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‘AU M
American University Of The Middle East
 EE 412
Introduction to Engineering Optics
Chapter 1 : Ray Optics ®WILEY

FUNDAMENTALS OF

PHOTONICS
Second Edition

Fundamentals of Photonics,
E.A. Saleh & Malvin Carl Teich,
Refractive index boundary (2nd edition, 2007)

1
n1 n2 2 B. E. A. Saleh
M. C. Teich
Snell’s Law 4 u« .
* Urtt

n1sin1=n2sin2

2
 We think we see objects.

We really see images.

 Images are formed when
light rays converge.

converge: come together https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YcedXDN6a88&t=2s

 When light rays go straight into our eyes,
we see an image in the same spot as the object.

object
&
image
 paraxial optics
• Optical components are often centered about an optical axis,
• about which the rays travel at small inclinations (angle) .
• Such rays are called paraxial rays.
• This assumption is the basis of paraxial optics.

Optical Axis
 Ray Optics ( Geometrical Optics)
• Light travels in straight lines.
• It is accurate as long as the wavelength of the radiation is much smaller than the
windows, passages, and holes that can restrict the path of the light.
• When this is not true, the phenomenon of diffraction must be considered, and its effect
upon the direction and pattern of the radiation must be calculated.
• However, to a first approximation, when diffraction can be ignored, we can consider that
the progress of light through an optical system may be traced by following the straight
line paths or rays of light through the system.
• This is the domain of geometrical optics.
• Geometrical optics can be expressed as a set of Three laws:
 1 . The Law of Transmission.
In a region of constant refractive index, light
travels in a straight line.
REFLECTION
2. Law of Reflection.
Mirror
Light incident on a plane surface at an angle 0
with respect to the normal to the surface is i
reflected through an angle 0 equal to the incident r
angle
0=0
r=i

REFRACTION 3. Law of Refraction (Snell’s Law).

Refractive index boundary
Light in a medium of refractive index n. incident
1
on a plane surface at an angle 0. with respect to
n1 n2 2 the normal is refracted at an angle 0t in a medium
of refractive index nt as
Snell’s Law
n1sin1=n2sin2 n. sin0 = nt sin 0
(
 Index of Refraction
• Light travels in a straight line except when it is reflected or when it moves from
one medium to another.
• An optical medium is characterized by a quantity n ≥ 1, called the refractive index

• Refractive index: describes the speed of light in a material relevant to that in air
• Refraction—the bending of light when it moves from one medium to a different
one—takes place because light travels with different speeds in different media.

• The speed of light in a vacuum is c = 3x108 m/s. The index of

refraction (n) of a material is defined by

𝒄
𝒏=
𝒗

where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the speed of light in the material.
Because light never travels faster than c, n  1. For example, for
water, n = 1.33 and for glass, n 1.5.
Example: Calculate the speed of light in diamond (n = 2.42).
c
n =
v
c
v =
n

3  108 m/s
v =
2.42

v = 1.24  108 m/s

 Refractive Index
• Therefore, the time taken by light to travel a distance d is
𝑑 𝑛.𝑑
𝑡=
𝑣 (-)
= 𝑐

• n.d: is known as the optical path length.

• For example if the light travel in a medium (n=1.33, water), then the time
needed to travel a 1 m distance is:
𝑑 𝑛.𝑑 (1.33).1𝑚
𝑡=
𝑣
= 𝑐
= )
8 Τ = 4.43 ns
3𝑥10 𝑚 𝑠

The optical path length is 𝒏. 𝒅 = 1.33 m

• Fermat's Principle:
• Optical rays traveling between two points, A and B, follow a path
such that the time of travel (or the optical path length) between the
two points is shortest compared to neighboring paths.
Light rays travel along the path of least time.
• Homogeneous medium:
- Refractive index ( and speed of light) is the same everywhere
- The path of minimum time, required by Fermat's principle, is
therefore also the path of minimum distance (Hero's
principle)
- The path of minimum distance in homogeneous medium is a
straight line

light rays travel in straight lines (rays) in a homogeneous medium

 Reflection
• We describe the path of light as straight-line rays
• “geometrical optics” approach
• Reflection off a flat surface follows a simple rule:
• angle in (incidence) equals angle out
• angles measured from surface “normal”
(perpendicular)
surface normal
same exit ray
incident ray angle
 Refraction
Pit also goes through
Light through some things
• glass, water, eyeball, air
The presence of material slows light's progress
Ofte
• interactions with electrical properties of atoms
The "light slowing factor " is called the index
index of
of refraction
refraction
• When light travels from one material (e.g. air) to another (e.g. glass) it
changes speed. This is called refraction
• This change in speed sometimes causes it to change direction.

• glass has n = 1.52, meaning that light travels about 1.5 times slower in glass than in
vacuum
• water has n = 1.33
• air has n = 1.00028
• vacuum is n = 1.00000 (speed of light at full capacity)
 Refraction at a plane surface
• Light bends at interface between refractive indices
• bends more the larger the difference in refractive index

Snell’s Law:
1 n1sin1 = n2sin2
n1 = 1.0
n2 = 1.5

2

B
 Refraction at a plane surface
• The rays bend toward the normal when moving from low n to high n
• The rays bend away from the normal when moving from high n to low n

1
n1 = 1.0 1 n1 = 1.5
n2 = 1.5 n2 = 1.0
s
2
s
2
s
N
S
S
A

• https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/bending-light/latest/bending-light_en.html
 Snell's Law
x Snell’s Law:

n in ) = n2sin( 02)
^ ^ * r\1 = index of refraction of medium 1
x 6 incident angle or 0,
^
x n2 = index of refraction of medium 2
x 02 =refracted angle or 0r

X To calculate: BE IN DEGREE MODE!

Snell’s Law - Example
N ±SIN(0 ± ) = N2SIN(0 2)
n ± = 1.00
0!= 28 °
e2 = io ° e
n2 = unknown index
(1.00) sin( 28) = n2 (sin 10)
0.469 = n2 (0.174)
Divide by 0.174
n2 = 2.70
We can then check this value against the list of
known refractive indexes and identify the
material.
Practice
• A person is shinning a flashlight (through air 1.0) into an unknown
medium (n2). The light enters at 28° to the normal line. It becomes
10 °within the 2nd medium. Calculate the index of refraction of the
2nd medium?
28°
n1 = 1.0 air

n2 = ?

10'

Snell’s Law Example

 Reflections, Refractive offset
• Let’s consider a thick piece of glass (n = 1.5), and
the light paths associated with it
• using n1 = 1.5, n2 = 1.0 (air),

n1 = 1.5 n2 = 1.0
incoming ray
(100%)
image looks displaced
due to jog
 Snells Law Example
In the figure, a 2.00-m-long vertical pole extends from the bottom of a
swimming pool to a point 50.0 cm above the water. What is the length
of the shadow of the pole on the level bottom of the pool?

Consider a ray that grazes the top of the

pole, as shown in the diagram below. Here
1 = 35o, l1 = 0.50 m, and l2 = 1.50 m. Blocked
sun rays

The length of the shadow is x + L. 55.0 °

x is given by

x = l1.tan1 = (0.50m).tan35o = 0.35 m. 1

air l1
water
L is given by
2
L=l2.tan  l2

Use Snell’s Law to find  shadow

L x
 Calculation of L
According to the law of refraction
(Snell’s Law, n2sin2 = n1sin1.)
We take n1 = 1 (air) and n2 = 1.33 (water)
Blocked
sun rays
 sin1  −1  sin 35 
o
 2 = sin 
−1
 = sin   = 25.55o 55.0 °
 n2   1.33 

L is given by

L = l2 tan  2 = (1.50m) tan 25.55o = 0.72m. 1

air l1
water
2
The length of the shadow is L+x. l2
L+x = 0.35m + 0.72 m = 1.07 m.
shadow

L x
SIMPLE OPTICAL COMPONENTS
• A. Mirrors
• B. Planar Boundaries
• C. Spherical Boundaries and Lenses
• D. Light Guides
Mirrors and Lenses
Flat Mirror

Image properties:
• virtual (behind the mirror)
• upside down
• the same distance from the mirror
as the object
• the same size as the object
Clicker Question
• Which shows the correct location, orientation, and
size for the image?

A) B) C)

D) E)
Clicker Question
• Which shows the correct location, orientation, and
size for the image?

A) B) C)

D) E)
Spherical Mirrors
Convex vs. Concave
• Spherical mirrors are drawn in two dimensions, so you have
to imagine the 3D mirror this line represents
• Both convex and concave mirrors obey the same law of
reflection, but they make different kinds of images

Convex Concave
Convex Mirrors
• Because the image is smaller than the object,
convex mirrors reflect from wider angles than flat
mirrors.
Concave Mirrors: Application

Because rays coming in parallel, as from a very distant source, are

all reflected to the focal point, a receiver placed there will pick up
the waves received over the large area of the dish, instead of just
the small area of the receiver itself.
Spherical Lenses
What if we don’t want to have to
look at a reflection to magnify or
reduce an image?
We can use refractive optics
Copyright © 2002
instead (lenses)
14*0 -

Ik.

1
1
\ 1
- w
sr ^ kf % Pv
*L ^
Lenses

converging lens diverging lens

“bi-convex” “bi-concave”
has two convex surfaces has two concave surfaces
Compare to Mirrors

Convex Concave

Note that this is opposite from mirrors, for which a convex surface
is diverging and a concave surface is converging.
Converging Lens
• The focal point of a converging lens is
where the incoming rays from a far
distance all intersect.
• The incoming rays will be parallel

Focal distance

Focal point
Converging Lens

o o
F F

Note that a bi-convex lens has a focal point on both sides of the lens.
Converging Lens

F
/
/

Incoming parallel rays are deflected through the focal point

Thin Lenses
• Just as the ray tracing for mirrors is approximate
and only accurate for certain situations, the ray
tracing for lenses is accurate only for what are
called “thin lenses”
• A lens is considered “thin” if the thickness of the
lens is much less than the distance from the lens
to the focal point.
distance to focal point
>
O' o
> <
F F
thickness of lens
Thin Lenses: Vocabulary
• The distance from the focal point to the lens is called the
“focal length” of the lens.

Focal length (f)

<

F F

• To distinguish between converging and diverging lenses, f

is defined as positive for converging lenses and negative
for diverging lenses. We’ll come back to this.
Converging Lens: Ray Tracing Rules
>

o
F F

• Another simplification that we can make is that we can

draw the rays as deflecting from the center line of the
lens, rather than drawing deflections at both lens
surfaces. Again, this is only a good approximation for thin
lenses.
Converging Lens: Ray Tracing Rules

o
F F

Rule 1:
Similarly to a spherical mirror, incoming parallel rays are deflected
through the focal point.
Converging Lens: Ray Tracing Rules

F F

Rule 2:
Rays passing through the center of the lens are undeflected, they
continue straight through without being bent. Several rays are
shown here as examples.
Converging Lens: Ray Tracing Rules

o
F F

Rule 3:
The reverse of Rule 1, rays passing through the focal point are
deflected to exit parallel to the axis
Converging Lens: Image Formation

F F

The image is real and inverted. In this case, the image is about the
same size as the object, but the size of the image will depend on
the position of the object relative to the focal point of the lens.
Make sure you do the ray tracing to figure out the image position
and size!
Converging Lens: Image Formation

F F

The image is still real and inverted. We’ve moved the object
closer to the lens, and the image is now magnified (larger than
the object).
Converging Lens: Image Formation

F F

this distance is
increasing

If we move the object very close to the lens (less than the focal
length) the rays passing through the lens are diverging; they will
never intersect on the far side of the lens.
Converging Lens: Image Formation

F F

Is this image
A. Real
B. Virtual
Recall that a virtual image means no light rays reach the image
location. This configuration is what occurs when you use a
magnifying glass.
Magnifying Glass Applet
Retina

Simple
Magnifying
Lens

Subject

Virtual
Image

http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/primer/java/lenses/simplemagnification/index.html
• https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/geometric-optics/geometric-optics_en.html
• https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/bending-light/latest/bending-light_en.html
Diverging Lens

© o
F F

With a diverging lens, parallel rays are deflected such that when
extended backwards, they appear to be coming from the focal
point on the other side.
Diverging Lens: Ray Tracing

--o -
4 © --
F F

Parallel rays are deflected so they appear to be coming from the

focal point in front of the lens.
Diverging Lens: Ray Tracing

F F

Just like for converging lenses, rays that pass through the center
of the lens continue undeflected (straight) through the lens.
Diverging Lens: Ray Tracing

o 4- ©- -
F F

Rays that, if extended, would pass through the focal point on the
other side of the lens, are deflected to be parallel to the axis.
Diverging Lens: Image Formation

F F

The image is virtual, reduced, and right side up.

The Lens Equation
• Ray tracing is useful, but kind of tedious for all these different cases,
and accuracy requires very precise drawings.

• We can avoid ray tracing by using the lens equation

• However, this will require some algebra.

Focal Length
• Remember we defined the focal length for a lens

Focal length (f)

<
o o
F F

• We also defined the sign of f. The focal length, f, is defined

as positive for converging lenses and negative for
diverging lenses.
Lens Equation Quantities
• We also need to define some other distances.

Focal length, f

Object distance, xo

Image distance, xi
• The object distance is positive for an object to the left of
the lens. The image distance is positive for a (real) image
on the right of the lens. These quantities are negative
for the reverse situation. Be careful with this.
Lens Equation Quantities
Image distance, xi

Focal length, f

Object distance, xo

• The image distance is negative for a (virtual) image on

the left of the lens.
Clicker Question
Image distance, xi Focal length, f
A .

I
F F
V
Object distance, xo

• Which quantities are negative in this example?

A. Image distance
B. Focal length
C. Object distance
D. A and B
E. A and C
Clicker Question
Image distance, xi

f Focal length, f
A .

F F
Object distance, xo

• Which quantities are negative in this example?

A. Image distance
B. Focal length
C. Object distance
D. A and B
E. A and C
The Lens Equation
R1 R2

Focal length, f

Object distance, xo

Image distance, xi

1 1 1 1 1 1
+ = = ( n − 1)( − )
𝑥𝑜 𝑥𝑖 𝑓 f R1 R2
 1 1 _1
The Lens Equation XQ X( f
• Given:
• f = 10 cm i i _ i

^
”
• Object is 15 cm in front of 15 l 10
lens:
• Find:
– Where is image and is it
real or virtual?
1
— = 0.033
X i;

1
Xi = = 30 cm
0.033
Image is 30 cm to the right of the lens and
real because xi is positive
The Lens Equation
Focal length, 10 cm

Object distance, 15 cm

Image distance, 30 cm

We can verify our result is consistent with the result from ray tracing.
Ray tracing does not give an exact numeric answer, because we can’t
draw all our lines perfectly. But we can verify our answers.
Lens Equation: Magnification
Focal length, 10 cm

Object size, So

Image size, Si

Object distance, 15 cm

Image distance, 30 cm

• For objects and images above the axis, S is positive,

for those below the axis, S is negative.
Magnification
Focal length, f

Object size, So

Image size, Si

Object distance, xo

Image distance, xi

Magnification is indicated by the letter M, and is negative for an

image inverted with respect to the object, and positive for an
image that is not inverted
Magnification
Focal length, 10 cm

Object distance, 15 cm

Image distance, 30 cm

Magnification of -2 means the image is twice the size of

the object and inverted.
 I l l
Lens Equation Example XO X il /

• Given:
• f = 10 cm
• Object is 5 cm to left of lens
center: x0 = 5
• Find:
– Where is image and is it
real or virtual?
 1 1 1
+X
Lens Equation Example XO l /

• Given:
1 1
+
_= 1
To
• f = 10 cm
• Object is 5 cm to left of lens
center: x0 = 5
5
^
• Find:
– Where is image and is it
real or virtual?
 1 1 1
+X
Lens Equation Example XO l /

• Given:
1 1
+
_= 1
To
• f = 10 cm
• Object is 5 cm to left of lens
center: x0 = 5
5
^
• Find:
– Where is image and is it
real or virtual? 1
0.1
Xi
1
Xi 10 cm
0.1

Image is 10 cm to the left of the lens and

virtual because xi is negative
 Example

Given a lens with a focal length f = 5 cm and object distance xo = +10 cm,
find the following: image location and magnification. Is the image real or virtual? Upright or
inverted? Draw 3 rays.

t .
F1
.
F2
•4 xo >-
 Example

Given a lens with a focal length f = 5 cm and object distance xo = +10 cm,
find the following: image location and magnification. Is the image real or virtual? Upright or
inverted? Draw 3 rays.

1 . F1
.
F2
xo -

1 1 1
= − y x
xi f xo m= =− i Image is real,
y xo
1 1 1 1 inverted.
= − =+ 10
xi 5 10 10 m=− = −1
10
xi = +10 cm

 Example

Given a lens with a focal length f = 5 cm and object distance xo = +10 cm,
find the following: image location and magnification. Is the image real or virtual? Upright or
inverted? Draw 3 rays.

.
F1
.
xo F2

1 1 1
= − y x
xi f xo m= =− i Image is real,
y xo
1 1 1 1 inverted.
= − =+ 10
xi 5 10 10 m=− = −1
10
xi = +10 cm

Given a lens with the properties (lengths in cm) r1 = +30, r2 = -30, xo = +10, and n = 1.5,
find the following: focal length, image location and magnification. Is the image real or
virtual? Upright or inverted? Draw 3 rays.

.
F1 r2
1 r1
.
F2
xo

1 1
= (n − 1) − 
1
f  r1 r2 
Given a lens with the properties (lengths in cm) r1 = +30, r2 = -30, xo = +10, and n = 1.5,
find the following: focal length, image location and magnification. Is the image real or
virtual? Upright or inverted? Draw 3 rays.

. t r1
.
F1 r2
hx -
o
F2

1 1 1 1 1 y x
= (n − 1) − 
1 = − m= =− i
xi f xo y xo
f  r1 r2 
−15
 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 m=− = +1.5
= (1.5 − 1) −
1 = − =−
= 10
f  30 − 30  30 xi 30 10 15

f = 30cm xi = −15cm Image is virtual,

 upright.
Given a lens with the properties (lengths in cm) r1 = +30, r2 = -30, xo = +10, and n = 1.5,
find the following: focal length, image location and magnification. Is the image real or
virtual? Upright or inverted? Draw 3 rays.

.
F1 r2
r1
.
F2
xo

1 1 1 1 1 y x
= (n − 1) − 
1 = − m= =− i
xi f xo y xo
f  r1 r2 
−15
 1 1  1 1 1 1 1 m=− = +1.5
= (1.5 − 1) −
1 = − =−
= 10
f  30 − 30  30 xi 30 10 15

f = 30cm xi = −15cm Image is virtual,

 upright.
A converging lens with a focal length of +20 cm is located 10 cm to the left of a
diverging lens having a focal length of -15 cm. If an object is located 40 cm to the
left of the converging lens, locate and describe completely the final image formed by
the diverging lens. Treat each lens
Separately.

Lens 1 Lens 2

+20 -15 f1 f2

f1 f2

•4
40 *-

10
*
 Lens 1 Lens 2

+20 -15 f1 f2

f1 f2

•4
40 >-
xi1

10 >

Ignoring the diverging lens (lens 2), the image formed by the
converging lens (lens 1) is located at a distance
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − . xi1 = 40cm
xi1 f1 xo1 20cm 40cm

This image now serves as a virtual object for lens 2, with xo2 = - (40 cm - 10 cm) = - 30 cm.
 Lens 1 Lens 2

+20 -15 f1 f2

f1 f2

40 xi1 40

10 30

Ignoring the diverging lens (lens 2), the image formed by the
converging lens (lens 1) is located at a distance
1 1 1 1 1
= − = − . xi1 = 40cm
xi1 f1 xo1 20cm 40cm

This image now serves as a virtual object for lens 2, with xo2 = - (40 cm - 10 cm) = - 30 cm.
 Lens 1 Lens 2

+20 -15 f1 f2

f1 f2

4
40 40 >

10
4
30
>

1 1 1 1 1
= − = − xi 2 = −30cm.
xi 2 f 2 xo 2 − 15cm − 30cm
 Lens 1 Lens 2

+20 -15 f1 f2

f1 f2
..
.
4
40 40 >

* .
10
4
30
>

1 1 1 1 1
= − = − xi 2 = −30cm.
xi 2 f 2 xo 2 − 15cm − 30cm
Thus, the image formed by lens 2 is located 30 cm to the left of lens 2. It is
virtual (since xi2 < 0).

The magnification is m = (- xi1 / xo1).(- xi2 / xo2) = (-40/40).(30/-30) =+1,

so the image has the same size orientation as the object.
 Imaging rules
➢ If Object at focal length > Image doesn’t exist (at  )

➢ If object at 2F from the lens Image at 2F also (on the other side)
same size and flipped

➢ If Object inside focal length Image is virtual and upright

➢ As we move away from 2F Image is flipped and smaller

➢ If object at the lens Image at the lens too.

Ob|act Object
Imag
2F *
Front 2F Bock Front 2F F IF .
Back
Irug
*
 Lenses
+ for a converging lens
Focal Length { f )
- for a diverging lens

+ if the object is to the left of the lens (real object)

Object Distance ( d0 )
- if the object is to the right of the lens (virtual object)'

+ for an image (real) formed to the right of the lens by a real object
Image Distance ( d,)
- for an image (virtual) formed to the left of the lens by a real object

+ for an image that is upright with respect to the object

Magnification { m)
-for an image that is inverted with respect to the object.
The thicker lens has a shorter focal length

f
The thicker lens “bends” the light more, so we say it has a
greater POWER than the thin lens

f
 Power of Lenses
•A more powerful lens causes more refraction.
•The power of a lens is measured in dioptres.

1
power =
focal length
1
P =
f METRES
DIOPTRES
(D) (m)
 Summary

Type of Focal
What it does Power
lens length

CONVERGES
Convex light (brings the Positive Positive
rays together)
DIVERGES light
Concave (spreads the Negative Negative
rays)
Example: A lens has a focal length of 20 cm. Find its power.

•What do I know? 1 1
P= = = +5D
•f = 20 cm = 0.2 m f 0.2
What type of lens is this? How do you know?

Example: A lens has a power of -12D. What type of lens is this?

•Diverging / concave – since the power is negative.

 Planar Boundaries
• External Refraction
• Internal Refraction
• Total Internal Reflection (TIR)
• Prisms
• Beamsplitters
• The relation between the angles of refraction and incidence, 2 and
1, at a planar boundary between two media of refractive indexes n1
and n2 is governed by Snell's law

External refraction Internal refraction

• https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/bending-light/latest/bending-light_en.html
 Critical Angle
• We’ve seen that as light passes from glass to air, it changes direction
away from the normal.
• When light passes from glass to air there is an angle beyond which
light cannot escape from the glass.
• This is called the critical angle.
1 Refraction 2 Critical Angle
Air
Air r
A
i Glass Glass

Light / Ray Light Ray

 What happens at the critical angle?
• At the critical angle, the angle of refraction is 90°. Beyond the
critical angle, Total Internal Reflection (TIR) occurs.
• When TIR occurs:
the angle of incidence = angle of reflection.

The refractive material (in this case nt) acts as a prefect mirror
 Total Internal Reflection
TIR
Recall Snell’s law:
n1 sin ( 1 ) = n2 sin ( 2 )
n2
sin ( 1 ) = sin ( 2 )
n1
Suppose n2>n1. The largest possible value of
sin(2) is 1 (when 2 = 90). The largest possible
value of sin(1) is n2
sin ( 1 ) = =1 .
n1
This value of  is called the critical angle, C. For any
angle of incidence larger than C, all of the light
incident at an interface is reflected, and none is
transmitted.
 Total Internal Reflection
• At critical angle, refraction no longer occurs
• thereafter, you get total internal reflection (TIR)
n2sin2 = n1sin1 → crit = sin−1(n1/n2)
• for glass, the critical internal angle is 42°
• for water, it’s 49°
• For TIR:
light travel from high index to low index
AND
Incident angle is greater than critical angle
n1 = 1.0
n2 = 1.5
 and Light striking a
j transmission
Ray normal |icoefficients for medium with a lower
to surface j non - normal index of refraction
is not bent (incidence can be totally reflected

reflection
coefficient 90° n2 Light
incident

Though not T [; * any

angle > QC
bent , part is totally
of the reflected .
normal ray ; n1
is reflected ; tiigh index
material L
Critical Angle
0c

-.I'T
"
V Light source
"
 n2

 n1>n2

Ray incident normal to surface is not “bent.” Some is reflected,

some is transmitted.
 n2

 n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence…

 n2

 n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence…more…

 n2

 n1>n2

Increasing angle of incidence…more…critical angle reached…

some of incident energy is reflected, some is “transmitted
along the boundary layer.
 n2

 n1>n2

Light incident at any angle beyond C is totally internally

reflected.
 Example
• Suppose that the angle of incidence of a laser beam in water and
heading towards air is adjusted to 50-degrees. Use Snell's law to
calculate the angle of refraction? Explain your result (or lack of
result).
 Example
• Suppose that the angle of incidence of a laser beam in water and
heading towards air is adjusted to 50-degrees. Use Snell's law to
calculate the angle of refraction? Explain your result (or lack of
result).

Good luck! This problem has no solution.

The angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle,
so TIR occurs. There is no angle of refraction.
 Prisms & Beam Splitters
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
White Light Indigo
Glass Prism Violet

/ 2
 Prisms
• In Optics, a prism is a transparent optical
element with flat, polished surfaces that
refract light.
• At least two of the flat surfaces must have an
angle between them. The exact angles
between the surfaces depend on the
application.
• The traditional geometrical shape is that of a
triangular prism with a triangular base and
rectangular sides.
D = deviation
 Beam Splitters
• Beam splitters are optical components used to split incident light at a
designated ratio into two separate beams.
• Additionally, beam splitters can be used in reverse to combine two
different beams into a single one.
beam splitter

input transmitted
beam beam

reflected beam
 Beam Splitters
• Beam splitters are often classified according to their construction:
✓cube
✓plate %
Beamsplitter iL

Beamsplitter Coating
Coating Reflected
l
Incident
I
light I
t r
I
Incident %
X Light
45 °
» \ Transmitted
%
t
Reference y Transmitted d
Mark for Coated
Prism
*
Reflected
T v
t
d = 0.329 t
 Beamsplitter
• Cube beam splitter are I
Coating
Incident
constructed using two typically Light I
I
right angle prisms. I

• The hypotenuse surface of one

prism is coated, and the two
prisms are cemented together so
that they form a cubic shape. Reference y Transmitted
Mark for Coated
Prism %
Reflected
• Plate Beam Splitter consist of a
thin, flat glass plate that has been
coated on the first surface of the %
i L Beamsplitter
Coating
substrate. Reflected

• Most plate beam splitters feature i r

an anti-reflection coating on the Incident %
second surface to remove
Click to add text Light i Transmitted

unwanted Fresnel reflections.

• Plate beam splitters are often
45°
v t
d
designed for a 45° AOI. For
substrates with a 1.5 index of i
refraction and a 45° AOI, beam shift d = 0.3291
distance (d).
 TIR in Prisms
• A right angle prism can be used to change the direction of
a light ray by 90 degrees or 180 degrees.
• How is a Right Angle Prism used to Change the Direction of a Light
Ray by 90 degrees?
• A right angle prism is used to change the direction of light
by 90 degrees as shown in the picture below.
air
light ray
glass
prism

V
 TIR in Prisms
• The light ray enters the prism along a normal and light ray
>
air

continues straight on until it hits the back face of the prism. glass
prism

• V

Total internal reflection occurs here because light strikes

the surface at 45 degrees which is greater than the critical angle.

• The light ray then emerges from the prism along a normal a\ &
and so continues straight through the glass surface.

• This type of prism can be used in a periscope. &

Use of trigonal prisms
in a periscope.
 TIR in Prisms
• By means of total internal reflection (TIR), a right-angle prism may be
used as a 90° reflector or as a 180° retro-reflector.
• Except for reflection losses from the entry and exit faces, TIR exhibits
100% reflectivity over a very broad wavelength range.

90° Reflection 180° Retroreflection

 Light Guides
• Light may be guided from one location to another by
A) Refraction w\
•“V
B) Reflection

C) Total Internal Reflection (Optical fiber)

TIR Application:
Fiber Optics

©2004 Thomson - Brooks/Cole

Fiber Optics

I
I

Light Signal 1
Light Signal 2
 Fiber Optics
• An optical fiber is a light tube made of two concentric glass (or plastic)
cylinders The inner, called the core, has a refractive index n1 , and the outer,
called the cladding (n2).

• n1 > n2, slightly differ in refractive index

• Light rays traveling in the core are totally reflected from the cladding if their
angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle, i> c = sin-1 (n2/n1).

Cladding

Core "1
 Fiber Optics

➢ Numerical Aperture ( NA):

✓ is a measure of how much light can be collected by optical system such as
optical fiber.

➢ Angle of Acceptance of an Optical Fiber (a):

✓ The cone of rays accepted by the fiber (transmitted through the fiber
without undergoing refraction at the cladding)
✓ The Maximum incident angle at the fiber in order to have TIR inside the
fiber between the core and the cladding
Cladding
Air
n\
'c Oc Core
X
/
y n? - n|. Q(l

«2
 Graded-index optics
• A graded-index (GRIN) material has a refractive index that varies with
position in accordance with a continuous function n(r).
• These materials are often fabricated by adding impurities (dopants) of
controlled concentrations.
• In a GRIN medium the optical rays follow curved trajectories, instead of
straight lines.
• By appropriate choice of n(r), a GRIN plate can have the same effect on light
rays as a conventional optical component, such as a prism or lens.

-
Figure 1.3 2 Trajectory of a paraxial ray in a graded-index medium.
 Matrix optics
Ray
➢A technique for tracing paraxial rays.
➢A ray is described by its position (y) and its
angle () with respect to the optical axis.
, A
Optical
axis

Input Output
A ray enters an optical system at Optical system CV2* ^2)
location z1 with position y1 and angle 1
and leaves at position y2 and angle  2 Input Output
plane plane
*1 Optical system

yi
Optical
~~
R *2 z axis
 Matrix optics
➢The position and angle at the input and output planes of an optical system are
related by two linear algebraic equation.
➢ The optical system is described (characterized) by a 2 x 2 matrix called the “Ray
Transfer Matrix (RTM)”.
➢A, B, C, and D are the RTM elements that characterizes the optical system
completely since it permits (y2 , 2) to be determined for any (y1 ,1 ) to describe
the rays transmission in the optical components.
Input Output
(y 2)
Optical system **
y 2 = Ay 1 + e
° i
[
y2 _ *c DSlf ^e r Input Output

62 — Cyx + DO 1 »
e2 ~
1
planel , Vi
Optical system
plane

4 Optical
Some reference called this matrix by iL *2 2 * axis
ABCD matrix
 RTM for free Space
For a Ray of light propagate in free space (or constant n) between points y1 and y2
with distance d: *
d
* •

2
For free space the ray of light doesn’t change its angle 1 x
y2
2 = 1 y1

From the figure :

y2 = y1 + x and tan(1)= (x / d)

For the paraxial rays: tan() =  => 1= (x / d) => x= d.1

y2 = y1 + d. 1 y 2 = Ay i + BO 1 RTM for ray of light propagates in free
space with distance d is:
2 =0. y1 +  1 #2 ~ Oy 4- DO i »
^ d 1
 y2  1 d   y1  M=
>   = 0 1   
 2   1
0 1
 Matrices of Simple Optical Component
Free - space propagation Transmission through a thin lens

1 0
M= 1
1
/
Convex, f > 0; concave, f < 0

Refraction at a planar boundary Reflection from a planar mirror

1 0
e2 M=
I 01
M= 0 wi 0 1
n n2
n2 E

Refraction at a spherical boundary Reflection from a spherical mirror

1 0 " "

1 0
” ) !h
i
M= 2
1
n2 R n2
R
. .
Convex R > 0: concave R < 0
.
Concave /? < 0; convex R > 0
 Cascaded Optical components
➢The ray-transfer matrix of a cascade of optical components (or systems) is
a product of the ray-transfer matrices of the individual components (or
systems).
➢The multiplication is in reverse order of the ray direction

M, M2 MN

M M/v • • • M2M1 .
(A B a b ' Aa + BcAb + Bch
• Remember that C D c d Ca + Dc Cb + Dd
'
EXERCISE 1.4-3
A Gap Followed by a Thin Lens. Show that the ray-transfer matrix of a distance d of free
space followed by a lens of focal length / is
/
• Answer 1 d
M=
-} 1 - 7d -

L
T V
M1 M2
• A Thin Lens Followed by Gap. Find that the ray-transfer matrix of a
lens of focal length f followed by distance d of free space

b d
T

M1 M2
• Find the RTM for a system composed of two thin lenses in air, with
focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively, and separated by a distance d
Input plane I Output plane II

d >
fl f2
• Find the RTM for a system composed of two thin lenses in air, with
focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively, and separated by a distance d
Input plane I Output plane II

d >
fl f2

1 y {
T
l
y I
M1 M2 M3
• Find the RTM for a system composed of two thin lenses in air, with
focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively, and separated by a distance d
Input plane I Output plane II
1 0 1 0
1 1 d d >

1 1 fl f2
f1. 0 1 1
k
Ml M2
M3

1y i l
T y I
M1 M2 M3
• Find the RTM for a system composed of two thin lenses in air, with
focal lengths f1 and f2 respectively, and separated by a distance d
Input plane I Output plane II
1 0 1 0
1 1d d

l 0 1
l
1
f2 A
Li f
2
MI M2
Mj

1 -4 d
\l \J
M
^ = M 3M 2 M 1 1 1
h
1- 4 M1
T
M2
VM
h . 3
Two lens system from convex lens f1=8 cm Second lens concave f2= -12 cm
located 6 cm from f1 . Then the system matrix is Input plane I Output plane II

1 d 1 0 d
1 0 J\
1 1 AH
1 0 1 1
Li
M2
*2

Ml MJ \J \J

1 0 1 6 1 0 0.25 6
M= 1 1 1
1
0 1 - 0.1042 1.5
L 12 8
(we may have more fun by using convex and concave lenses)
Please suggest values for f1 , f2 and d
• Find the RTM for the following thick lens
R1 R2
\
n1 n2 n1

d
• Find the RTM for the following thick lens
R1 R2

n1 n2 n1

d
Yl T VM
M1 M2 3
• Find the RTM for the following thick lens
R1 R2
/
n1 n2 n1

d
Y V
M1 M2 M3

0 I 0
1 d
(n1 - n2) n2
«7 0 1 n1
• Find the RTM for the following thick lens
R1 R2
/
n1 n2 n1
M= M3.M2.M1
d
0
M= (n1 - n2) n2 1 d 0
Y V
n1 0 1 M1 M2 M3
«7

1 0 I 0
1 d
(n1 - n2) n2
«7 0 1 n1
 Image Formation
• The RTM can be useful to determine the image characteristics as we did in the thin
lens formula and ray tracing approaches .
A B
C
• The condition for image formation is B=0

• When B = 0, all rays from a point y1 arrive at a point y2, independent of angle.

• When B = 0, A is the magnification

• To find the image location we set B=0

• Then we use (A = magnification)
Consider the following two-thin-lens system.
(a) Write the ABCD matrix for the system.
(b) Given an object located s1 = 100 mm in front of the first lens, where is the image
located, and what is the magnification? <
d = 50

/1 = 100 /2 = 100
A system of two thin lenses is given as shown. The two thin lenses are separated by 40mm. An object is placed at
a distance of 75mm to the left of the left thin lens. Find the position and magnification of the final image using:
(a) the method of matrices, (b) the thin lens equation,

f f 2 = 25mm
^ASOmm /v

1
hi

v Y
L = 40mm
$
!= 75mm
 A system of two thin lenses is given as shown. The two thin lenses are separated by 40mm. An object is placed at
a distance of 75mm to the left of the left thin lens. Find the position and magnification of the final image using:
(a) the method of matrices, (b) the thin lens equation,
(a) the method of matrices f f 2 = 25mm
^ASOmm /V

For the system without

object or image
Ul
1 0 1 40 1 0 0.20 40
M= l 1
1 0 1 1 - 0.028 - 0.6
25 50
v \f
L = 40mm
$] = 75mm
 A system of two thin lenses is given as shown. The two thin lenses are separated by 40mm. An object is placed at
a distance of 75mm to the left of the left thin lens. Find the position and magnification of the final image using:
(a) the method of matrices, (b) the thin lens equation,
(a) the method of matrices f f 2 = 25mm
^ASOmm /V
1 0 1 40 1 0 0.20 40
M= l l - 0.028
1 0 1 1 0.6
-
25 50
For the system without hi
object or image

assume that the image is at a distance x to the right of the right thin lens v \f
L = 40mm
$] = 75mm

1 X 0.20 40 1 75 0.20 - 0.028 55 - 2.7 '

Mtotal =
0 1 -0.028 -0.6 0 1 -0.028
* *
2.7
 A system of two thin lenses is given as shown. The two thin lenses are separated by 40mm. An object is placed at
a distance of 75mm to the left of the left thin lens. Find the position and magnification of the final image using:
(a) the method of matrices, (b) the thin lens equation,
(a) the method of matrices f SOmm f 2 = 25 mm
^
M=
1 o 1 40 1 0 0.20 40
-4
25
l 0 1 Mi
1
"
-0.028 -0.6
For the system without
object or image

assume that the image is at a distance x to the right of the right thin lens V
L = 40 mm
$] = 75 mm

Mtotal = 1 X
0 1
0.20
-0.028
40
-0.6
1 75
0 1 -0.028
—
0.20 0.028x 55 — 2.7a; '
2.7

c=o 55 - 2.7x = 0 x — 20.37 mm, m = A( x — 20.37) - 0.2 - 0.028x = -0.37

Therefore, the image is real and inverted.
(b) the thin lens equation, 50mm f 2 = 25mm
A

We have to apply the thin lens equation twice

For the first lens

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = −
f1 xi1 xo1 xi1 f1 xo1 xi1 50 75 v v
L = 40mm

xi1 = 150mm !=
$ 75mm
Initial image location with respect to lens 1
f f 2 = 25mm
^ASOmm A

Initial image
(lens 1)
hj

150 mm
3
v
L = 40mm
Sj= 75mm
 (b) the thin lens equation, 50mm f 2 = 25mm
A

We have to apply the thin lens equation twice

For the first lens

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = −
f1 xi1 xo1 xi1 f1 xo1 xi1 50 75 v v
L = 40mm

xi1 = 150mm !=
$ 75mm
Initial image location with respect to lens 1
f f 2 = 25mm
The image of the first lens is considered as an object for the second lens ^ASOmm A

Initial image
(lens 1)
1 1 1
=>
= − hj
xi 2 f 2 xo 2 xo2
>
150 mm

xo 2 = 150 − 40 = 110mm L = 40mm

V

Sj= 75mm
 (b) the thin lens equation, 50mm f 2 = 25mm
A

We have to apply the thin lens equation twice

For the first lens

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − = −
f1 xi1 xo1 xi1 f1 xo1 xi1 50 75 v v
L = 40mm

xi1 = 150mm !=
$ 75mm
Initial image location with respect to lens 1
f f 2 = 25mm
The image of the first lens is considered as an object for the second lens ^ASOmm A

Initial image
(lens 1)
=> xo 2 = 150 − 40 = 110mm hj
xo2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= − = − virtual object
>

xi 2 25 − 110
150 mm
xi 2 f 2 xo 2 for lens2.
V
L = 40mm

=>
> xi 2 = 20.37mm final image location with respect to lens 2 Sj= 75mm
Therefore, the final image is formed 20.37mm to the right of the right lens and is a real image.

The magnification can be found as follows:

xi1 xi 2 150 20.37

m = ( m1 )( m2 ) m = ( − )( − ) m = (− )( − ) => m = −0.37
xo1 xo 2 75 − 110
f SOmm f 2 = 25mm
the final image is real and inverted
^i \ A

hi

v
L = 40mm
Sj= 75mm
xi 2 = 20.37mm
xi1 150mm
=
 7
JIB u
*
> aiiuoOL =uP >4 = £P 66
»4 TP
»4
cp
• For the above optical system. Assume d1 = 10mm, d2 = 50mm, f = 50mm, n = 2. If an object is
placed 100mm to the left of the input plane (call it d0). Assume the lens is a thin lens.
1) Drive the ray transfer matrix (RTM) of the system (without d0 and d3)
2) Where is the image location (i.e. assume the distance is d3 and find its value)
3) Describe the size and orientation of the image?
 - 5b/»Ai
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