JAFAD COLLEGE OF NURSING ORU IJEBU

PROJECT TOPIC

PREVALENCE AND PATTERN OF PSYCHO ACTIVE SUBSTANCE USE AMONG

SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IJEBU NORTH LGA OGUN
STATE

PRESENTED BY:

OPEYEMI

PROJECT SUPERVISOR

MARCH, 2022
 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Substance abuse have many synonyms which include drug abuse, psychoactive substances
abuse, illicit drugs use and are often used interchangeably. Substance abuse is also described as a
patterned use of a drug in which the user consumes the substance in amounts or with methods
which are harmful to themselves or others, and is a form of substance-related disorder (American
Psychiatric Association, 2013). In the same vein, the world health organization (2017) lexicon of
alcohol and drug terms defines substance abuse as a “maladaptive pattern of use indicated by
continued use despite knowledge of having a persistent or recurrent social, occupational,
psychological or physical problem that is caused or exacerbated by the use (or by) recurrent use
in situation in which it is physically hazardous.”

Substance abuse is a huge global health and critical problems which has made it a matter of
significant public health importance in most countries and it is associated with several social and
economic consequences such as failure to meet work, family, or school obligations, interpersonal
conflicts, legal problems, addiction and HIV/AIDS which are serious consequences. According
to the global burden of disease study (2013), the use of psychoactive substances among
adolescents and young people has become a subject of public health concern worldwide partly
because of its potential to contribute to unintentional and intentional problems.

Substance abuse poses a significant threat to the health, social and economic fabric of families,
communities and nations. The extent of worldwide psychoactive substance use is estimated at 2
billion alcohol users, 1.3 billion smokers and 185 million drug users (WHO, 2012). In an initial
estimate of factors responsible for the global burden of disease, tobacco, alcohol and illicit drugs
contributed together 12.4% of all deaths worldwide in the year 2000 (WHO, 2012).

Substance abuse is a universal phenomenon that cuts across socioeconomic, cultural, religious
and ethnic boundaries and despite the efforts of the various tiers of government to stem its tide in
Nigeria, there has been a consistent rapid rise in the number of cases especially among
adolescents and youths who are 10-30 years. This has resulted in an increase in the number of
cases of cultism, violent disorders, as well as mental disorders among Nigerian youths
(Oshikoya, 2016). Globally, it is estimated that in 2010 between 153 million and 300 million
people aged 15-64 (3.4-6.6 per cent of the world’s population in that age group) had used an
illicit substance at least once in the previous year (UNODC, 2012). According to the research
article published by the United Nations in 2012, the extent of illicit drug use has thus remained
stable, but the estimated 15.5 million-38.6 million problem drug users (almost 12 per cent of
illicit drug users), including those with drug dependence and drug-use disorders, remain a
particular concern. It is also estimated that there were between 99,000 and 253,000 deaths
globally in 2010 as a result of illicit drug use, with drug-related deaths accounting for between
0.5 and 1.3 per cent of all-cause mortality among those aged 15-64 according to the united
nations office on drugs and crime world drug report of 2012 (UNODC, 2012). Reports all over
the world have shown increasing trends in substance abuse among teenagers, youths, commercial
bus drivers and other categories of people and with the antecedent public health problems
associated with the abuse of these substances (Cherpitel et al., 2013; Welcome and Pereverzev,
2010; UNODC, 2012).

In Nigeria, there seem to be an increasing prevalence of substance abuse amongst adolescents

despite the efforts of concerned bodies to curb this menace. There has been a growing trend in
the use of psychoactive substances. Empirical observations and media reports indicate that
psychoactive substance use and misuse remain quite substantial (Suleiman et al., 2016). Other
studies reported that in Nigeria, earlier studies on students’ substance use were largely
hospital–based and confined to selected regions of the country (Oshodi et al., 201 3). However, in
the past 10-15 years, such studies have taken the form of field work employing epidemiology
techniques so as to provide more comprehensive information related to types, pattern of use and
psycho-social correlates in drug use among secondary school students (Fatoye and Morakinyo,
2002; Omalase et al., 2011). Also, Fareo (2012) reported that students, especially those in
secondary school tend to see the drug user as one who is tough, bold and strong. Many
youngsters have been known to use drugs at the instance of peers, elders or siblings. Students
who usually feel inadequate have been known to use drugs to achieve social acceptance. He
further reported that previous research work indicated that the problem of drug abuse know no
boundaries or social class. It impedes the development of any society as it is a threat to life,
health, dignity and prosperity of all individuals. The federal ministry of health in Nigeria recently
declared that particularly worrisome is the escalating use of alcohol and mind-altering drugs
amongst Nigerian youths. This habit is closely linked with juvenile delinquency, school failure,
HIV/AIDS transmission, violent crimes and a generally unsafe environment. Use of heroin and
cocaine is more prevalent in major metropolitan cities (LMoH, 2017). Alcohol abuse and heroin
could cause a spike in blood sugar: for example, heroin seems to interact with the pancreas, and
the complex chain reactions heroin can cause could produce hyperglycemia. Apart from probable
early development of type 2 diabetes, the female youth may start to have a heavy menstrual flow
from hyperglycaemia (Sheldon and Quin, 2005; Vue and Setter, 2011; Omorogiuwa and Okolo,
2015). In the same vein, tobacco which is one of the most abused substances by students has
been reported to kill nearly 6 million smokers worldwide each year including more than 600,000
non-smokers who die from smoke exposure (Gashaw et al., 2016).

In addition to the above, social consequences of substance use exhibited among the youths
include truancy, absenteeism, cultism, poor study skills and poor memory with many of them
resorting to cheating during examinations. Substance use gives students a false sense of security
and self-confidence. As a result, these youths take to different types of crime, including
kidnapping, rape and armed robbery. Researchers have shown that many cult members use
substance.

Studies have reported that youths get their supplies of substances from peers, relatives, local
grocery shops and chemists, thereby having easy access to these substances with the resultant
negative effects. Certain measures have been put in place to curb substance abuse in Nigeria. The
national drug law enforcement agency (NDLEA) has the responsibility of controlling illicit drug
cultivation, abuse, possession, manufacturing, production, and trafficking. Under the NDLEA,
there is a drug demand reduction unit, which is responsible for effective sensitization of the
public on the dangers inherent in drug trafficking and abuse. From 2010-2015, NDLEA noted an
average of 1000 schools covered yearly nationwide for preventive education activities.

In conclusion, both the prevalence of and potential factors contributing to substance abuse
among students are sources of concern. Educational efforts in the home, community, or school
may be beneficial, and research-based principles should be implemented to develop programs
that are specific, timely, and comprehensive.
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

The students in Nigeria like many countries of the world are increasingly developing addiction to
psychoactive substances or engage in drug abuse. The national drug law enforcement agency
(NDLEA, 2015) collected drugs use and abuse data from schools, records of patients admitted at
mental health institutions for drug problems and interview of persons arrested for drug offences.
The result showed that youths constitute the high risk group for drug abuse. Friends and school
mates account for about 90% of the source of influence of the use and abuse of various
psychoactive substances. In Nigeria, alcohol and cigarette are legal substances but, the two have
been discovered to cause physical damage to human bodies. It has been reported that smoking
tobacco causes 90.0% of lung cancer, 30.0% of all cancers, and 80.0% of other chronic lung
diseases (Sale 2018). Apart from these health implications, according to Stephen (2013), alcohol
and cigarette are said to be “gateway drugs” to other more potent psychoactive drugs like
marijuana, heroin and cocaine. The future of any community, society, state or nation is tied to the
character of the youth in that particular place, area or locality. It is also said that “The youth are
the leaders of tomorrow”. Therefore responsible youth in the society indicates responsible and
brighter future of that society and also the reverse is the case. Ogun state is one of south-west
(Yoruba) states in Nigeria with over 3 million populations (NPC, 2016). The use of psychoactive
substance in this state is the order of the day, evidence by increase in crimes of different nature,
failure at examination, abandoning school and poor performance in all aspects of life etc. Ijebu
north LGA is one of prominent local government area in Ogun state. One myth about the youth
and adolescents in Ijebu north LGA is drug and substance use evidently shown by increase in
crime, abandoning and inconsistencies in school, as well as poor study skills. These reasons
encouraged and motivated the desire to assess the prevalence and pattern of psycho active
substance use among selected secondary school students in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state, Nigeria.
In our society, people are known to have had problems that had made them to adopt various
measures to cope with such problems and live successfully within the confines of societal
normative values. While some people take solace in lawful ways others resort to unlawful and
unhealthy measures such as the use of drugs or psychoactive substances to the extent of abusing
of drugs, hence resulting in addiction. According to Edum (2016) the adolescents and youths in
our society are not left out in this, as they are either influenced by peer groups, friends while
others do so because of the easy availability of the abused substances, others also watch on
television and films and some read in books and so try to experiment to experience the effects.
The effects of specific psychoactive substance vary depending on their mechanism of action, the
amount consumed and the history of the user among other factors.

1.3 PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

The main purpose of the study is to assess the prevalence and pattern of psycho active
substance use among selected secondary school students in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state, Nigeria.
The study also aim at examining students' knowledge of substance abuse and substance use;
exploring the attitude of youths to substance abuse and proffer possible strategies that can be
employed to address substance abuse among youths in order to ameliorate the growing problem
of substance abuse in the youth population.

1.4 OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

This paper has the general objective of assessing the prevalence and pattern of psycho active
substance use among selected secondary school students in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state, Nigeria.
The Specific Objectives Has the Following Things;

1. To assess the prevalence of substance abuse among the youths in the study area (Ijebu
north LGA Ogun state).
2. To identify the patterns and types of substance commonly abuse by secondary school
students living in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state.
3. To identify the factors responsible for substance abuse among secondary school students
in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state.
4. To proffer possible solutions that ameliorates the problems of Substance abuse in Ogun
state in particular and Nigeria in general.
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

There are four research questions generated for the course of study;

1. What is the prevalence rate of substance abuse in the study area?

2. What are the patterns and types of substance commonly abused among secondary school
students in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state?
3. What are the factors responsible for substance abuse among secondary school students in
Ijebu north LGA Ogun state?
4. What are the ways of addressing the problems of drugs abuse in Ogun state in particular
and Nigeria in general?

1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The paper will reveal the prevalence, pattern, types and factors responsible for the use of
psychoactive substances by students. It will also reveal the characteristics of drugs abusers and
the problems youths encounter as a result of substance use. These findings are essential as they
will help in understanding the overall social, academic and drug problems of the youths in Ogun
state. This finding would be useful to the parents, teachers, police and the drug law enforcement
agency (NDLEA) as well as other bodies concerned with checking drug abuse problems in Ijebu
north LGA Ogun state and Nigeria at large. The findings will provide a source of reference for
intervention programmers in Ogun state. The finding of this study will be useful to future
researchers on the topic, as they will build on the strength and limitations of the study. And the
finding of the study may spur them to form anti-psychoactive substance use clubs and
associations. The activities of these groups can reach the wider society and will assist in curbing
the menace of substance abuse in Ijebu north LGA Ogun state and the country at large. The
present study would no doubt, spur interest for further studies.
1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

In this study the following terms will be defined as:

Drug: Refers to any chemical substance which when taken into the body that can affect one or
more of the body’s functions.

Drug misuse: Refers to the usage of any drug for any other purpose other than the recommended
one.

Drug abuse: Refers to excessive illegal drug use and/ or legal drug use without a doctor ’s
prescription.

Drug tolerance: Refers to a state of reduced sensitivity of a drug to the body at given regular
(normal) dose.

Substance abuse: Refers to harmful or hazardous use of psychoactive substances including

alcohol and other illicit drugs to stimulate behavior.

Drug dependence: Refers to repeated drug taking that usually results in tolerance, withdrawal
and compulsive drug taking.

Peer pressure: Refers to tendency to conform to the values and expectations of the peer group.

Adolescent: Refers to a boy or girl between the ages of eleven and nineteen years. Also refers to
as a teenager.

Legal/licit drug: Refers to a drug socially accepted and readily available.

Prevalence: Refers to the magnitude of drug use among a particular age population.

Drug trafficker: Refers to a person who passes drugs to consumers.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 SUBSTANCE ABUSE

Substance abuse is the use of a mood or behavior-altering substance resulting in significant

impairment or distress. Abdullahi (2009) viewed drug abuse as the use of drugs to the extent that
it interferes with the health and social function of an individual. Odejide (1997) opined that drug
abuse is the improper use or application of drugs by a person without proper knowledge of the
drugs and without due prescription from a qualified medical practitioner. This definition focuses
on psychoactive drugs; all drugs can be abused to the extent that it turns into addiction when the
drug user is unable to stop the use of drugs despite the harmful effects on users ’ physical and
emotional feelings. According to Agwubike (1998) drugs commonly abused by youths are;
amphetamines, anabolic steroids, alcohol, marijuana (Cannabis or Indian hemp), cocaine, heroin,
caffeine, barbiturates, amphetamines, narcotic, inhalants, codeine and cough syrup; which have
excitatory or inhibitory effect which are thought to enhance performance in sport by delaying the
onset of fatigue or hasten recovery rate.
2.1.1 ALCOHOL

Alcohol abuse causes neuro-inflammation and leads to myelin disruptions and white matter loss;
the brain is at increased risk of brain damage and other long lasting alterations to the brain
(Alfonso-Loeches, et al., 2011). Youths with an alcohol use disorder damage the hippocampal,
prefrontal cortex, and temporal lobes (Nixon et al., 2010). Youths who consume alcohol heavily
display symptoms of conduct disorder. Its symptoms include troublesome behavior in school,
constantly lying, learning disabilities and social impairments (Mc Ardle, Paul, 2007). Alcohol
slows brain activity and muscle reaction and continued use of it can result in indigestion, ulcers,
degeneration of the brain and cirrhosis of the liver.

2.1.2 BARBITURATES

Barbiturates are synthetic drugs used in medicine to depress the central nervous system. The
effects range from mild sedation to coma and they may be used as sedatives, hypnotics or as part
of anesthesia. Some barbiturates are used to relieve tension or anxiety prior to surgery. It is also
depressants like alcohol. They produced light headedness, ease tension, and induce relaxation
and sleep. Large doses can slow vital body functions and can cause death (Anumonye, 1980).

2.1.3 AMPHETAMINES

Amphetamines are a group of synthetic psychoactive drugs called central nervous system (CNS)
stimulants. It is a central nervous system stimulants that affect chemicals in the brain and nerves
that contribute to hyperactivity and impulse control. They cause brain damage while combining
them with barbiturates is extremely dangerous (Anumonye, 1980).

2.1.4 NARCOTIC

Narcotics are addictive drugs that reduce the user's perception of pain and induce euphoria (a
feeling of exaggerated and unrealistic well-being). These are drugs which include opium and its
derivatives, morphine, heroin and codeine which provide relief and pain, anxiety and tension.
Medically they are used to relief pain, treat diarrhea and stop coughing (NDLEA, 1998).

2.1.5 INHALANTS

The inhalation of certain chemicals found in glue, gasoline, paint thinner, fingernail, polish
remover, household cement, petroleum and the like produces a high, sometimes accompanied by
dizziness, loss of judgment and aggressiveness (Anumonye, 1980).

2.1.6 MARIJUANA (CANNABIS OR INDIAN HEMP)

Marijuana is locally called "ganye" "wee-wee" to mention just a few. Marijuana is the most
commonly used drug after tobacco and alcohol, particularly among youths (NDLEA, 1998).

2.1.7 CODEINE

Codeine has become a major drug abused by youths in Nigeria. Its common effects include
drowsiness and constipation. Less common are euphoria, itching, nausea, vomiting, dry mouth,
orthostatic hypotension, urinary retention, depression, and paradoxical coughing. It also effects
include suppresses the central nervous system (CNS), constricts the vowels, causing
constipation, nausea etc., (NDLEA, 1998).

According to Odejide et al., (1987) abuse of psychoactive drug is a common problem among the
adolescents especially for socially acceptable drugs such as alcohol and cigarettes. Alcohol and
cigarettes are termed as gateway drugs because they are the ones that welcome the adolescents
into drug abuse. These drugs are mostly abused because they are readily available (Okoza et al.,
2009). Studies showed that parenting has a lot of influence on early initiation into use of drugs
by adolescents. Hawkins et al., (1997) argued that children who received good supervision and
consistent discipline from their parents in their early years in life are less likely to engage in drug
abuse.
The use of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and other psychoactive substances constitutes one of most
important public health problems among adolescents worldwide (Oshodi et al., 2010). Recent
studies in African countries have shown that the phenomenon of drug use is also common in this
continent and is becoming one of the most disturbing health-related problems among youth
(Igwe et al., 2009). Studies show that there is an increasing incidence in the use, and a
decreasing age of onset, of these substances (Fatoye and Morakinyo, 2002; Fatoye et al., 2006).
Most young people begin their use of drugs with alcohol and cigarettes and later progress to
more dangerous substances such as cannabis and cocaine (Abiodun et al., 1989). Several
psychosocial factors have been associated with drug abuse. Particularly, peer pressure, social
environment, broken home, media portrayal of drug -use by celebrities (Malhotra et al., 2007).
Peer substance use is one of the major and well-established predictors of adolescent drug use
(Elliott, Huizinga and Ageton, 1985). The influence of the peer group is exerted via modeling
and social reinforcement of nonconforming behavior (Oetting and Donnermeyer, 1998; Elliott,
Huizinga and Ageton, 1985; Hawkins and Catalano, 1992). Previous research suggests that peer
drug use influences adolescent behavior (Dishion and Andrews, 1995)

In the domain of personal attributes which make adolescents vulnerable to drug use, the linkage
between depressive mood and substance use is equivocal. Some studies have found a relationship
between depressive mood and substance (Brook, Cohen and Brook, 1998), whereas other
research has found no association between illegal drug use and depression (White, Xie,
Thompson et al., 2001). In contrast, there is strong evidence suggesting that unconventional
attitudes and behaviors (e.g., tolerance of deviance, delinquency) are related to adolescent drug
use (Brook, Brook, Gordon, et al., 1990).

There is a substantial body of literature on the reasons or motivations that people cite for using
alcohol, particularly amongst adolescent populations. For example, research on heavy drinkers
suggested that alcohol use is related to multiple functions for use (Edwards et al., 1972; Sadava,
1975). Similarly, research with a focus on young people has sought to identify motives for illicit
drug use. There is evidence that for many young people, the decision to use a drug is based on a
rational appraisal process, rather than a passive reaction to the context in which a substance is
available (Boys et al., 2000; Wimberley and Price, 2000). Reported reasons vary from quite
broad statements (e.g. to feel better) to more specific functions for use (e.g. to increase self-
confidence).

2.2 EMPIRICAL LITERATURE

2.2.1 CAUSES OF PSYCHOACTIVE DRUG ABUSE

Substance use seems to be linked to many factors. Black and Matassarin-Jacobs (1993) explains
the possible causes of substance use as the followings factors. These factors are likely to coexist.

2.2.2 BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

If parents have addiction struggles, chances are that the offspring of that family will be
detectable to addiction. . Black and Matassarin-Jacobs (1993) refers to biologic theorist’s
speculation that substance dependant people may lack naturally occurring endorphins (chemicals
in the brain) and, therefore take substances in a physiologic attempt to replace the missing
chemicals. Probably this suggests interplay between personality features and genetic
susceptibility in the individual response to the chemical substance family role models who drink
excessively.

2.2.3 BEHAVIORAL FACTORS

Behaviorists believe that rewards or “pay off” from use rein force the use of any given substance.
Culturally, the acceptance of various substance influences levels of use, e.g. a permissive attitude
towards alcohol. Social acceptance of the offending substance is therefore a key issue in
substance use (Mireku, 2002; Emenike and Ogbonna, 1995).

2.2.4 OCCUPATIONAL FACTORS

The occupation of the person (high-stress jobs) has a high incidence of substance use. Bar staff
that has regular contact with alcohol and therefore predisposed to the use of alcohol.

2.2.5 PSYCHODYNAMIC FACTORS

A number of psychological theories have attempted to explain how people become substance
dependent. People who are alcoholic dependent have often been viewed as individuals who
easily succumb to the escape provided by alcohol. Psychoanalytic theory describes people with
alcohol dependency as having strong oral tendencies related to unresolved needs for early
attachments (Frosch, 1985),

2.2.6 PEER PRESSURE

Peer pressure is huge and many people tend to indulge in activities that their peers are involved
in so as to maintain the relationship.

2.2.7 LONELINESS

People naturally want to feel good physically and emotionally and they resort to drug or illegal
substances.

2.2.8 PERSONALITY FACTORS

Feelings of inferiority are said to be a feature. The inadequate personality use substances to
achieve power in the form of disinhibition, to relieve tension and improve self-esteem. Iron bar
and Hooper (1993) argue that there is no one factor that predominates in the causation of
substance use. But for each person there exists a complex interaction between themselves, those
around them and the environment. It is in the light of this, that Kaltenbach and Finnegan (1997)
notes that paradigms shift began to occur in which a multifactor approach becomes
acknowledged as the appropriate model.

Duxbury (1997) states that anyone can be at risk, however, some significant factors that appear
to be influential other than those addressed above include factors such as the cost and availability
of the substance (Awake!, 2005, Mireku, 2002 and Duxbury, 1997).

2.3 PATTERN OF PSYCHOACTIVE USE/ABUSE

Patterns of development of dependence and abuse are described. The first pattern is one of an
individual whose physician originally prescribed the CNS depressants as treatment for anxiety or
insomnia. Independently, the individual has increased the dosage or frequency from that which
was prescribed. Use of the mediation is justified on the basis of treating symptoms, but as
tolerance grows more and more of the medication is required to produce the desired effect.
Substance – seeking behavior is evident as the individual seeks prescriptions from several
physicians in order to maintain sufficient supplies.

The second pattern, which the DSM-IV-TR reports is more frequent than the first, involves
young people in their teens or early 20s who, in the company of their peers, use substances that
were obtained illegally. The initial objective is to achieve feeling of euphoria. The drug is
usually used intermittently during recreational gatherings. This pattern of intermittent use leads
to regular use and extreme levels of tolerance. Combining use with other substance is not
uncommon. Physical and psychological dependence leads to intense substance seeking
behaviors, most often through illegal channels.

According to the Townsends (2006) There are many ways and patterns in which drug addicts or
abusers used among them are smoking, injecting, huffing bagging and orally/chewing.

2.3.1 SMOKING

Drugs commonly used in this method are stimulants like cocaine. Cannabis like tetra hydro
cannabinols, marijuana, hashish and hashish oil, hallucinogens, phencyclidine etc

2.3.2 PARENTERAL

These include intra muscular and intra venous injection. In intravenous usually veins in the ante
cubital space are used, but as vein membranes break down and scleroses other veins are selected
for injection. The needles are frequently passed from one user to another. Infections including
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome have been relatively common. Drugs commonly used in
this way are heroine, morphine, amphetamine, phencyclidine, marijuana etc.

2.3.3 Huffing

Is a procedure in which a rag soaked with the substance is applied to the mouth and nose and the
vapors breathed in. Substance used by this way is aerosol, propellants, fluorinated hydrocarbons,
nitrous oxide (in deodorants and hair spray, paint, cookware coating products). Solvents like
gasoline, kerosene, nail polish remover, typewriter, correction fluid, cleaning solutions, lighter
fluid.

Paint thinner and glue. Inhalant substances are readily available, legal and inexpensive. These
three factors make inhalants the drug of choice among poor people and among children and
young adults. Use may begin by ages 9 to 12 and peak in the adolescent years; it is less common
after age 35 (APA 2000).

2.3.4 ORAL/CHEWING

Examples of substances that fall under this category are stimulants like amphetamine,
dextroamphitamine, methamphetamine caffeine and nicotine. Depressants like alcohol, diazepam
(valium), chlordizepoxide (librium).Cannabis like hashish and marijuana.

2.3.5 BAGGING

This is another method of substance administration in which the substance is placed in a paper or
plastic bag and inhaled from the bag by the user? They may also inhale directly from the
container or sprayed in the mouth or nose example Solvents like gasoline, kerosene, nail polish
remover, typewriter correction fluid, cleaning solutions, lighter fluid paint, paint thinner and
glue.

2.4 PROBLEM ASSOCIATED WITH PSYCHOACTIVE SUBSTANCE USE

The use of psycho active substance has produced severe socio-political, economic and health–
related problems, all over the world, especially in Nigeria. These problems are profound,
pervasive and tragic. Mireku (2002), Duxbury (1997) and Imogie (1993), discusses the variety of
effects of psychoactive substance use, vis-à-vis physical, physiological, psychosocial and
psychiatric problems. Generally, the consequences of psychoactive substance use on both the
individual and society can be examined under the following headings.

2.4.1 PSYCHOLOGICAL PROBLEMS

Substance–related problems may be in various forms including, loss of control which may lead
to helplessness, depression and sometimes suicide. Anxiety attack when not using drugs leading
to relapse to relieve anxiety, low self-esteem, feelings of inadequate and poor motivation.
Memory loss and disorientation following long or heavy drinking bouts. Psychosis presenting in
the form of delusion and hallucinations. Substance use, particularly in young individuals my
precipitate the development of mental illness such as schizophrenia. Defensiveness about
behavior and often denial that there is a problem (defense mechanisms: denial and
rationalization).

2.4.2 BEHAVIORAL AND SOCIAL PROBLEM

The behavioral and social course of psychoactive substance use includes difficulty maintaining
successful relationships, which often leads to isolation, divorce and separation. Stigma may lead
to further rejection and isolation. Loss of job, home and financial difficulties may occur. The
user experience persistent drug use despite obvious personal, social and physical damage. The
victim will find it difficult putting the needs of others before self. Disinheriting due to effects of
drugs may feature. High-risk behaviors due to disinheriting, for example walking out in front of
cars, unprotected sex, no sense of danger, believing one has powers such as being able to fly.

2.4.3 PHYSICAL PROBLEMS

The physical consequence of drug use include physical dependency leading to craving, tremor,
sweats, agitation, anxiety, disorientation, psychosis, jitters, paranoia and panic attacks,
withdrawal symptoms usually start 24-72 hours after cessation of substance use. The individual
recovers from physical discomfort within 5-7 days; however, the following may be suffered;
malnutrition due to poor appetite and gastro-intestinal problems: nausea, anemia, weight loss,
vitamin deficiency particularly vitamin B12. Approximately 10-15 % of people with alcohol
problem develop cirrhosis of the liver due to toxic effects of alcohol. Pancreatitis and general
infections such as HIV/AIDS may also occur. Others may include blackouts, loss of
consciousness and risk of death due to overdose of psychoactive substance. Gambo (1995) states
that drug addiction can lead to the committing of criminal offences.

Since psychoactive substance addicts are always prepared to sustain their habit by all means.
Some of them are often induced to getting involved in theft, burglary and robbery in order to
obtain the needed money to procure the substance. Psychoactive substance addicts are also
relatively prone to accidents on the highways while driving vehicles. Such accidents could
involve other people and may lead to serious injuries and loss of property thus leading to great
loss to the country. The patterns of psychoactive substance use including a tendency among
commercial motorcycle riders to take a variety of drugs simultaneously or in a sequence to
obtain specific effects may become a feature. A pattern of use generally ranges from
experimental to compulsive use. Although an individual may move back and forth among
patterns, compulsive use is indicative of addiction and only abstinence or a drug–free status can
break the pattern (Orth. Duphorne and Lisanti, 2000).

2.5 EFFECT OF SUBSTANCE ABUSE

The effect of substance abuse is mainly to the individual family and the society as follows;

2.5.1 THE INDIVIDUAL

People who use drugs experience a wide range of physical effects other than those expected
(Ajzan, 2005). Most of the abused substances have after effects. For tobacco taken in cigarette
form, abusers are exposed to lung cancer and other chronic illnesses (WHO, 2009). For alcohol,
abusers are exposed to liver cirrhosis, cancer and a host of other chronic illnesses (Sad dock,
2009). Abstinence from certain drugs results in withdrawal syndrome. For example, heroin
withdrawal syndrome causes vomiting, muscle cramps, convulsions and delirium. Sharing
hypodermic needles used to inject some drugs dramatically increases the risk of contracting
AIDS and some types of hepatitis (Atta, 2004). Many drug users engage in criminal activities
such as burglary and prostitution to raise money to buy drug (Rocha 2009).

2.5.2 THE FAMILY

According to the world Drug Report (2004), 20% of alcoholics face problems that affect their
jobs and misuse of money as a result of alcohol consumption. According to global status report
on alcohol (2007), 55% of women in Nigeria face domestic violence from their husbands after
taking alcohol (WHO, 2009). Most of the abusers (children) usually become drop-outs from
school posing a problem to the family The users pre-occupation with the substance, plus its
effects on mood and performance can lead to marital problems and poor work performance or
dismissal from the work (Ajzen, 2005).Violence, conflict, separation and divorce are common
among females of alcoholics husband (world drugs report, 2004). Pregnant mother who uses
drugs have much higher rate of low- birth weight babies than the average especially those who
take cocaine and heroin.

2.5.3 The Society

Drug users are more likely than non-users to have occupational hazards, accidents, endangering
themselves and those around them (Fisher, 2008). Drug related crime can disrupt neighborhoods
due to violence among drug dealers and pose threat to the residents and society at large (Fishers,
2008). Over half of the highway deaths are coursed by alcohol (WHO, 2009). Majority of
homeless people have either a drug or alcohol problem or a mental illness or in some cases have
all three.

2.6 RISK FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH SUBSTANCE ABUSE

2.6.1 AVAILABILITY AND ENCOURAGEMENT

Advertising campaigns make the use of chemical substances appealing and socially acceptable
Sedatives and anti-anxiety agents are prescribed excessively for a variety of reasons.

2.6.2 ADVERSE SOCIAL CONDITIONS

Poverty, unemployment, discrimination, homelessness, and lack of social and educational

opportunities contribute to high rates of substance abuse.

2.6.3 ENVIRONMENTAL OR BIOLOGIC FACTORS

Abuse patterns occur in families (e.g., heavy smoking and drinking).

2.6.4 PSYCHOLOGICAL INFLUENCE

Certain personality traits (e.g., low frustration tolerance, risk-taking behavior, and impulsivity)
may make the development of substance abuse more likely. Psychodynamic factors, such as
anxiety or panic disorders mood disorders, and personality disorders, are linked with substance
abuse.

2.6.5 DISABILITIES

Physically disabled individuals have higher rates of alcoholism and problems with other
substances. Many individuals with disabilities have low self-esteem, chronic medical problems,
and high incidence of depression.

2.6.6 DEVELOPMENTAL INFLUENCE

Individuals who sustain parental loss (through death, divorce, abandonment) may be predisposed
to substance abuse problems. Children of substance-abusing parents are at greater risk for
becoming substance abusers.

2.6.7 CULTURAL INFLUENCE

Cultural beliefs influence religious rituals and practices that support or inhibit substance use and
abuse. Alcoholism is a major problem among Native-American and Alaskan Natives. Hispanics
may also have high rates of alcohol abuse.

2.7 TYPE OF ABUSE VARIES WITH AGE, GENDER, AND SPECIFIC MINORITY
SUB-GROUP

2.7.1 ADDICTION

Addiction describes that state when the person experiences severe psychological and behavioral
dependence on drugs or alcohol with the tendency to increase its use psychoactive drugs are
often associated with addiction. Addiction can be divided into two types: psychological
addiction, by which a user feels compelled to use a drug despite negative physical or societal
consequence, and physical dependence, by which a user must use a drug to avoid physically
uncomfortable or even medically harmful with drawal symptoms. (Lenhart, Amanda 2010) Not
all drugs are physically addictive, but any activity that stimulates the brain's dopaminergic
reward system typically, any pleasurable activity can lead to psychological addiction. Drugs that
are most likely to cause addiction are drugs that directly stimulate the dopaminergic system, like
cocaine and amphetamines. Drugs that only indirectly stimulate the dopaminergic system, such
as psychedelics, are not as likely to be addictive. (Ksir, Oakley and Charles, 2002).

Common forms of rehabilitation include psycho therapy, support groups and pharmacotherapy,
which use psychoactive substances to reduce cravings and physiological withdrawal symptoms
while a user is going through detox. Methadone, itself an opioid and a psychoactive substance, is
a common treatment for heroin addiction, as is another opioid, buprenorphine. According to
Johnson (2010), physical dependence refers to a state resulting from chronic use of a drug that
has produced tolerance and where negative physical symptoms of withdrawal result from abrupt
discontinuation or dosage reduction. Physical dependence cans develop from low-dose
therapeutic use of certain medications such as benzodiazepines, opioids, antiepileptics and
antidepressants, as well as misuse of recreational drugs such as alcohol, opioids and
benzodiazepines.

The higher the dose used, the greater the duration of use, and the earlier age use began are
predictive of worsened physical dependence and thus more severe withdrawal syndromes. Acute
withdrawal syndromes can last days, weeks or months, and protracted withdrawal syndrome,
also known as "post-acute withdrawal syndrome" or "PAWS" a low-grade continuation of some
of the symptoms of acute withdrawal, typically in a remitting-relapsing pattern, that often results
in relapse into active addiction and prolonged disability of a degree to preclude the possibility of
lawful employment can last for months, years, or, in relatively common to extremely rare cases,
depending on individual factors, indefinitely.

Protracted withdrawal syndrome is noted to be most often caused by benzodiazepines, but is also
present in a majority of cases of alcohol and opioid addiction, especially that of a long-term,
high-dose, adolescent-beginning, or chronic-relapsing nature (viz. a second or third addiction
after withdrawal from the self-same substance of dependence). Withdrawal response will vary
according to the dose used, the type of drug used, the duration of use, the age of the patient, the
age of first use, and the individual person. (Ibogaine 2017).
2.7.2 THE ADDICTIVE CYCLE (Orth Duphorne and Lisanti, 2000)

Addictive cycle shows that step 1, the problem or need arouse stress or anxiety and is dealt with
through substance use. Steps 2 through 4, the cycle of substance use, relief and recurring stress
or anxiety is repeated until psycho logic dependence is established. Interrupting the cycle brings
about anxiety but not physical symptoms. Steps 5 and 6, physiological dependence usually
follows psycho logic dependence. Withdrawal symptoms follow abstinence.

The above are by no means exhaustive and individual problems will exist in addition or
isolation depending on so many factors. These include the individual circumstances,
personality, coping resources, assistance available, type, and degree of substance use. Most
victims will develop a mixture of both physical and mental health problems, as addiction is
both relentless and all consuming, devouring those it develops and destroying the lives of
those it meets.

Figure 2.1: The Addiction Cycle.

2.8 APPLICATION OF PEER CLUSTER THEORY TO PRESENT RESEARCH

A new psychosocial model, peer cluster theory, suggests that the socialization factors that
accompany adolescent development interact to produce peer clusters that encourage drug
involvement or provide sanctions against drug use. These peer clusters are small, very
cohesive groupings that shape a great deal of adolescent behavior, including drug use. Peer
cluster theory suggests that other socialization variables, strength of the family, family
sanctions against drug use, religious identification, and school adjustment influence drug use
 only indirectly, through their effect on peer clusters. Correlations of these socialization
variables with drug use confirm the importance of socialization characteristics as underlying
factors in drug use and also confirm that other socialization factors influence drug use
through their effect on peer drug associations. Peer cluster theory suggests that treatment of
the drug-abusing youth must alter the influence of the peer cluster or it is likely to fail.
Prevention programs aimed at the family, school, or religion must also influence peer
clusters, or drug use will probably not be reduced. (Redmond, 2012).

CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHOD

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter describes all activities involved in the collection of all necessary and vital
information required for the execution of this research work. The chapter is set to describe the
following: Material and method, Research Design, Area of Study, Population of the study,
Sample size, Research instruction, Sources of data, Sampling techniques and method of data
collection and its model of specification.
3.2 MATERIAL AND METHOD

According to Cooper and Schindler (2006), research design is the strategy for study and the plan
by which the strategy is to be carried out specifying the methods and the procedure for the data
collection, measurement, and analysis of data. The data collected from sample size through
questionnaire was distributed, which serves as a source of material and analyzed using chi-square
which established the possibility of justifying a given assumption or conjecture and the data
collected through interviews were analyzed using the thematic content analysis.

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN

The study was a descriptive cross-sectional study carried out to assess the prevalence of
substance abuse among youths in Ilesa East Local Government Area of Osun State.

3.4 AREA OF STUDY

Ilesa East is a Local Government Area in Osun State, Nigeria . Its headquarters are in Iyemogun
in the city of Ilesa at the coordinates: 7°37′N 4°46′E / 7.617°N 4.767°E. It has an area of 71 km²
and a population of 106,586 at the 2006 census.

Ilesa East LGA has Iyemogun as her administrative headquarters & consists of other districts,
towns & villages such as Iyemogun, Ayeso, Araromi okesa, Egbeide, Ibala, Idasa, Ijoka, Isida
and Ilerin.

Ilesa East Local Government Area consists of 11 wards which are being represented by
designated Councillors and is one of the local governments that falls under the Osun East
Senatorial Districts which is domiciled in the Southwest geopolitical area.

The LGA has a postal code of 233 and comprises of many villages, and sub-towns which made
up the local government area.
3.5 POPULATION AND SAMPLE SIZE

Population refers to as all conceivable element subject or observation relation to

particular phenomena of interest to the research within the targeted study area. However, Ilesa
East local government area has a total population of 106,586 from the 2006 population census
conducted by the National Population Commission (NPC).
In every research, it is imperative to determine and select the sample size from the population of
study. However, it is always advisable to make use of large sample size in order to have
significant result from the calculation of collected data. In the light of this, Yamani Formula
(1964) was used to determine the sample size. According to Yamani (1964), sample size can be
determined with the formula below;

n = N
_________
1 + (Ne2)

Where n = sample size

N = total population of the study area

e = error limit

Using the population of Ilesa East local government area, N = 106,586

e = 0.05
sample size (n) = 106,586
__________

1 + (106, 586 x 0.05 x 0.05)

106,586
 __________
267.465
= 399.5 approximately to 400.

Therefore, Four hundred (400) was calculated and selected as sample size for research study. The
questionnaire was distributed to selected villages in the study area.

3.6 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

The stratified random sampling technique was used to administer the questionnaire. It was
discovered that the researcher cannot reach the entire Ilesa East Local Government Area to
distribute the questionnaires, rather a systematic sampling techniques was used to select
villages/respondents. These villages include; Iyemogun, Ayeso, Araromi okesa, Egbeide, Ibala,
Idasa, Ijoka, Isida and Ilerin. Four hundred (400) questionnaires will be administered, that is an
average of forty five (45) copies will be administered to each village. Here every first twentieth
(10th) building from the selected villages was considered and the first Adolescent or youth within
that household is given the questionnaire. This is to give a detailed investigation.

3.7 SOURCE OF DATA

In this research all data was collected from two main sources, which are, primary and secondary
data.

The primary data includes all data from the survey method i.e. the questionnaire designed by
the researcher and distributed to the respondent. The researchers collected the filled
questionnaire in other to analyze the data collected with appropriate statistical instrument. The
secondary data for this research was from internet, textbook, newspapers, dictionaries and
journals.
3.8 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

The major instrument that was used in this research is self-design questionnaire. The
questionnaire is a document containing a series of question to be answered by the respondents.
The questionnaire would be design in such a way as to enable the respondent provide answer to
the question with ease. The questionnaire was divided into four sections: Socio-demographics of
the participants, Knowledge on drug abuse, Attitudes and perception towards drug abuse. The
questionnaires were then administered by the lead researcher and two trained assistants.

3.9 VALIDATION OF THE INSTRUMENT

The instrument was cross checked and validated by the supervisor .The supervisor was given the
initial draft of the instrument to check the structuring adequacy of the items and the items were
criticized and corrections was made to validate the instrument, the modification made on the
instrument reviewed again before its approval. The questionnaire was assessed for Construct and
Face validity respectively.

3.10 METHOD OF DATA COLLECTION

The data were collected majorly through the administered questionnaire. The researcher along
with her research assistants distributed the questionnaire to the selected participants of the study
and retrieval was made after two weeks. Subsequently, face to face interview was also conducted
by the researcher and her assistants during retrieval of the administered questionnaire to ascertain
the accuracy of the responses given by the participants.

3.11 METHOD OF DATA ANALYSIS

The data collected from the sample size through the questionnaire were analyzed using Chi-
square establishes the possibility of justifying a given assumption or conjecture, in other words
null hypothesis, such that the hypothesis is either rejected or not rejected, while testing for
 significance for association. Chi-square test can be carried out whether parametric data or non-
parametric data. This is because the property, through which several statistics are combined in a
common test. This is one of its advantages. In this way, frequency table may be formed for its
calculation and also the table of contingency could be used.

1.9 LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

The study apparently was with certain limitations which the researcher encountered
during the course of the research. The researcher was limited to inadequate information
from the respondents as many of them felt reluctant and reserved to give out necessary
information for data collection. However, this was expected due to the fact that the
subject of research study is of sensitive nature.

Time factor and financial constraints appeared to cause slight impediments during the
study. The researcher had academic commitments to fulfill and the funding for the cost
production of the study was expensive due to Corona Virus Crisis in the country.

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