions

200o C
Temperature:

Catalyst: Nickel metal

The reaction is important in the industry because it is used in the production of margarine from
unsaturated vegetable oil. Vegetable oils are changed into fats which are saturated by
hydrogenation.
(b) Hydration

© 2021 Page 216

Ethene reacts with steam to in the presence of phosphoric acid to form ethanol.

C2H4(g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH(l)

Conditions

300o C
Temperature:

H3 PO4
Catalyst: Phosphoric acid,

Pressure: 65 atmospheres

Uses of ethene

1. Used in the manufacture of plastics

2. Used in the manufacture of ethanol
3. Used in the process of ripening fruits

Exercise

C2 H4
1. Ethene, , is an unsaturated compound. It reacts with bromine to form 1, 2 –

dibromoethane.

C2 H6 , is a saturated compound. It does not readily react with bromine

Ethane,
(a) Draw the full structural formula for ethene and 1, 2 – dibromoethane
(b) Write the equation for the reaction between ethene and bromine and name the type
of reaction taking place
(c) Ethene like many other unsaturated compounds can be polymerized. Polyethene is
formed when ethene is polymerized.

© 2021 Page 217

 Name the compound which has the above stucture
(d) Margarine is manufactured using the addition reaction between hydrogen and a
vegetable oil
(I) State the conditions used for this reaction
(II) What type of bond must be present in the vegetable oil for this reaction to
take place.

Alcohols

Alternative term: Alkanols

Cn H2n+1
General molecular formula: OH where n = 1, 2, 3, 4…

Functional group: hydroxyl group, ─ OH

They end with anol

They are not hydrocarbons because they contain oxygen

© 2021 Page 218

Examples of alcohols

Name Molecular Structural formula Condensed Mr

formula formula

Methanol CH 3OH CH 3OH 32

Ethanol C 2H 5OH CH 3CH 2OH 46

Propanol C 3H 7OH CH 3 (CH 2)2OH 60

Butanol C 4H 9OH CH 3 (CH 2)3OH 74

Pentanol C 5H 11OH CH 3 (CH 2)4OH 88

© 2021 Page 219

Preparation of ethanol

There are two methods of preparing ethanol.

1. Hydration of ethene

Ethanol can be prepared when ethene reacts with steam C2H4(g) + H2O (g) → C2H5OH(l)

Ethene Steam Ethanol

Conditions

300o C
Temperature:

H3 PO4
Catalyst: Phosphoric acid,

Pressure: 65 atmospheres

2. Fermentation of sugars

Fermentation is the decomposition of sugars using enzymes in yeast to produce ethanol and carbon
dioxide. Sugars (glucose) is mixed with water and yeast and allowed to react for a few days in the
absence of air.

Glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide

C6 H12O6 C2 H5 CO2
→ OH +
Conditions for fermentation

37o C
Optimum temperature:

Catalyst (enzyme): Zymase

© 2021 Page 220

Note

Fermentation should take place in the absence of air (oxygen) to prevent oxidation of ethanol to
ethanoic acid.
40oC , the enzymes in yeast which catalyze the reaction becomes
If the temperature goes above

denatured.

Physical properties of alcohols

1. They are colourless inflammable liquids

2. Their boiling points increases as the carbon chain increases
3. Their solubilities in water decreases as the number of carbon chain increases

Chemical properties of alcohols

1. Combustion

Alcohols burn in air (react with oxygen) to form carbon dioxide and water.

Example

Ethanol oxygen → carbon dioxide + water

+

C2 H5OH 3O2 2CO2

+ → +3H2 O

The reaction is exothermic. It gives out a lot of heat energy

2. Oxidation

Oxidation is the addition of oxygen to a substance

(a) Ethanol can be oxidized to ethanoic acid by bacteria in the air

C2 H5 OH + O2 → CH3 COOH + H2 O
(b) Ethanoic acid can also be formed by using an oxidizing agent such as acidified
KMnO4 ¿ and potassium dichromate (VI) [ K2Cr2 O7
potassium per manganate [
]

C2 H5 OH + 2[O] → CH3 COOH + H2 O

The oxygen is from the oxidizing agent.

© 2021 Page 221

 When ethanol reduces potassium permanganate, the reaction is indicated by the colour
change from purple to colourless on mixing.
When ethanol reduces potassium dichromate, the reaction is indicated by the colour
change from orange to green on mixing.

Uses of ethanol
1. Used as a component in beer and wines
2. Used as a solvent
3. Used in making methylated spirit
4. Used as a fuel
5. Used in the preservation and sterilization of food

Exercise

1. Carefully study the reaction below and use it to answer the questions that follow

(a) Give the names of the substances and the conditions needed to ferment glucose
(b) Give the name of the gas that is also produced during fermentation of glucose. Describe the
simple test for this gas
(c) Give the name and molecular formula for substances P
(d) Give the names of substance Q and R
(e) Write an equation for the addition reaction between ethene and bromine.

Carboxylic acids

Alternative term: Alkanoics

Cn H2n+1 COOH where n = 0, 1, 2, 3….

General molecular formula:

Functional group: Carboxyl group, ─ COOH.

They end with anoic acid

© 2021 Page 222

Examples of carboxylic acids

Chemical Molecular formula Structural formula Condensed

name formula

Methanoic HCOOH HCOOH

acid

Ethanoic acid CH 3CO OH CH 3COOH

Propanoic C 2H 5COOH CH 3CH 2COOH

acid

Butanoic C 3H 7CO OH CH 3( CH 2) 2COOH

acid

Pentanoic C 4H 9CO OH CH 3 ( CH 2) 3COOH

acid

© 2021 Page 223

Preparation of ethanoic acid (a) Oxidation of ethanol
(I) Ethanoic acid can be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol by bacteria in
atmospheric air.

C2 H5OH + O2 → CH3 COOH + H2O

(II) Ethanoic acid can also be prepared by the oxidation of ethanol using an
oxidizing agent e.g. Acidified potassium dichromate(VI)
C2 H5OH + 2[O] → CH3 COOH + H2O

The oxygen is from the oxidizing agent.

The orange acidified potassium dichromate (VI) solution turns green in this
reaction.

Physical properties of carboxylic acids

1. They turn blue litmus paper red

2. They have PH values less than 7
3. They have a sour taste

Chemical properties of carboxylic acids

1. They react with reactive metals to form a salt and hydrogen gas

Example

2Na + 2CH 3 COOH → 2CH 3 COONa + H2

2. They react with bases to form a salt and water only Example

NaOH + CH3 COOH → CH3 COONa + H2 O

3. They react with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form a salt, water and carbon
dioxide

Example

Na HCO3 + CH3 COOH → CH3 COONa + H2 O + CO2

CH
¿
COO¿3¿
CaCO3 + 2CH 3 COOH → + H2 O + CO2
¿
¿
4. They react with alcohols to form esters and the process is called esterification.

© 2021 Page 224

 Esterification is a reaction between a carboxylic acid and an alcohol to form an ester in the
presence of sulphuric acid. Esters are sweet smelling compounds.

Example

Ethanoic acid can react with ethanol to form an ester called ethyl ethanoate and
water. In this reaction, ethanoic acid loses the –OH group while ethanol loses the
–H group to form water. The remaining sections of the molecules join together
to form the ester.
CH3 COOH + C2 H5OH ⇌ CH3 COOC2 H5 + H2O

Ethanoic acid ethanol ethyl ethanoate water

© 2021 Page 225

Conditions for esterification
180o C
Temperature:

Catalyst: Sulphuric acid

Note

The name of the ester follows the order: alcohol, then acid. For example, if methanol reacts with
propanoic acid, the ester formed will be called methyl propanoate.

Reflux condenser: It is held vertically to prevent the escape of any unchanged ethanol.
Ethanol has a low boiling point and vaporizes easily. When the ethanol vapour comes into
contact with the cold surface of the condenser, it will liquefy and return to the flask.

Esterification is reversible ⇌

The back ward reaction is called hydrolysis

Water can react with ethyl ethanoate to form ethanoic acid and ethanol. To prevent hydrolysis,
sulphuric acid is added to remove (absorb) water.

Special property of esters

1. Esters have sweet smells

Uses of esters

1. They are used in perfumes due to sweet fruit smells

2. They are used in food and drink flavouring and preservation

Similarities between esterification and neutralization

1. Both reactions produce water

2. Both reactions are exothermic

Differences between esterification and neutralization

1. Esterification is reversible while neutralization is not reversible

2. Esterification produces an ester while neutralization produces a salt
3. Esterification is slower while neutralization is faster
4. Esterification involves a carboxylic acid (organic acid) and an alcohol while neutralization
involves any acid (organic acid or mineral acid) and a base.

Exercise
1. Substance A is an organic compound which contains an – OH group. On boiling A with
acidified potassium dichromate (VII), substance B is formed. An aqueous solution of B
has PH 4 and reacts with sodium carbonate to give carbon dioxide.

© 2021 Page 226

 (a) Analysis of A gave the following results
C 52.17%, H 13.04%, O 34.78%
The relative molecular mass of A is 46. Use the information to identify A and B
and draw the full structural formula of A
(b) Describe what would be seen when the acidified solution of potassium dichromate
( VII) was added to A and name the type of reaction in which A is converted to
B (c) What type of reaction occurs when concentrated sulphuric acid reacts with an
alcohol?
(d) Suggest the full structural formula for the substance produced when concentrated
sulphuric acid reacts with the compound of the formula, C3H7OH.

Macromolecules

Alternative term: Polymers

Definition: Macromolecules are giant molecules formed by joining smaller units called monomers.

Macromolecules are produced by the process called polymerization.

Polymerization

Definition: Polymerization is the joining up of smaller units called monomers to form larger
molecules called polymers.

Types of macromolecules

There are two types of macromolecules.

• Synthetic macromolecules
• Natural macromolecules
1. Synthetic macromolecules

Alternative term: Synthetic or artificial polymers

Synthetic polymers are man-made structures

They are divided into two categories:

• Addition polymers
• Condensation polymers
(a) Addition polymers

Addition polymers are polymers formed from smaller identical unsaturated monomers

No other product is formed apart from the polymer

Addition polymers are formed by the process called addition polymerization.

© 2021 Page 227

Addition polymerization is polymerization where the polymer has the empirical formula as the
monomer.

Examples of addition polymers

(I) Polyethene
Polyethene is formed when ethene molecules combine

Polyethene

Uses of Polyethene
1. Used in making plastics bags
2. Used in making squeezing bottles

(II) Polyvinyl chloride

Polyvinyl chloride is formed when vinyl chloride molecules combine

Polyvinyl chloride
Uses of polyvinylchloride
1. Used in making PVC paints
2. Used in making electrical insulators, records, seat covers, rain coats
(III) Polypropene

Polypropene is formed when propene molecules combine

Ethane Ethene Polypropene

(IV) Polytetrafluoroethene

Polytetrafluoroethene is formed when tetrafluoroethene molecules combine

© 2021 Page 228

 Polytetrafluoroethene

© 2021 Page 229

 Summary

Monomer Polymer
Ethene Poly(ethene)

Vinyl chloride Poly(vinyl chloride)

Tetrafluoroethene Poly(tetrafluoroethene
)

Propene Poly(propene)

© 2021 Page 230

 (b) Condensation polymers Some man-made polymers are formed by condensation
polymerization.

Condensation polymerization involves two smaller units which combine to form a larger molecule
with the elimination of the water molecule.

Condensation polymers do not have the same empirical formula as the monomers.

Examples of condensation polymers

• Nylon
• Terylene

(I) Nylon

Nylon is a typical polyamide with amide linkages.

A polyamide is a polymer containing many amide linkages.

Monomers: Diamine and Dicarboxylic acid

The amide linkage

The structure of nylon is similar to that of protein

Part of the structure of nylon

© 2021 Page 231

Uses of nylon

1. Making tough bearing

2. Making clothing
3. Making ropes
4. Making bristle for brushes

Exercise

1. Nylon is a synthetic polymer which has an amide linkage similar to that of

proteins (a) What is meant by the term synthetic polymer?
(b) Draw the structure of nylon, showing at least three monomer
units. Circle the amide linkage in the structure drawn
(c) Draw the structures of the two monomers from which nylon is
made (d) By what type of polymerization is nylon formed from
its monomers? (e) What other product is formed?

(II) Terylene

© 2021 Page 232

Terylene is typical polyester with ester

linkages. A Polyester is a polymer containing

many ester linkages

Monomers: Diol and Dicarboxylic acid

The ester linkage

The structure of Terylene is similar to that of fats.

© 2021 Page 233

 Part of the structure of Terylene

Uses of Terylene
1. Making tents and sails.
2. Making clothing

Exercise

1. Terylene is synthetic polyester which has an ester linkage similar to fats. The structure of a
Terylene molecule is shown below

(a) What is a polyester?

(b) Name the elements that make up an ester link
(c) State one use of Terylene
(d) Draw a box around a repeating unit in this Terylene structure
(e) Name the plastic commonly used for making plastic bag
(f) State two reasons why there is need to recycle plastics

Advantages of synthetic polymers

(a) They are durable. They do not rust, corrode or decay

(b) They are lighter than steel, wood or stone
(c) They are thermal and electrical insulators
(d) They are not expensive. They are produced as by-products of oil refining (e) They are
flexible in use

© 2021 Page 234

Disadvantages of synthetic polymers

(a) They are non-biodegradable. This means they cannot be decomposed by bacteria.
(b) Non-biodegrability makes the disposal of plastics difficult and this result in pollution
problems.
(c) Plastics burn easily and may produce poisonous gases on combustion. They need to be
coated with fire retardants to reduce the risk of fire.

Reasons for recycling plastics

• They are difficult to dispose of: Plastic bags do not rot when they are thrown away, so
they pollute the environment
• When some plastics burn, they produce harmful gases: For example polyvinylchloride
(PVC) gives off fumes of hydrogen chloride when it burns. This would form
hydrochloric acid in the eyes and throat. 2. Natural macromolecules

Alternative term: Natural polymers

Natural macromolecules occur in living organisms

Examples of natural macromolecules

• Proteins
• Fats
• Carbohydrates
(a)Proteins

Proteins are made by condensation polymerization

They are condensation polymers

They are poly amides like nylon because they contain the amide linkages

Protein hydrolysis results in amino acids

(b)Fats

Fats are complex esters formed from fatty acids and glycerol

Fats have the structure similar to Terylene and poly carbonates

Fat hydrolysis results in fatty acids and glycerol

© 2021 Page 235

 (c)Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are sugars which include starch and cellulose

Carbohydrates are formed from simple sugars like glucose

Part of a simple sugar (glucose)

Part of the structure of starch

Starch hydrolysis results in glucose

Exercise

1. Some large molecules may be broken down to smaller molecules by hydrolysis.

(a) What is formed in the hydrolysis of?
(I) Protein
(II) Fat
(III) Starch
(b) If starch is represented as

Complete the following to represent its hydrolysis

© 2021 Page 236