‘VIVA VICTORIOUS’

A Ready Reckoner

MAPC JULY 2020 – VivaVoce November 2021

 Table of contents

TOPICWISE QUESTIONS PAGE NO.

GENERAL 3-9
THEORIES OF LEARNING 10-11
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE 12-16
AN INTERVIEW WITH AN OLDER ADULT 17-18
THE LOC TEST 19-20
THE 16PF TEST 21-25
THE HALO EFFECT 26

A special thanks to every contributor to this document, names are placed against the question.
It would not have been possible without your timely support and co-operation.

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GENERAL

1. What is the procedure for conducting experiments? (Alka)

Experiments mainly focus on studying cause and effect relationship between independent
and dependent variables. To conduct an experiment the following steps need to be
followed:
• Preparing for the experiment by keeping the material (instrument/stimulus words,
apparatus, list, stopwatch, etc.) ready.
• Establishing rapport with the participant, making them feel comfortable and
explaining the procedure, time it will take, precautions etc.
• Taking informed consent for undergoing the experiment and also informing the
participants that the experiment findings shall remain confidential, including
taking permission to record the session where applicable.
• Explaining the instruction to the participant and clearing any doubts they may have
• Finally conducting the experiment and sharing the findings with the participant

2. What is an experiment? (Anjan)

An experiment is an investigation in which a hypothesis is scientifically tested. In an
experiment, an independent variable (the cause) is manipulated and the dependent
variable (the effect) is measured; any extraneous variables are controlled.

3. Define experiment (Ankita)

An experiment is defined as a scientific test that involves the manipulation of an
independent variable, the measurement of a dependent variable, and the exposure of
various participants to one or more of the conditions being studied. Random selection of
participants and their random assignment to conditions also are necessary in
experiments.

4. Define variable (Anu)

Variable is an attribute of objects, events and things which can be measured. Variables
are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if changes to one thing result
in changes to another. Variables play a critical role in the psychological research process.
By systematically changing some variables in an experiment and measuring what happens
as a result, researchers are able to learn more about cause-and-effect relationships. There
are different kinds of variables such as independent variable, dependent variable,
quantitative and categorical variables, extraneous and intervening variables, confounding
variable. Example IQ, level of anxiety, effect of fitness on weight management, effect of
music on memory (IV is music / no music and DV is memory performance).

5. How many tests you have done? (Archana)

• Understanding Albert Bandura's Social Learning Theory (SLT) and Social Cognitive
Theory (SCT) through the Bobo Doll Experiment.
• Understanding Theories of Intelligence (reference to Sternberg’s article Covid 19)
• Interview with an Older Adult
• Rotter's Internal-External Scale of Locus of Control Personality Test
• Cattell's 16 PF Personality Test
• Understanding the Halo Effect Experiment
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6. What tests did you conduct? (Archana)
Tests done:
a. Julian Rotter's (1966) Locus of Control Scale (LCS) personality test, a 20 Items
questionnaire, that measures an individual's level of Internal versus External control
of reinforcement, administered on pen and paper, scored manually.
b. Cattell's 164-multiple choice questions of 16PF Questionnaire administered and
scored online.

7. What is the difference between dependent and independent variable? (Armin)

IV is the cause and DV is the effect in the causal relationship. The IV is the variable the
experimenter manipulates or changes, and is assumed to have a direct effect on the
dependent variable. The DV is the variable being tested and measured in an experiment
and is dependent on the IV. Examples: For IV Irrational Beliefs DV can be Anxiety, Stress
or for IV Physical Exercise, DV can be Weight

8. What is a good test or good experiment? (Aruna)

A good test is a test that is reliable & valid. It should possess good norms and should be
appropriate for the person’s age, cultural, linguistic and social background.

9. Why are variables necessary? (Bhavani)

A variable represents a measurable attribute that changes or varies across the
experiment. Variables are generally used in psychology experiments to determine if
changes to one thing result in changes to another. By systematically changing some
variables in an experiment and measuring what happens as a result, researchers are able
to learn more about cause-and-effect relationships. Therefore it also allows them to
manipulate cause and effect to produce desired outcomes. Variables are important
because they help in operationalization of concepts for data collection. So basically they
help to measure concepts in a study. As quantitative studies focus on measuring and
explaining variables, choosing the right variables is important. The first step is to identify
the correct variables to measure a property.

10. What are the controls for experimental testing? (Chandni)

When conducting an experiment, a control is an element that remains unchanged or
unaffected by other variables. It is used as a benchmark or a point of comparison against
which other test results are measured.

11. What are the different theories of learning? (Debbie)

Learning is defined as a process that brings together personal and environmental
experiences and influences for acquiring, enriching or modifying one’s knowledge, skills,
values, attitudes, behavior and worldviews. Learning theories develop hypotheses that
describe how this process takes place. The five primary learning theories are:
Behaviourism – only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviours which can
be studied in a systematic and observable manner, here learning is a system of routines
drilling information into a student’s memory and positive feedback from the educational
system. If students do well, they receive positive reinforcement and are recognised.
Example B.F. Skinner

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Cognitivism – learning relies both on internal thought process and external factors like
information or data, developed in the 1950s this theory moves away from behaviourism
to focus on the role of the mind in learning, where the learner acquires the knowledge,
absorbs the information, performs cognitive operations on it and stores it in memory.
Example Noam Chomsky
Constructivism – learner builds on previous experience and understanding to ‘construct’
new understanding, instead of the learner seen as an ‘empty vessel’ to be filled with
knowledge, learner constructs meaning through active engagement with the world by
way of experiments and real-world problem solving. Example Jean Piaget
Humanism – a ‘learner-centric’ approach where focus is on potential rather than method
or materials, assuming people are inherently good humanism focuses on creating an
environment conducive to self-actualisation meeting the learner’s needs and letting them
freely determine their own goals that the teacher can assist to achieve. Example Abraham
Maslow
Connectivism – learning in the digital age, strongly influenced by technology and learner’s
ability to source and update accurate information as well as knowing where to find the
best information. Example Stephen Downes

12. Why are you studying MA in psychology? (Irene)

Master program in Psychology will give us a foundation to conduct or apply psychological
research that ultimately improves the lives of other. This knowledge will help us evaluate
if a person is currently on the right track in their life. It will help people in large part
because it can explain why people behave/act the way they do. We can help people
improve their decision making, stress management and behavior based on understanding
of past behavior to better predict future behavior. Current situation has impacted the
health care system increasing the risks of psychological distress for many people including
health professionals and a base in psychology is a good starting point if we would like to
pursue this field further.

13. When did you attend practical sessions? (Jalpa)

I attended practical sessions on 13th March 2021. Timings- 4:00-6:00pm and 6:30-
8:30pm. Note: If anyone attended the other dates, please mention as per your screenshots.

14. Define validity and reliability (Malini)

The important part of scientific process is measurement. Reliability and validity are the
measuring devices for data collection process and hence important in research and
development of measuring instruments or tests to be used in clinical practice, research or
education. Jointly they are known as the psychometric properties of measuring
instruments and yardsticks of adequacy and accuracy to evaluate procedures in scientific
research.

Reliability – a measure of internal consistency and stability, how well the test or procedure
can be repeated with the same result. Reliability is a pre-requisite to validity. Example if
there are two observations or measurements how close are they, if same or similar then
there is high reliability if different then reliability is low. Four types of reliability are: Test-
Retest (same test over time), Parallel Form (different versions of test that are equivalent),

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Internal Consistency (individual items of a test) and Inter-rater (same test conducted by
different people)

Validity – indicates whether the test measures what it claims or is supposed to measure.
Refers to the accuracy of the instrument where results meet the objectives. Is outcome
focused and a valid instrument is always reliable. Types of validity are: Construct validity
(does the test measure the concept), Content validity (does the test fully represent what
it aims to measure), Face validity (is the content suitable to its aims), Criterion validity (do
results measure outcome they are designed to measure), Internal validity (causal
relationship is not affected by other variables), External validity (extent to which results
can be generalised to other situations/groups/events).

15. Define introspection (Mansi)

Introspection means "to look inside," and describes the act of thinking about your own
actions or inner thoughts. When you examine what you do, say, think or feel and how it
affects your life and the lives of others, that's introspection. Introspection explores access
one has to one’s mental state of mind. Psychologist Wilhelm Wundt developed the
technique. His studies developing the technique included helping others through self-
observation of their thoughts. He trained people to analyze context within personal
opinions objectively. The concept features a common element people do, which is
examining their ideas. With introspection techniques, psychology experts help people
emotionally engage in events from the past to understand their thought processes related
to feelings they experienced. The aspect looks at how the mind processes emotions and
memories to help one understand their meanings. It gives another look at how people are
affected by things around them through a precise, structured process.

16. Define Rapport (Maria)

Rapport refers to the relationship between the client and therapist. Rapport is developed
by being genuinely engaged with the client, actively listening, remembering, and showing
true empathy. One has to earn that trust and comfort in a relationship. This will make the
client comfortable in opening up to the therapist.

17. What is population and sample? (Neha)

A population is the full set of all the possible units of analysis. The population is also
sometimes called the universe. A sample is a sub-set of a population and collecting data
from a smaller sample, called sampling. The general population is too large to measure
and sampling allows one to obtain a representative picture about the population, without
studying the entire population.

18. What are the characteristics of a psychological test? (Nilofar)

There are 5 main characteristics of a good psychological test:
Objectivity - Whether the test is free from subjective judgment regarding the ability, skill,
knowledge, trait or potentiality that is being measured
Reliability - The extent to which the results obtained are consistent or reliable such that
the same test administered on the same sample with a reasonable gap of time will yield
the same result.

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Validity – The extent to which the test measures what it was supposed to measure
example an intelligence test needs to assess intelligence and not other factors
Practicability – The extent to which the test is practicable in terms of time required for
completion, length, number of items or questions, scoring etc. It should not be too long
or difficult to answer or too complicated to score.
Norms – The extent to which standard scores can be developed for the test for future use

19. Difference between test and experiment (Nirali)

A test is used to understand an individual’s psychological makeup. An experiment is an
investigation where the validity of a hypothesis is tested in a scientific manner. This
highlights that the key difference between test and experiment is that while experiments
use hypothesis and produce new knowledge, tests do not.

20. What does standard Progressive Matrices Test measure? (PK Tiwari)
SPM, also known as Raven’s Progressive Matrices, Measures Intelligence in children and
adults, age 8-65 years, through abstract reasoning tasks. It comprises 60 problems as 5
sets of 12 questions each, and involves completing a pattern or figure with a missing part
chosen from 6 alternatives. Patterns are arranged in order of increasing difficulty and the
test while untimed usually takes about 15-45 minutes to complete. Results are obtained
as a raw score which is later converted to percentile rankings.

21. Explain standardisation (Neethu)

Standardization refers to methods used in gathering and treating subjects for a specific
study. In order to compare the results of one group to the results of a second group, we
must assure that each group receives the same opportunities to succeed. Without
standardization, we could never adequately compare groups. Example Standardized tests
painstakingly assure that each student receives the same questions in the same order and
is given the same amount of time, the same resources, and the same type of testing
environment.

22. What is experimental psychology? (Darshana)

Experimental psychology refers to applying experimental methods to psychological study
and the processes that underlie it. Experimental psychologists employ human participants
and animal subjects to study a great many topics, including sensation and perception,
memory, cognition learning, motivation, emotion, developmental processes, social
psychology and the neural substrates of all of these. It emerged as a modern academic
discipline in the 19th century when Wilhelm Wundt introduced a mathematical and
experimental approach to the field. Ernst Weber, credited with being one of the founders
of experimental psychology, suggested that judgements of sensory differences are
relative and not absolute.

23. What are the types of variables and how are they used in experiments? (Avadhoot)
The different types of variables are:
a. Stimulus-Organism-Response Variables (S-O-R)
‘S’ is the symbol of stimuli and the category may be referred to in general as stimulus
variable, 'O' is the symbol for organism variables that is the changeable physiological and

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psychological characteristics of the organisms being observed and 'R' is symbol for
response which refer to some behaviour or action of organism.
b. Independent and Dependent Variables
Independent variable or stimulus variable is that factor manipulated or selected by
experimenter in his attempt to ascertain its relationship to an observed phenomenon.
A dependent variable is the factor that appears or disappears or varies as the
experimenter introduces, removes or varies the independent variables.
c. Extraneous and confounded variables
Any and all variables that may mask the relationship between IV and DV are known as
extraneous variables. Confounding variables is one that varies with the dependent
variables.
d. Active and Attributes variables
Any variables that is manipulated is called active variables. Attributes variable is that
variable which is not manipulated but measured by the experimenter.
e. Quantitative and categorical variables
Quantitative variables is one that varies in amount. Categorical variables varies in kind
f. Continuous variable and discrete variables
Quantitative variables are further divided into two categories, continuous and discrete.
A continuous variables is one which is capable of being measured any arbitrary degree of
fineness or exactness while a discrete variable cannot be so measured as it contains a
clear gap.

24. What is the meaning of an introspective report and it’s uses? (Deepika & Zaisha)
Introspective report is a process that involves looking inward to examine one's thoughts,
feelings and emotions. Wilhelm Wundt the father of experimental psychology was the
first to adopt introspection to experimental psychology. Introspective report is used in
experiments, self-report surveys and interviews. Introspective report is used as a source
of information about one's mind.

25. What is generalisation of psychological tests? (Leena)

In an ideal world, a hypothesis can be tested by sampling the entire population by using
every possible variation of an independent variable and measuring every possible
dependent variable to get accurate insights. However this is not feasible, so a
representative group is chosen to represent the who population. Researches use the
specific observations obtained from the sample to make inferences about broader trends
or themes. This is called generalisation and it is an essential component of the scientific
research process. The sample forms a ‘mini-population’ and must truly represent the
whole population, the element of time must be considered and the size of the sample
must allow for statistical treatment.

26. What is confidentiality in psychological research?

Early psychology experiments were carried out under questionable and outrageous
violations of ethical principles, example Miligram’s infamous disobedience experiment
deceived people into believing they were giving life-threatening electric shocks to
another. These controversial experiments led to the development of ethical guidelines
that psychological researchers abide by today. Before performing studies or experiments
on human participants psychologists submit their proposal to an institutional review

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board (IRB) for approval to ensure that they conform to ethical/legal guidelines. APA has
guidelines to protect safety and interests of participants, reputation of the researchers
and sponsors of the research, three crucial guidelines are:
• Participation must be voluntary (no coercion, threats or bribes)
• Informed consent must be obtained (whether or not the subjects wish to
participate)
• Participant confidentiality must be maintained (surety that identifying information
and individual responses will not be shared with those not part of the study)

27. What is research? (Rashmi)

Psychological research refers to research that psychologists conduct for systematic study
and for analysis of the experiences and behaviors of individuals or groups. Their research
can have educational, occupational and clinical applications.

28. What is hypothesis? (Rashmi)

A testable prediction about the relationship between at least two events,
characteristics, or variables is hypothesis.

29. What is a good hypothesis? (Rashmi)

A good hypothesis posits an expected relationship between variables and clearly states a
relationship between variables. A hypothesis should be brief and to the point.

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THEORIES OF LEARNING

1. Explain the Bobo Doll experiment (Poonam Sood)

The Bobo Doll Experiment was a series of experiments from 1961 to 1963 conducted by Albert
Bandura to understand Social Learning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory by testing
aggressive styles of behaviour and role of observation in childrens’ behaviour through
imitation.

He studied the behaviour of children after they observed an adult behave towards Bobo Doll,
an egg-shaped doll. The kindergarten children in one group were shown an adult who
behaved aggressively with the doll and when left alone in the room, went on to exhibit
aggressive behaviour towards the Bobo doll, hitting it, kicking it and screaming ‘Sockeroo’.
The other group of children were shown loving behaviour towards the bobo doll by an adult,
exhibited similar behaviour towards the doll when left alone. The experiment displayed
observational learning and brought into play the principles for effective observational
learning namely – Attention, Retention, Reproduction and Motivation.

2. What is Social Learning Theory and who propounded it? (Pradeep)

Social learning theory is proposed by Albert Bandura. It emphasizes the importance of
observing, modeling, and imitating the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Social learning theory considers how both environmental and cognitive factors
interact to influence human learning and behavior. In social learning theory, Albert Bandura
(1977) agrees with the behaviorist learning theories of classical conditioning (Pavlov) and
operant conditioning (Skinner). However, he adds two important ideas; a. Mediating
(cognitive) processes occur between stimuli & responses. b. Behavior is learned from the
environment through the process of observational learning.

3. Difference between SLT and SCT (Pravin)

SCT is an expanded form of Albert Bandura's social learning theory and proposes human
agency, observational learning, and a triadic reciprocal determinism. SLT is a learning theory
that proposes that learning occurs in the social context by observation of behaviour from a
model along with the consequences of that behavior. SCT was propounded by Albert Bandura
and SLT was the work of Albert Bandura, Neil Miller and John Dollard; Julian Rotter; and
Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers. Core concepts of SCT are human agency, observational
learning and meditational processes; triadic reciprocal determinism; self-efficacy whereas of
SLT are observational learning; reinforcement (direct and vicarious); identification. Role of
cognitive factors are more important in SCT equal to that of reinforcement and environment,
whereas they are less important in SLT. SCT has a broader scope whereas SLT is limited to the
learning process in the social context.

4. What is learning and its types? (Rashmi)

Learning is relatively a semi-permanent change in behavior that results from new knowledge
or experience. It is semi because whatever is learnt today can be modified or unlearned in
future. Example a person who learns driving in India (right handed drive) would have to
unlearn or modify his learning to drive in Europe (left handed drive)
Types:
a. Classical Conditioning

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It is a learning process in which an association is made between previously neutral stimulus
and a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiment
with the dog
b. Operant Conditioning
It is a learning process in which the probability of occurring a response is increased or
decreased due to reinforcement or punishment. The underlying belief is that the
consequences of actions shape voluntary behavior. Thorndike and Skinner’s theories.
c. Observational Learning
This type of learning occurs through observing and imitating others. Albert Bandura’s Bobo
Doll Experiment.

5. What are the applications of Social Learning Theory? (Rashmi)

The four basic principles of SLT are attention, retention, reproduction and motivation. SLT can
help social science researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted
through observational learning. It can help get a better understanding of the factors that
might lead children to act out the aggressive actions. It is a useful tool to teach people positive
behaviour with the help of positive role models to encourage desirable behaviour.

6. What is Latent Learning? (Rashmi)

Latent learning is the subconscious retention of information without reinforcement or
motivation. In latent learning, one changes behavior only when there is sufficient
motivation later than when they subconsciously retained the information

7. What is Vicarious Learning? (Rashmi)

Vicarious learning is a way of learning that allows individuals to learn from the experience of
others rather than direct, hands-on instructions, vicarious learning is derived from indirect
sources such as hearing and seeing.

8. What is imitation and give some examples? (Nilofar)

Imitation is simply copying of behaviour or reproducing or performing an act stimulated by
perception of a similar act by another. It involves a role model, attention and response. We
imitate everyday experiences and ideas or habits of others example yawning, social conduct,
prejudices and pleasures, moral ideas and taboos, mimicry, game called Simon Says.
SImilarly a child in the first year imitates expressive movements of others and in the second
year their reaction to objects.

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THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE

1. What are the different theories of intelligence? (Ravish)

a. Spearman’s Two-factor Theory – demonstrated intelligence to be explained by two
variables general ability (g) and numerous specific abilities (s). When people speak
about IQ or intellect, they are generally referring to this broad mental capacity (g), (s)
refers to abilities or skills acquired through experiences or reinforced learning during
lifetime.
b. Thorndike’s Theory – instead of looking at intelligence as a general ability, it proposed
that commonality in people's actions of intelligence should be investigated in the
design of the tasks themselves, not in the individual. Based on the amount of difficulty
they can handle, people vary in their ability to perform any particular act. The claim
that there’s no general intelligence does not hold water given that many tasks can be
grouped together such as arithmetic reasoning, visual interpretation, word sense,
comparison etc.
c. Thomson’s Theory – combining abilities in a way that their similarities approach
Spearman’s hierarchical order. Thomson believed in a "general talent" similar to
Spearman's "g," but he did not believe it was a single entity; rather, it was a constant
mixture of ability components.
d. Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligence - Gardner claims that intelligence is far more
than IQ, since a high IQ without efficiency is not the same as intelligence. “Intelligence
is a bio-psychological capacity to process knowledge that can be enabled in a cultural
setting to solve problems or produce products of value in a culture.” He devised a set
of categories for determining what constitutes intelligence such as:
• Linguistic Intelligence
• Logical-mathematical Intelligence
• Musical Intelligence
• Bodily-kinaesthetic Intelligence
• Spatial Intelligence
• Interpersonal Intelligence
• Intrapersonal Intelligence
• Naturalistic Intelligence
e. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence - intelligent behavior is the result of a
balance of analytical, creative and practical abilities that work together to enable
individuals to succeed in specific socio-cultural contexts. Analytical skills enable a
person to assess, analyze, compare, and contrast information. Invention, exploration,
and other artistic ventures are all fuelled by creative abilities. Practical abilities bind it
together by encouraging people to put what they've learned into practice in the right
situation (adapting to challenges in real life situations to get out on top). To be
effective in life, a person must maximize his or her intellectual, artistic, and practical
abilities while also compensating for any deficiencies in these areas. Examples working
on poor areas to become more suited to the needs of a specific environment, or
preferring to function in an environment that recognizes the individual's personal
strengths.

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2. Define intelligence (Rekha)
Intelligence has been defined as the sum total of everything you know, as the ability to learn
or profit from experience, as the ability to solve problems or as the ability to cope with the
demands of the environment.

Some definitions given by experts:

‘Intelligence, that is to say reasoning, judgment, memory and the power of abstraction.’ (Binet
1890)
‘Intelligence is a general capacity of the individual consciously to adjust his thinking to new
requirements.’ (Stern 1914)
‘An individual is intelligent in proportion to his ability to carry on abstract thinking.’ (Terman
1921)
‘Intelligence is the capacity of the organism to adjust itself to an increasingly complex
environment.’ (Spearman 1927)

3. Name one intelligence test (Rinky)

The most widely used intelligence tests include the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale and the
Wechsler scales.

4. What are the types of intelligence by Gardner Binet? (Ritu)

Gardner (1983, 1987) initially proposed seven multiple intelligences: linguistic, logical-
mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. French
psychologist Alfred Binet (1872-1961) wanted to develop a measure to identify children who
wouldn’t succeed in regular schools so that they could be better educated. Binet and Simon
developed the first intelligence test consisting a variety of questions like naming objects,
defining words, drawing pictures, completing sentences, comparing items and constructing
sentences. They believed these would assess the children’s’ basic ability to understand,
reason and make judgments.

5. What is IQ of 140 called? (Sandhya)

Genius. An IQ of 140 and above is considered a high or genius-level IQ. It is estimated that
between 0.25 perc
ent and 1.0 percent of the population fall into this elite category. On a standardised test like
the Stanford-Binet IQ test, average IQ is 100. Example Albert Einstein (160)

6. What is Weschler’s definition of intelligence? (Sanika)

David Wechsler viewed intelligence as an effect rather than a cause and asserted that non-
intellectual factors, such as personality, contribute to the development of each person’s
intelligence. He defined intelligence as ‘the global capacity of a person to act purposefully, to
think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.’ He developed the Wechsler-
Bellevue Intelligence Scale which became the most widely used adult intelligence test in the
US.

7. How is it calculated? (Sejal)

IQ is calculated by dividing Mental Age(MA) in Months by the Chronical Age(CA) multiplied by
100. The number 100 is used as a multiplier to eliminate the decimals.
The formula is: IQ = MA/CA * 100

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8. What is the 2 factor theory of intelligence? (Shrikant)
Charles Spearman, an English Psychologist proposed the two-factor theory of intelligence.
Using factor analysis to analyse different mental aptitude and cognitive tests by participants,
he found that factors related to intelligence can be measured and expressed numerically. He
maintained that intelligence comprises of common factor ‘g’ or general ability and factor ‘s’
or specific ability. He stated that mental traits are not independent of each other and the ‘g’
factor is involved in every general mental ability task of a person. Specific abilities may be
drawing inference, coding or mathematical abilities. The total intelligence score of a person
is the sum of the ‘g’ factor and the ‘s’ factors that they possess. Example imagine a Venn
Diagram with overlapping circles, the centre circle would be ‘g’ which influences specific
intelligences while the circles would be ‘s’ for specific abilities like mechanical, spatial,
vocabulary, logical or mathematical. His theory is criticised as he used only psychometric
approach (factor analysis) and did not consider the cognitive processes related to intelligence
such as emotions, perception and motor abilities.

9. What is Sternberg’s view on intelligence in COVID 19? (Shruti)

Sternberg is of the view that when comparing a real problem, like that of dealing with COVID-
19, to the characteristics of standardized-test problems, one discovers that the characteristics
of real-world problems are entirely different from those based on standardized tests. The
latter are decontextualized, emotionally bland and have no real-life stakes. Real-world
problems are highly contextualized, emotionally arousing and may have high stakes.
Standardized test problems can be solved quickly and then you are done; real-life ones often
take a long time and, after you think you have solved them, often come back. Most important,
real-world problems require you actively to deploy your intelligence -- to decide seriously to
use it. Intelligence is the ability to adapt to the environment and organisms that don’t adapt
die. Likewise those people who refuse to wear masks, who don’t socially distance and who
don’t trouble themselves to wash their hands can be considered to be unintelligent from a
Darwinian adaptive standpoint regardless of their IQ or standardized test scores. They have
inert intelligence but do not choose actively to deploy it in the real world. We need to assess
and develop student’s adaptive skills and ability to solve real world problems so that we can
make the world a better place.

10. What are the different theories of personality? (Sneha K)

There are 5 main theories of personality:
a. Erik Erikson’s theory of personality - a psychosocial theory where emphasis is on the
importance of interaction between biological and social factors in development. Bridges gap
between Freudian theory and role of social factors in development of personality. Life
proceeds in a series of psychosocial crisis, termed as developmental milestones or stages. An
individual’s perceptions and experiences constitute his own reality and his actions. They are
motivated by hierarchy of needs like food, aggression, sex, unconscious processes, early
childhood experiences, etc.
b. Carl Rogers theory of personality – a phenomenological theory based on the concept that
a human being in an attempt to self-actualise decides his own fate to move towards fulfilment
and enhancement.
c. Abraham Maslow’s theory of personality – a humanistic theory depicting human beings as
a “wanting animal” who never reaches a state of complete satisfaction. As one need gets

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fulfilled, another need surfaces and so on. It explains individual’s tendency to seek personal
goals.
d. B. F. Skinner’s theory of personality – a behaviouristic learning theoretical approach
proposing that our behaviour is directly governed by environmental influences, i.e. most of
our behaviour is learned or modified by process of learning. The key structural unit for the
behavioural approach is the response.
e. Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality – known as the father of psychoanalytic though, he
proposed the structure of personality to be composed of three elements - id, ego and super
ego. Focuses on importance of childhood events, influence of the unconscious and sexual
instincts in the development and formation of personality.

11. What is the difference between intelligence and Memory? (Sneha J)

Memory is a psychological construct that focuses attention, and it is commonly viewed as a
temporary storage that holds and manipulates information. Intelligence is a general cognitive
ability associated with efficient higher-order thinking such as reasoning and problem solving
skills. Example If you solve any problems in your life with the help of your particular previous
knowledge, it shows your memory. If you solve any problems in your life by applying your
present knowledge in all the fields quickly, it shows your intelligence.

12. Is intelligence is acquired or hereditary? (Snehal)

Like most aspects of human behavior and cognition, intelligence is a complex trait that is
influenced by both genetic and environmental factors. Intelligence is also strongly influenced
by the environment. Factors related to a child’s home environment and parenting, education
and availability of learning resources, and nutrition, among others, all contribute to
intelligence.

13. What is the triarchic theory of intelligence? (Shahnawaz)

Psychologist Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory of intelligence theorizes that people possess
three different types of intelligence (practical, creative, and analytical).
Practical – can be explained by the example Anne is considered smart by all of her friends. She
typically understands how to navigate any environment she is in and makes good judgment
calls. In other words, she makes good decisions and uses common sense.

Creative - can be explained by the example Mark likes new challenges. He enjoys figuring out
puzzles and trying new things. His friends always come to him when they need a creative
approach to a new situation.

Analytical - can be explained by the example Beth can process and organize information very
effectively. She is an expert at analyzing material and uses this talent to obtain high grades in
school and high scores on standardized tests.

These three examples exemplify Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory on intelligence. The
triarchic theory describes three distinct types of intelligence that a person can possess.

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14. What is IQ? (Sarita)
Scientifically, the term intelligence typically refers to what we could call academic or cognitive
intelligence. Professors Resing and Drenth (2007) define it as the whole of cognitive or
intelligence abilities required to obtain knowledge and use of that knowledge in a good way
to solve problems that have a well described goal and structure.

The first intelligence test used in the field of psychology was the scale designed by Binet &
Simon that became widely accepted at the beginning of the 20th century. The APA defines
Intelligence Quotient as a standard measure of an individual’s intelligence level based on
psychological tests and is expressed in a number. In the early years of intelligence testing, IQ
was calculated by dividing the mental age by the chronological age and multiplying by 100 to
produce a ratio IQ example a child with mental age 12 and chronological age 10 would have
an IQ of 120 (12/10X100). The average IQ is 100, a score higher than 100 indicates someone
to be smarter than the average person and a lower score means you are less smart. This has
now mostly been replaced by deviation IQ, computed as a function of the discrepancy of an
individual score from the mean (or average) score. Example if half the population scores
higher than 90-130 and the other half scores lower than 85-115, anyone having an IQ of 130
would mean that 97.5% of their age group scored lower than them and only 2.5 % scored
higher.

15. What is multiple intelligence? (Rashmi)

Multiple intelligences refers to a theory describing the different ways students learn and
acquire information. These multiple intelligences range from the use of words, numbers,
pictures and music, to the importance of social interactions, introspection, physical
movement and being in tune with nature. Multiple intelligence comprise:
• Words (linguistic intelligence)
• Numbers or logic (logical-mathematical intelligence)
• Pictures (spatial intelligence)
• Music (musical intelligence)
• Self-reflection (intrapersonal intelligence)
• A physical experience (bodily-kinaesthetic intelligence)

16. What is fluid intelligence? (Saee)

Raymond Catell, a British psychologist, proposed the concept of fluid intelligence. It is a type
of intelligence that grows rapidly during early years of life and declines during later years of
life. It refers to the ability of abstract and logical thinking to solve new problems and does
not require any prior knowledge or experience. Example solving puzzles, devising strategy to
deal with new problems, finding patterns in statistical data

17. What is crystallized intelligence? (Zoya)

Crystallized intelligence involves recalling stored knowledge and skills from past
experiences, is linked to education, experience and cultural background and is measured by
tests of general information. Crystallized Intelligence rises gradually and remains stable
throughout adulthood until it begins to decline after age 60. Example how to ride a bike or
read a book, remembering a geographical location.

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AN INTERVIEW WITH AN OLDER ADULT

1. What is an Interview? (Sukriti)

An interview is a face to face conversational exchange where one person elicits information
from another. It is a survey research method technique used for collecting in depth
information on people’s opinions, thoughts, experiences etc. It provides better understanding
of answers by respondents but it can be time consuming and impractical for a large
population. An interview can be structured or unstructured or semi-structured.

2. What was the approach and objective of the interview? (Sumati)

The objective of an interview with an older adult was to understand the process of ageing or
ageism, an older adult’s views on health care and coping with physical/psychological
challenges. It is important to study the elderly population keeping in mind that with new
developments in medicine and other treatment modalities, the life span is extended which
means there would be a large aged population. The problems related to ageing like loneliness,
dependency, financial requirements due to loss of livelihood, lack of physical activity, physical
and mental health issues, require to be examined and addressed. Ageism is the stereotyping,
prejudice and discrimination on the basis of a person’s age and can have harmful effects on
the health of older adults, cause cardiovascular stress, lowered self-efficacy, social isolation,
decreased productivity, physical and cognitive decline, and low self-esteem. Example old
people may not be able to climb stairs or they may not enjoy going to the mall.

While interviews can be conducted face to face, online via email survey, or on the telephone,
the approach I have used to collect data is in person, face to face.

3. What are the methods of analysing an interview? (Whabiz)

There are three methods:
• Thematic analysis – this is the most common method to identify common patterns
across a data set. It involves getting familiar with the data (reading and re-reading),
coding (labelling) the whole test, searching for themes with broader patterns of
meaning, reviewing the themes, categorising, defining and naming the themes, and
final write up or coherent narrative that includes quotes from interviewees.
• Narrative analysis – making sense of the stories by analysing each, comparing and
contrasting different stories, looking for interpretations, insights and meaning,
creating a new story that connects the previous ones in a novel and insightful way.
• Deductive approach – a non-qualitative approach with a pre-determined framework
to analyse the data such as news clippings, transcripts, interviews, etc.. Here the
themes and concepts are decided before the analysis starts and are imposed on the
material. This approach is relatively easy and quick, however, it is generally used when
the researcher is not seeking depth and new understanding.

4. What is the concept of adaptability? (Zaby)

The American Psychological Association (APA) defines adaptability as “the capacity to make
appropriate responses to changed or changing situations; the ability to modify or adjust one's
behaviour in meeting different circumstances or different people” (VandenBos, 2015, p. 18).
Generally adaptability is the ability or willingness to change in order to suit different
conditions (internal and external). Concept of adaptability is also studied under Intelligence
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and Personality. The concept of old age is to be able to recognise the changes and challenges
of ageing and to be able to adapt to major ageing conditions which includes (Physical changes,
cognitive changes, and psycho-social changes).

5. What is ageism? (Rashi)

Ageism, also spelled ‘agism’, is stereotyping and/or discrimination against individuals or
groups on the basis of their age. This may be casual or systemic. The term was coined in 1969
by Robert Neil Butler to describe discrimination against seniors, and patterned on sexism and
racism. Examples losing a job because of your age, being refused interest free credit, a new
credit card, car insurance, travel insurance because of your age, receiving a lower quality of
service in a shop or restaurant because of the organisation's attitude to older people.

6. What is thematic analysis? (Jigna)

It is a simple form of qualitative data analysis to identify the themes or patterns across the
data. Example transcripts from in depth interview or Focus Groups

7. What is the importance of facial expressions while administering a psychological test?

Facial expressions are an important source of information in face-to-face communication
(Todorov, 2011) and successful personal interactions would benefit from perceiving facial
expressions and correctly inferring others’ internal states they convey. Faces convey
emotional state and behavioural intention of a person and may activate certain behaviours
such as avoidance or approach. An experienced researcher through keen observation of the
subject’s facial expressions may be able to ascertain important aspects such as rapport
required, the subject’s inclination towards the test and the impact of the administration.
Example while carrying out the interview with an older adult, the subject seemed pensive
about their life, smiling at memories of childhood, grateful at being offered an opportunity to
share their views on ageing and emotional when speaking about their parents
sacrifices….(everyone can add as they deem fit)

8. What themes emerged from an interview with an old adult? (Dinaz)

I asked questions around the subject’s family profile, aging process, wellness, their thoughts
on growing old, coping with any physical/psychological challenges and stereotypes. Some
themes that emerged were struggles and tough upbringing, a positive resilient broad
minded outlook, maturity, caution with lifestyle and defying stereotypes.

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THE LOC TEST

1. Explain LOC (Khushboo)

Locus of control (LOC) refers to how strongly people believe they have control over the
situations and events that affect their lives. The concept is divided into two categories,
internal and external. If a person has internal locus of control, she attributes success to her
own attributes and abilities. A person with external locus of control attributes her
success/failure to luck or fate, will be less likely to make efforts when needed. This is not to
say, however that internal locus of control is good and external locus of control is bad. There
are other variables to be considered example a person with internal locus of control without
adequate competence, efficacy and opportunities can become anxious and depressed. Despite
this, research shows people with internal locus of control tend to be better off, more
achievement oriented and better paid.

2. How did you score LOC? (Anu)

Locus of control is an important concept of personality developed by Julian Rotter in 1950. It
refers to the individuals perceptions about the underlying main cause of events. In
1954 Rotter published a scale to measure and assess internal and external locus of control.
For the purpose of the practical handbook, we have used the Locus of Control test by Terry
Petti John, the author of ‘Psychology : A connect text’ based on Rotter’s original idea. This
test gives an idea of where one stands on the locus of control personality dimension. It
comprises 20 statements against which our subject had to mark True or False as a self-report.
Each statement carried scores as follows: 5 marks each for False on questions 2,3,5,6
9,10,12,13,14,16,19,20 and 5 marks for True on questions 1,4,8,11,15,17,18,7. Further the
total scores represented:
0-15 very strong external Locus of control
20-35 external locus of control
40-60 both external and internal
65-80 internal locus of control
85-100 very strong internas locus control

What was your outcome: The total score of my subject was ……..on the basis of which I
concluded that they had internal / external locus of control. This means that……. (please fill
as per your practical)

3. Who gave the concept of LOC? (Armin)

Julian Rotter gave the concept of LOC. Locus of Control refers to an individual's perception
about the underlying main causes of events in his/her life.

4. What is the difference between internal and external LOC? (Aruna)

Locus of Control is a psychological concept of self-efficacy, in the sense how strongly they
believe that they have a complete control over the circumstances or experiences that affect
their life or whether they are in charge of their successes and failures. It promotes self-
esteem. If self-efficacy is high, the person feels that he is the master of destiny, he creates his
own destiny and doesn’t believe that his life is a series of random events, in fact he makes
things happen the way he wants, events take place in the manner he decided. This tendency

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to perceive life outcomes are due to one’s own efforts, actions and are completely under
one’s control is known as Internal Locus of Control.

On the other hand, if the person feels that he is a victim of circumstances and has no control
over them, or that everything that happens to him is a result of sheer luck, he is suffering
from low self-efficacy. He may not take credit for the good work he does, believing that it is
due to good luck or by chance. Likewise, he may blame others for his ill fate and does not take
any action to improve his situation. This learned helplessness is termed as External Locus of
Control.

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THE 16PF TEST

1. Define personality / What is personality? (Bhavani)

Personality can be defined as the distinctive and unique way in which an individual thinks,
feels and behaves, which characterizes their response throughout life. Personality evolves
from biological and environmental factors.

2. What are personality misconceptions and types? (Darshana)

1) Personality is innate - there is nothing innate or natural about the way we discuss
personality. It is a human invention.
2) Personality assessments are based on the science of psychology and designed by
psychologists - MBTI was created by 2 Katherine Cook Briggs and her daughter Isabel Briggs
Myers who had no formal training in psychology / sociology. They designed their system of
type using Carl Jung's Psychological Types.
3) The questions on personality tests are free of prejudice – they are created by psychologists
who may be having their own biases
4) Personality assessments are valid and reliable - studies have shown that personality types
are inconsistent and cannot predict career success or other characteristics.
5) Personality tests are harmless fun, like astrology – they may be fun but they need not be
easily dismissed. They are used by powerful institutions to make decisions with far-reaching
consequences.

3. Who gave the terms introvert and extrovert? (Debbie)

The terms 'introvert' and 'extrovert' were first coined by psychologist Carl Jung in the early
1900s, but it was psychologist Hans Eysenck who further elaborated on them in the 1950s
and '60s. Basically, Eysenck described extroverts and introverts by their base line of arousal -
introverts need a lot less stimulation to become satisfied, whereas extroverts need a little
more excitement.

4. What is Eyesenck’s theory of personality? (Saly)

Eysenck suggested that personality is biologically determined and is arranged in a hierarchy
consisting of types, traits, habitual responses and specific responses. People are born with
traits and have different personalities because of the difference in the extent to which they
carry each trait. Traits are influenced by environmental, social, situational and genetical
factors. But the majority of personality traits are influenced by genetics. Eysenck grouped
several traits together and found 3 basic dimensions:

• Inroversion vs Extraversion (E dimension) – whether sociable, thrill seeking or quiet,

reserved and risk averse.
• Neurotocism vs Stability (N dimension) – whether worried, easily angered or calm and
consistent.
• Psychoticism vs Impulse control (P dimension) – whether anti-social or compassionate
and moral.
•
He proposed that all of us fall somewhere on these dimensions and this will determine the
traits we possess and our personality. The three dimensions formed a comprehensive model
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for studying personality. Eysenck developed a questionnaire and termed Eysenck Personality
Inventory (EPI). His model was strongly rooted in biology, believing that traits are hereditary.

5. What is someone who is both introvert and extrovert called? (Rashmi) or What is an
ambivert? (Jalpa)
A person who is both introvert and extrovert is called Ambivert or Omnivert. Such a person is
neither a pure introvert (shy) nor extrovert (outgoing), instead they can change depending on
their mood, context and goals. Adam Grant, associate professor, Wharton found in a study
that two-thirds of people don’t strongly identify as introverts or extroverts and these
ambiverts have a distinct advantage over true introverts and extroverts. Because their
personality doesn’t lean too heavily in either direction, they have a much easier time adjusting
their approach to people based on the situation. This enables them to connect more easily,
and more deeply, with a wider variety of people.

6. Who gave this term? (Rashmi)

Hans Eyesenck gave the term ‘ambivert’ in 1947.

7. How did you score 16pf? (Malini)

The 16 PF online test comprises 164 statements marked on a Likert scale where Strongly
Disagree is scored as 0, Slightly Disagree as 1, Neither Agree nor disagree as 2, Slightly Agree
as 3 and Strongly Agree as 4. The score ranges are that scores below 2 are considered Low,
from 2-2.5 Moderate and 2.5 to 4 as a High Score. Scoring was done online and scores were
computed for various traits.

8. What was the Indian theory of personality? (Aloor)

The ancient Indian model of “Personality”, given in the Upanishads, consists of the ‘five’
sheaths.
• ‘Annamaya’ (food sheath) – a segment of the human system nourished by ‘anna’ or
food
• ‘Pranamaya’ (vital air sheath) - a segment of the human system nourished by bio
energy or ‘prana’
• ‘Manomaya’ (mental sheath) - a segment of the human system nourished by
‘education’
• ‘Vijnanamaya’ (intellectual sheath) - a segment of the human system nourished by
‘ego’
• ‘Anandamaya’ (bliss sheath) - a segment of the human system nourished by
‘emotions’

Indian researchers have also deliberated on this concept of Triguna in their writings.
The development of consciousness is apparently rooted in this concept of Triguna. These are
known as Sattva called as stability; Rajas called as activation and Tamas called as inertia and
Manas the mental functions processes (Manovritti Manopravrtti). They are considered to be
manifestations of Triguna.

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9. What is the difference between trait and type? (Aloor & Farah)

A trait is a characteristic pattern of behavior or conscious motive which can be self-assessed

or assessed by peers. The term type is used to identify a certain collection of traits that make
up a broad, general personality classification.

10. What are trait and type theories? (Aloor)

Gordon Allport proposed that an individual's conscious motives and traits better describe
personality than does that person's unconscious motivation. He identified three types of
traits:
• Cardinal traits, such as a tendency to seek out the truth, govern the direction of one's
life.
• Central traits operate in daily interactions, as illustrated by a tendency to always try
to control a situation.
• Secondary traits, such as a tendency to discriminate against older people, involve
response to a specific situation.

Raymond Cattell, using a statistical technique called factor analysis, organized over 17000
words generally used to describe personality and reduced them to 16 basic factors. These
were:
• emotional, easily upset vs. calm, stable
• intelligent vs. unintelligent
• suspicious vs. trusting
• reserved, unfriendly vs. outgoing, friendly
• assertive, dominant vs. not assertive, humble sober, serious vs. happy-go-lucky
conscientious vs. expedient
• shy, timid vs. venturesome
• tender-minded vs. tough-minded
• practical vs. imaginative
• shrewd vs. forthright
• self-assured, placid vs. apprehensive
• conservative vs. experimenting
• group oriented vs. self-sufficient
• undisciplined vs. self-disciplined
• relaxed vs. tense, driven

Type theories
Hans Eysenck proposed a higher organization of personality traits into three basic groups
(traits plus their opposites), which, he suggested, constituted types.
• extraversion (as opposed to introversion)
• neuroticism (as opposed to emotional stability)
• psychoticism (as opposed to impulse control)

In recent years, theorists have felt the need for more personality dimensions than Eysenck's
three. The five independent dimensions, selected using statistical procedures, are known as
the “Big Five.”

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 • extraversion/introversion - characteristics described in terms such as talkative,
sociable, adventurous vs. reticent, turned inward
• agreeableness/antagonism - characteristics described in terms such as good-natured,
cooperative, likable vs. hostile, spiteful
• conscientiousness/undirectedness - characteristics described in terms such as
responsible, neat, task motivated vs. disorganized
• stability/instability - characteristics described in terms such as calm, poised, composed
vs. uncertain, insecure
• openness to experience/conforming - characteristics described in terms such as
flexible, original, independent, creative, daring vs. rigid, conventional, conforming,
noncreative, timid

11. Explain 16 PF (Leena)

The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) is a self-report personality test
developed over several decades of empirical research by Raymond B. Cattell. The 16PF
provides a measure of normal personality and can also be used by psychologists, and other
mental health professionals, as a clinical instrument to help diagnose psychiatric disorders,
and help with prognosis and therapy planning. The 16PF can also provide information relevant
to the clinical and counseling process, such as an individual’s capacity for insight, self-esteem,
cognitive style, internalization of standards, openness to change, capacity for empathy, level
of interpersonal trust, quality of attachments, interpersonal needs, attitude toward authority,
reaction toward dynamics of power, frustration tolerance, and coping style. Administration
of the test takes about 35–50 minutes for the paper-and-pencil version and about 30 minutes
by computer. The test instructions are simple and straightforward and the test is un-timed;
thus, the test is generally self-administrable and can be used in either an individual or a group
setting.

The 16 primary factors of the 16PF are Warmth, Reasoning, Emotional Stability, Dominance,
Liveliness, Rule-Consciousness, Social Boldness, Sensitivity, Vigilance, Abstractedness,
Privateness, Apprehension, Openness to Change, Self-Reliance, Perfectionism, and Tension.

After the test has been administered the a total score is computed from each of the 16
personality factors. These totals have been created in a way to correlate with the Sten scale.
Scores on the 16PF are represented on a 10-point scale, or standard-ten scale. The Sten scale
has a mean of 5.5 and a standard deviation of 2, with scores below 4 considered low and
scores above 7 considered high.

12. What are the different theories of personality? (Rashmi)

There are four major types of personality theories: Psychodynamic, Humanistic, Trait and
Social Cognitive theories.

• Psychodynamic Theory – founded by Sigmund Freud, the theory viewed personality

to be made up of 3 different components id, ego and super ego. Emphasises
importance of conscious, unconscious forces in guiding behaviour, personal conflicts
and enduring effects of childhood experiences.
• Humanistic Theory – founded by Carl Rogers, emphasized the importance of self-
actualising tendencies in shaping human personality and Maslow who believed that
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 personality was not a matter of nature or nurture but of personal choice, specifically
because people possess free will and are motivated to pursue the things that will help
them reach their full potential as human beings.
• Trait Theory – founded by Gordon Allport who viewed traits (from 5000 English words
to describe personality) as building blocks of personality and classified them as
Cardinal, Central and Secondary traits, ultimately leading to Raymond Catell’s source
and surface traits and the Big Five (OCEAN).
• Social cognitive Theory – founded by Albert Bandura emphasises that learning is
affected by cognitive, behavioural and environmental factors.

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THE HALO EFFECT

1. Explain Halo Effect with examples (Rashmi)

The Halo Effect is a type of cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences
how we feel and think about their character. Essentially, our overall impression of a person
impacts our evaluations of that person's specific traits. If we think ‘he’s nice’ we may also
conclude that ‘he is smart!’. Perceptions of a single trait can carry over to how we perceive
other aspects of that person. Example our perception of celebrities as attractive, successful,
likeable often leads to the perception that they are intelligent, kind, funny.

2. Is Halo Effect good or bad? (Maria)

The Halo Effect is a cognitive bias where positive impressions of people, brands, and products
in one area positively influence our feelings in another. The Halo Effect can hinder our ability
to think critically about a person’s/brand’s/product’s negative traits and result in unfair
judgments or missing out of valuable opportunities. It can lead to unfair differences in how
employees are treated or simply damage those who are not in it. We unconsciously attribute
personality qualities to people we have only seen, perhaps never met. Attractive people are
likely to receive preferential treatment at school or work, get attention, perform better and
move up faster because people like them more. Example we tend to think that beautiful
people are outgoing, friendly while the less attractive are shy and reserved.

3. What is the opposite of Halo Effect? (Neethu)

The opposite of the Halo Effect is the Horn Effect, named for the horns of the devil.
It is a type of a cognitive bias or thinking error where we make a quick judgment about
someone or something based on one negative trait. Example when consumers have an
unfavorable experience, they correlate that negative experience with everything associated
with a brand or overweight people who are seen as lazy.

4. What is the relationship between learned behaviour and Halo Effect? (Lisika)
Learned behaviour is defined as traits and behaviour developed by a person as a result of
experience and conditioning which includes learning from people and the environment. The
Halo Effect refers to a cognitive bias – our ability to form opinions about someone based on
first impressions, mostly physical appearance. If we find someone attractive, we’re more
likely to think they are good natured and smart. Hence when we operate under the Halo
Effect bias, we automatically think of that person as intelligent and wise, perhaps worth
emulating and learning from, thereby implicitly being conditioned by the person on whom
we’ve put a Halo, or even actively choosing to imitate the person. Thus, Halo Effect is a
learned behaviour and also influences learned behaviour by influencing our perceptions of
the ‘models’ from which we learn.

ALL THE BEST!

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