Flashover 'Pathways' ....

 
'PATHWAYS' and MOMENTUM (INERTIA) FORCES ASSOCIATED WITH RAPID FIRE
PROGRESS - 'FLASHOVER' - A New Theory! Paul Grimwood July 1999 updated July 2003

'The men of the fire brigade were taught to prevent, as much as possible, the access of air to the
burning materials. What the open door of the ash-pit is to the furnace of a steam-boiler the open
street door is to the house on fire. In both cases the door gives vital air to the flames'.........
Chief Fire Officer James Braidwood (LONDON) in his book 'Fire Prevention & Fire Extinction' 1866

The term 'flashover' has been used generically by the fire service over many years to describe
various forms of rapid fire progress that relate to phenomena such as backdraft, smoke explosion
and other forms of fire gas ignitions etc. To the firefighter the various definitions can become
confusing and in reality he/she is more concerned with 'actions' or 'non-actions', forming part of
the firefighting operation that may directly influence the initiation of such an event.

In simple terms a 'flashover' is a sustained fire that results from a well-ventilated and developing
compartment fire, leading to total room or compartment involvement. This is a heat induced
situation where heat from the fire plume, at ceiling level, radiates downwards to other
combustible items in the room, causing then to pyrolize and ignite.

A 'backdraft' is generally an event caused where an under-ventilated fire receives a sudden

A 'smoke-explosion' may involve the ignition of an accumulated mass of flammable fire gases
existing in a room or compartment and the addition of oxygen is not a requirement as the gases
already exist in a pre-mixed state.

It is important for firefighters to recognize that these events are nearly always triggered by their
own on-scene actions (or failure to act) and it is perhaps here that we need to concentrate our
efforts in forming safe approach tactics and SOPs during structural firefighting operations. An
awareness of the 'ventilation profile' and the location of the 'air-track' are of great importance
here.

The first action to be considered is the creation of an entry point (or points) if this does not
already exist. Initiating a point of entry (ie; by opening the street doorway) may be an extremely
influential action and have major effects on the fire's development. This action may set in motion
a 'gravity current' where air is 'sucked' in at low level and smoke comes 'pushing' out with high
velocity at the top of the doorway. If this does not happen then the fire is either -

1. Fuel controlled and burning efficiently, or not large enough to cause rapid fire progress at this
stage.
2. Confined - probably behind internal closed doors.

3. Ventilation controlled but finding or searching it's gas/smoke exit point (pathway) at another
location, possibly at a higher level in the structure. 

The terms 'pathway' and 'momentum' forces, in relation to rapid fire phenomena, are new and
their effects and tactical implications will be discussed later in this article.

Where a gravity current is allowed to progress un-checked the fire will be dynamic in its
progression and development towards some form of dangerous 'event' associated with the above
phenomena of rapid fire progress. The Incident Commander must give this some thought and
consider controlling the size of entry point openings to curtail any existence of gravity currents
or pathways. 

Another action that can lead to an 'event' is the tactical venting by firefighters of windows or
vertical openings in a structure. This strategy is often used to great effect as a means of reducing
'flashover' potential but in effect, may actually initiate a flashover or other ignition of the fire
gases. Where the structure is occupied this can prove highly hazardous to occupants! Where
firefighters are to make openings in a structure they should always coordinate this action with
effective hose-line deployments in support. Where firefighters are occupying a structure the
venting actions should be carefully applied and then, only at their request. If firefighters are
occupying basements it may be safer to bring them out to a place of safety prior to creating
openings that may create a 'pathway'.  The possibility of 'thermal runaway' (leading to
flashover) or backdraft occurring following a venting action must always be a concern in
an occupied structure.

If a firefighter were to uncover or reveal an ignition source within a compartment prior to

A further action that might cause an 'event' is the opening of internal doors that set-up strong
airflows towards a stair or lift shaft or possibly the approach and entry to adjacent rooms or
compartments some way from the fire area, where flammable gases have accumulated within.

The movement of flammable gases may be created by the collapse of a ceiling, driving gases in
their pre-mixed state towards a source of ignition elsewhere in the structure. This effect may also
occur where firefighters utilize wide fog patterns that 'push' gases towards the fire.

'Pathways' & 'Momentum'

However, a phenomena that has received little, if any, attention is that of creating 'pathways'
where venting actions occur below and above (or on opposite sides of) the fire area, sometimes
leading to devastating effects! A routine approach to a structural fire would be to open the street
entry door, normally below the fire, followed by a tactical venting action above or opposite to the
fire. Incidents come to mind where occasionally this process is reversed where the entry is made
at high level before the venting action occurs at low level, creating a 'pathway'. It is the final
action of creating a 'pathway' for air to enter from below the fire and smoke and energy rich
gases from an under-ventilated fire to exit at high level that sometimes leads to an 'event' of rapid
fire progress. The two firefighters who just made it out of the Illinois fire were lucky to have
escaped with minor injuries as a 'pathway' was created between the air-inlet (street door) and
fire-gas exit point (window venting action) resulting in an ignition of the energy rich gases at 2nd
floor level. It was as if the action of venting the window provided the momentum or inertia for
the high-energy gases to ignite in a 'flash' of combustion, unleashing tremendous amounts of heat
for a brief second or two. Other fires have demonstrated similar events as this 'pathway' was
created by firefighting actions - notably the Cherry Road fire in Washington DC in 1999; Seattle
basement fire 1987and the Dorothy May fire in 1982. Think of occasions where this 'pathway'
might have been created, leading to rapid fire progress - an air inlet (street doorway) and a fire
gas/smoke outlet (window) both in existence and if fuel rich gases (black or fast moving smoke)
are involved - note the inertia created, quickly followed by a subsequent ignition!

'Momentum' and inertia forces may be set up inside a structure that will directly affect the
likelihood and intensity of flashovers or backdrafts. These could be related to air-flow dynamics
caused through -

1. Stack Effects

2. Forced Drafts

3. Temperature differences 

Whilst many scientists have suggested that cool air flowing, or being drawn, into a structure
might have some cooling effect on the hot gases accumulating inside a fire compartment, we
have learned through experimentation that the opposite effect is more likely! In situations where
the outside air is cold we have observed more frequent events of rapid fire phenomena that occur
with greater intensity, than where the air is warmer. These conditions are easily replicated in
small 'dolls house' flashover  demonstrators and even in larger steel shipping containers to some
extent.

This may suggest that the specific gravity, or weight, of air features in these flashover
momentum or inertia forces in some way. As the air exchange occurs in a compartment fire, with
hot gases leaving the compartment and cold air replacing them, the density of of the outside air
may have some effect on the severity of any subsequent rapid fire phenomena. As colder air
becomes more dense, the air exchange with heated gases in a fire compartment may be more
aggressive.

The relevance of this is that rapid fire phenomena may become more likely, and indeed more
fierce, on a very cold day, especially in sub zero temperatures and this has been noted in several
real fires.

To counter this effect we need to restrict or prevent a gravity current or pathway from occurring
in the first place - this may be achieved by reducing and controlling the width of the opening at
 the entry doorway. We must also deal with any build-up of high-energy gases that may have
accumulated in the structure - tactical venting! However, before we do this we might attempt to
cool and inert the gases just prior to venting them out. This may assist in avoiding an ignition,
but where a gas ignition does occur then the water droplets in the overhead may quench the
effect. The only way these gases may be cooled or inerted effectively prior to venting is by the
use of a stream of water droplets from a finely divided water-fog pattern, applied in a series of
brief bursts (pulses) so that they hang in the gases for several seconds.

'It is most dangerous for any persons who happen to be in other rooms of the house, particularly
those above and at he back, into which, after a front window has been cut through (broken), it is
probable, if not almost certain, that the fire will penetrate before the firemen can reach
them.........'

Chief