8 phak Chapter 6 Flight Control

FLIGHT CONTROL SYSTEM

What is a flight Control System?
Introduction
This chapter focuses on the flight control systems a pilot uses to control the
forces of flight and the aircraft’s direction and attitude. To control the flight path
or the or the trajectory.
It should be noted that flight control systems and characteristics can vary greatly
depending on the type of aircraft flown. The most basic flight control system
designs are mechanical and date back to early aircraft. They operate with a
collection of mechanical parts, such as rods, cables, pulleys, and sometimes
chains to transmit the forces of the flight deck controls to the control surfaces.
Mechanical flight control systems are still used today in small general and sport
category aircraft where the aerodynamic forces are not excessive. [Figure 6-1]
As aviation matured and aircraft designers learned more about aerodynamics, the
industry produced larger and faster aircraft. Therefore, the aerodynamic forces
acting upon the control surfaces increased exponentially. To make the control
force required by pilots manageable, aircraft engineers designed more complex
systems.
At first, hydromechanical designs, consisting of a mechanical circuit and a
hydraulic circuit, were used to reduce the complexity, weight, and limitations of
mechanical flight controls systems. [Figure 6-2]
As aircraft became more sophisticated, the control surfaces were actuated by
electric motors, digital computers, or fiber optic cables. Called “fly-by-wire,” this
flight control system replaces the physical connection between pilot controls and
the flight control surfaces with an electrical interface. In addition, in some large
and fast aircraft, controls are boosted by hydraulically or electrically actuated
systems. In both the fly-by-wire and boosted controls, the feel of the control
reaction is fed back to the pilot by simulated means. Current research at the
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Dryden Flight Research
Center involves Intelligent Flight Control Systems (IFCS). The goal of this project is
to develop an adaptive neural network-based flight control system. Applied
directly to flight control system feedback errors, IFCS provides adjustments to
improve aircraft performance in normal flight, as well as with system failures.
With IFCS, a pilot is able to maintain control and safely land an aircraft that has
suffered a failure to a control surface or damage to the airframe. It also improves
mission capability, increases the reliability and safety of flight, and eases the pilot
workload.
Today’s aircraft employ a variety of flight control systems. For example, some
aircraft in the sport pilot category rely on weight-shift control to fly while balloons
use a standard burn technique. Helicopters utilize a cyclic to tilt the rotor in the
desired direction along with a collective to manipulate rotor pitch and anti-torque
pedals to control yaw. [Figure 6-3]
For additional information on flight control systems, refer to the appropriate
handbook for information related to the flight control systems and characteristics
of specific types of aircraft.

Flight Control Systems Flight Controls

Aircraft flight control systems consist of primary and secondary systems.
The ailerons, elevator (or stabilator), and rudder constitute the primary control
system and are required to control an aircraft safely during flight.
Wing flaps, leading edge devices, spoilers, and trim systems constitute the
secondary control system and improve the performance characteristics of the
airplane or relieve the pilot of excessive control forces.
Primary Flight Controls
Aircraft control systems are carefully designed to provide adequate
responsiveness to control inputs while allowing a natural feel.
At low airspeeds, the controls usually feel soft and sluggish, and the aircraft
responds slowly to control applications. At higher airspeeds, the controls become
increasingly firm and aircraft response is more rapid.
Movement of any of the three primary flight control surfaces (ailerons, elevator
or stabilator, or rudder), changes the airflow and pressure distribution over and
around the airfoil. These changes affect the lift and drag produced by the airfoil/
control surface combination, and allow a pilot to control the aircraft about its
three axes of rotation.
Design features limit the amount of deflection of flight control surfaces. For
example, control-stop mechanisms may be incorporated into the flight control
linkages, or movement of the control column and/or rudder pedals may be
limited. The purpose of these design limits is to prevent the pilot from
inadvertently overcontrolling and overstressing the aircraft during normal
maneuvers.
Stability and Control difference. Both are necessary.
A properly designed aircraft is stable and easily controlled during normal
maneuvering. Control surface inputs cause movement about the three axes of
rotation. The types of stability an aircraft exhibits also relate to the three axes of
rotation. [Figure 6-4]
Ailerons (Small Wing)
Ailerons control roll about the longitudinal axis. The ailerons are attached to the
outboard trailing edge of each wing and move in the opposite direction from each
other. Ailerons are connected by cables, bellcranks, pulleys, and/or push-pull
tubes to a control wheel or control stick.
Moving the control wheel, or control stick, to the right causes the right aileron to
deflect upward and the left aileron to deflect downward. The upward deflection
of the right aileron decreases the camber resulting in decreased lift on the right
wing. The corresponding downward deflection of the left aileron increases the
camber resulting in increased lift on the left wing. Thus, the increased lift on the
left wing and the decreased lift on the right wing causes the aircraft to roll to the
right.
Adverse Yaw Since the downward deflected aileron produces more lift as
evidenced by the wing raising, it also produces more drag. This added drag causes
the wing to slow down slightly. This results in the aircraft yawing toward the wing
which had experienced an increase in lift (and drag). From the pilot’s perspective,
the yaw is opposite the direction of the bank. The adverse yaw is a result of
differential drag and the slight difference in the velocity of the left and right
wings. [Figure 6-5] Adverse yaw becomes more pronounced at low airspeeds. At
these slower airspeeds, aerodynamic pressure on control surfaces are low, and
larger control inputs are required to effectively maneuver the aircraft. As a result,
the increase in aileron deflection causes an increase in adverse yaw. The yaw is
especially evident in aircraft with long wing spans.
Application of the rudder is used to counteract adverse yaw. The amount of
rudder control required is greatest at low airspeeds, high angles of attack, and
with large aileron deflections.
Like all control surfaces at lower airspeeds, the vertical stabilizer/rudder becomes
less effective and magnifies the control problems associated with adverse yaw. All
turns are coordinated by use of ailerons, rudder, and elevator. Applying aileron
pressure is necessary to place the aircraft in the desired angle of bank, while
simultaneous application of rudder pressure is necessary to counteract the
resultant adverse yaw. Additionally, because more lift is required during a turn
than during straight-and-level flight, the angle of attack (AOA) must be increased
by applying elevator back pressure. The steeper the turn, the more elevator back
pressure that is needed. As the desired angle of bank is established, aileron and
rudder pressures should be relaxed. This stops the angle of bank from increasing,
because the aileron and rudder control surfaces are in a neutral and streamlined
position. Elevator back pressure should be held constant to maintain altitude. The
roll-out from a turn is similar to the roll-in, except the flight controls are applied in
the opposite direction. The aileron and rudder are applied in the direction of the
roll-out or toward the high wing. As the angle of bank decreases, the elevator
back pressure should be relaxed as necessary to maintain altitude.
In an attempt to reduce the effects of adverse yaw, manufacturers have
engineered four systems:
differential ailerons,
frise-type ailerons,
coupled ailerons and
rudder, and flaperons.
Differential Ailerons With differential ailerons, one aileron is raised a greater
distance than the other aileron and is lowered for a given movement of the
control wheel or control stick. This produces an increase in drag on the
descending wing. The greater drag results from deflecting the up aileron on the
descending wing to a greater angle than the down aileron on the rising wing.
While adverse yaw is reduced, it is not eliminated completely. [Figure 6-6]
Frise-Type Ailerons
With a frise-type aileron, when pressure is applied to the control wheel, or
control stick, the aileron that is being raised pivots on an offset hinge. This
projects the leading edge of the aileron into the airflow and creates drag. It helps
equalize the drag created by the lowered aileron on the opposite wing and
reduces adverse yaw. [Figure 6-7] The frise-type aileron also forms a slot so air
flows smoothly over the lowered aileron, making it more effective at high angles
of attack. Frise-type ailerons may also be designed to function differentially. Like
the differential aileron, the frise-type aileron does not eliminate adverse yaw
entirely. Coordinated rudder application is still needed when ailerons are applied.
Coupled Ailerons and Rudder
Coupled ailerons and rudder are linked controls. This is accomplished with
rudder-aileron interconnect springs, which help correct for aileron drag by
automatically deflecting the rudder at the same time the ailerons are deflected.
For example, when the control wheel, or control stick, is moved to produce a left
roll, the interconnect cable and spring pulls forward on the left rudder pedal just
enough to prevent the nose of the aircraft from yawing to the right. The force
applied to the rudder by the springs can be overridden if it becomes necessary to
slip the aircraft. [Figure 6-8]
Flaperons
Flaperons combine both aspects of flaps and ailerons. In addition to controlling
the bank angle of an aircraft like conventional ailerons, flaperons can be lowered
together to function much the same as a dedicated set of flaps. The pilot retains
separate controls for ailerons and flaps. A mixer is used to combine the separate
pilot inputs into this single set of control surfaces called flaperons. Many designs
that incorporate flaperons mount the control surfaces away from the wing to
provide undisturbed airflow at high angles of attack and/or low airspeeds. [Figure
6-9]
Elevator
The elevator controls pitch about the lateral axis. Like the ailerons on small
aircraft, the elevator is connected to the control column in the flight deck by a
series of mechanical linkages. Aft movement of the control column deflects the
trailing edge of the elevator surface up. This is usually referred to as the up-
elevator position. [Figure 6-10]
The up-elevator position decreases the camber of the elevator and creates a
downward aerodynamic force, which is greater than the normal tail-down force
that exists in straight-andlevel flight. The overall effect causes the tail of the
aircraft to move down and the nose to pitch up. The pitching moment occurs
about the center of gravity (CG). The strength of the pitching moment is
determined by the distance between the CG and the horizontal tail surface, as
well as by the aerodynamic effectiveness of the horizontal tail surface.
Moving the control column forward has the opposite effect. In this case, elevator
camber increases, creating more lift (less tail-down force) on the horizontal
stabilizer/elevator. This moves the tail upward and pitches the nose down. Again,
the pitching moment occurs about the CG. As mentioned earlier, stability, power,
thrustline, and the position of the horizontal tail surfaces on the empennage are
factors in elevator effectiveness controlling pitch. For example, the horizontal tail
surfaces may be attached near the lower part of the vertical stabilizer, at the
midpoint, or at the high point, as in the T-tail design.
T-Tail
In a T-tail configuration, the elevator is above most of the effects of downwash
from the propeller, as well as airflow around the fuselage and/or wings during
normal flight conditions. Operation of the elevators in this undisturbed air allows
control movements that are consistent throughout most flight regimes. T-tail
designs have become popular on many light and large aircraft, especially those
with aft fuselagemounted engines because the T-tail configuration removes the
tail from the exhaust blast of the engines. Seaplanes and amphibians often have
T-tails in order to keep the horizontal surfaces as far from the water as possible.
An additional benefit is reduced noise and vibration inside the aircraft. In
comparison with conventional-tail aircraft, the elevator on a T-tail aircraft must be
moved a greater distance to raise the nose a given amount when traveling at slow
speeds. This is because the conventional-tail aircraft has the downwash from the
propeller pushing down on the tail to assist in raising the nose. Aircraft controls
are rigged so that an increase in control force is required to increase control
travel. The forces required to raise the nose of a T-tail aircraft are greater than
the forces required to raise the nose of a conventional-tail aircraft. Longitudinal
stability of a trimmed aircraft is the same for both types of configuration, but the
pilot must be aware that the required control forces are greater at slow speeds
during takeoffs, landings, or stalls than for similar size aircraft equipped with
conventional tails. T-tail aircraft also require additional design considerations to
counter the problem of flutter. Since the weight of the horizontal surfaces is at
the top of the vertical stabilizer, the moment arm created causes high loads on
the vertical stabilizer that can result in flutter. Engineers must compensate for this
by increasing the design stiffness of the vertical stabilizer, usually resulting in a
weight penalty over conventional tail designs. When flying at a very high AOA
with a low airspeed and an aft CG, the T-tail aircraft may be more susceptible to a
deep stall. In this condition, the wake of the wing impinges on the tail surface and
renders it almost ineffective. The wing, if fully stalled, allows its airflow to
separate right after the leading edge. The wide wake of decelerated, turbulent air
blankets the horizontal tail and hence its effectiveness diminished significantly. In
these circumstances, elevator or stabilator control is reduced (or perhaps
eliminated) making it difficult to recover from the stall. It should be noted that an
aft CG is often a contributing factor in these incidents, since similar recovery
problems are also found with conventional tail aircraft with an aft CG. [Figure 6-
11] Deep stalls can occur on any aircraft but are more likely to occur on aircraft
with “T” tails as a high AOA may be more likely to place the wings separated
airflow into the path of the horizontal surface of the tail. Additionally, the
distance between the wings and the tail, the position of the engines (such as
being mounted on the tail) may increase the susceptibility of deep stall events.
Therefore a deep stall may be more prevalent on transport versus general
aviation aircraft. Since flight at a high AOA with a low airspeed and an aft CG
position can be dangerous, many aircraft have systems to compensate for this
situation. The systems range from control stops to elevator down springs. On
transport category jets, stick pushers are commonly used. An elevator down
spring assists in lowering the nose of the aircraft to prevent a stall caused by the
aft CG position. The stall occurs because the properly trimmed airplane is flying
with the elevator in a trailing edge down position, forcing the tail up and the nose
down. In this unstable condition, if the aircraft encounters turbulence and slows
down further, the trim tab no longer positions the elevator in the nosedown
position. The elevator then streamlines, and the nose of the aircraft pitches
upward, possibly resulting in a stall. The elevator down spring produces a
mechanical load on the elevator, causing it to move toward the nose-down
position if not otherwise balanced. The elevator trim tab balances the elevator
down spring to position the elevator in a trimmed position. When the trim tab
becomes ineffective, the down spring drives the elevator to a nose-down position.
The nose of the aircraft lowers, speed builds up, and a stall is prevented. [Figure
6-12]
The elevator must also have sufficient authority to hold the nose of the aircraft up
during the round-out for a landing. In this case, a forward CG may cause a
problem. During the landing flare, power is usually reduced, which decreases the
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