Vapour Power Cycles

UNIT-2
Vapour Power Cycles
Contents: Carnot vapour power cycles, drawbacks as a reference cycle, Simple Rankine
cycle, description, T- S diagram, analysis for performance. Comparison of Carnot and
Rankine cycles. Effects of pressure and temperature on Rankine cycle performance.
Actual vapour power cycles. Reheat Rankine cycle. Numerical problems.

INTRODUCTION:
Vapour power cycles are used in steam power plants. In a power cycle heat energy
(released by the burning of fuel) is converted into work, in which a working fluid repeatedly
perform a succession of processes. In a vapour power cycle, the working fluid is water,
which undergoes a change of phase.

The above fig. shows a simple steam power plant working on the vapour cycle.
Heat is transformed to the water in the boiler (𝑄𝑅 )from an external source (furnace,
where fuel is continuously burnt) to raise steam, the high pressure high temperature steam
leaving the boiler expands in the turbine to produce shaft work (𝑤𝑇 ), the steam leaving the
turbine condenses into the condenser (where cooling water circulates), rejecting heat (𝑄𝑅 ),
and then the water is pumped back (𝑤𝑝 ) to the boiler.

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Vapour Power Cycles

Since the fluid is undergoing a cyclic process, the net energy transferred as heat
during the cycle must equal to the net energy, transfer as work from the fluid(because no
net change in its internal energy over the cycle).
By the first law of thermodynamics,

∑ 𝑄= ∑ 𝑤
𝐶𝑦𝐶𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑦𝐶𝑙𝑒

Or 𝑄1 − 𝑄2 = 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝑃
𝑄𝑠 − 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑊𝑇 − 𝑊𝑝
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑄1 - Heat transferred to the working fluid (kJ/kg)
𝑄𝑅 = 𝑄2 - Heat rejected from the working fluid (kJ/kg)
𝑘𝐽
𝑤𝑝 − 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 (𝑘𝑔)

The efficiency of the vapour cycle is given by,

𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑇 −𝑤𝑝
𝜂𝐶𝑦𝐶𝑙𝑒 = =
𝑄3 𝑄𝑠

Or
𝑄𝑠 − 𝑄𝑅 𝑄𝑅
𝜂𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = =1−
𝑄𝑠 𝑄𝑠

Idealized steam power cycle (Carnot cycle):

Fig. T-S and P-V diagram of Carnot Vapour Power Cycle

We know that, the efficiency of an engine is maximum and it does not depend on the
working fluid. It is, therefore, natural to examine of a steam power plant can be operated
on the Carnot cycle.
-The above fig shows the P-V and T-S diagram of Carnot cycle.

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Process1-2: heat addition at constant pressure (𝑷𝟏 = 𝑷𝟐 ), can be achieved isothermally in

a boiler (T=C)
Process2-3: the decrease in a pressure from 𝑃2 𝑡𝑜 𝑃3 through isentropic expansion
process carried out in a well-designed turbine.
Process3-4: constant pressure (𝑷𝟑 = 𝑷𝟒 ) and temperature (𝑻𝟑 = 𝑻𝟒 ). Heat rejection
process which can be carried out in a condenser.
Process4-1: Isentropic compression process during which pressure rises from
𝑃4 𝑡𝑜 𝑃1 and hence cycle is completed.
Since there is no heat exchanging during isentropic process (2-3) and (4-1) and hence
network will be written as
∑𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ∑𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
Net work done= heat supplied – heat rejected
Carnot cycle efficiency (𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 ):
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑄𝑠 −𝑄𝑅 𝑄
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = = = 1 − 𝑄𝑠𝑅
𝑄𝑠 𝑄𝑠
𝑇 (𝑠 −𝑠 )
=1 − 𝑇3 (𝑠3 −𝑠4 )
2 2 1

𝑑𝑞
Because WKT, 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑑𝑡

And also we know that

(𝑆1 = 𝑆4 )
(𝑆2 = 𝑆3 )
Therefore we get
𝑇3
𝜂𝐶𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 = 1 −
𝑇2

Limitations or drawbacks of Carnot vapour cycle:

Carnot cycle is simple and has the highest thermal efficiency for given values of 𝑇1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇3 ,
but it is extremely difficult to operate in practice because of the following reason
1. It is difficult to compress a wet vapour isentropically to the saturated state as
required by the process (4-1).
2. It is difficult to control the quality of the condensate coming out of the condenser
so that the state ‘4’ is exactly obtained.
3. The efficiency of the Carnot cycle is greatly defected by the temperature 𝑇1 at which
heat is transferred to the working fluid. Since the critical temperature for steam

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374℃, therefore if t he cycle is to be operated in the wet region, the maximum

possible temperature is limited.
4. The cycle is still more difficult to operate in practice with separated steam due to
the necessity of the supplying the super heat at constant temperature instead of
constant pressure.
In a practical cycle, limits of pressure and volume are easily realized than limits of
temperature, so that at present no practical engines operated on the Carnot cycle.
Due to the above practical difficulties, Carnot cycle cannot be used as a reference
vapour power cycle.

Simple Rankine cycle (Ideal Rankine or Vapour power cycle):

Rankine cycle is the theoretical cycle on which the steam turbine or

engine works. The simplest way of overcoming the inherent practical difficulties of the
Carnot cycle without deviating too much from it is to keep the process 1-2 and 2-3 of
the later unchanged and to continue the process 3-4 in the condenser until all the vapour
has been converted into liquid water. Water is then pumped into the boiler up to the
pressure corresponding to the state 1 and the cycle is completed. Such a cycle is known
as Rankine cycle.

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Vapour Power Cycles

Fig a, b and c shows the schematic diagram for a simple steam power cycle which
works on the principle of Rankine cycle.
The Rankine cycle comprises the following processes:
Process1-2: constant pressure heat transfer in the boiler.
Process 2-3: reversible adiabatic expansion process in the steam turbine.
Process 3-4: constant pressure heat transfer in the condenser
Process 4-1: Reversible adiabatic compression process in the pump
The numbers on the plots corresponding to the numbers on the schematic diagram.
For any given pressure, the steam approaching the steam turbine may be dry saturated (state
2), wet (state 2’) or superheated (state 2’’), but the fluid approaching the pump is in each
case saturated liquid (state 4).
Steam expands reversible and adiabatically in the turbine from 2 to 3 or 2’ to 3’or
2’’ to 3’’, the steam leaving the turbine condenses to water in the condenser reversible at
constant or from state 3(or 3’ or 3’’) to state 4.
Also the water is heated in the boiler from steam reversibly at constant pressure
from state 1 to state (or 2’ or 2’’).

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Apply SFEE for boiler, turbine, condenser and pump on the basis of unit mass of
fluid and neglecting the K.E and P.E changes, the work and heat quantities can be
evaluated.
We know general SFEE Equation i.e..,
Qx+m1 (h1+V1 2/2 + gZ1) = Wx+m2 ((h2+V2 2/2 + gZ2)
Apply above equation for flow device containing in steam power plant
Then we get,
For 1kg of fluid, the SFEE for the boiler as control volume,
Given, Qs + h1 = h2 => Qs = h2 – h1 ---------- (1)
SFEE to turbine, h2 = h3 + WT => WT = h2 – h3 ---------- (2)
SFEE to condenser, h3 = h4 – QL => QL = h3 – h4 ---------- (3)
SFEE to pump, h4 + WP = h1 => WP = h1 – h4 ---------- (4)
Efficiency of the Rankine cycle

ηRankine= WNet /Qs

= (WT-WP)/Qs
= [(h2-h3)-(h1-h4)]/ (h2-h1)
= [(h2-h1)-(h3-h4)]/ (h2-h1)
Analysis of Pump:
The pump handles liquid water which is incompressible, i.e its density or specific volume
undergoes little change with an increase in pressure
Note:
Entropy change of an ideal gas for reversible adiabatic process:

T.ds=du+Pdv. Q=u+w
T.ds=dh-V.dp. dq=du+dw
T.ds=du+Pdv
h=u+Pv, u=h-Pv, du=dh-Pdv-Vdp.

For reversible adiabatic compression we have

T.ds=dh-v.dP
dh-v.dP=0 (since ds=0)
dh=v.dP
Since change in specific volume is negligible
∆h=vdP

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h1-h4 =v4(p1-p4)
Usually the pump work is quite small compared to the turbine work and is same time
neglected.
In that case h1=h4

Now ηRankine= (h2-h1-h3+h4) / (h2-h1)

= (h2-h3)/(h2-h1)
=(h2-h3)/(h2-h4) ……………. For no Pump Work

The efficiency of Rankine cycle is presented graphically in the T-S diagram

Fig: Qs, Wnet & QL are proportional areas

QS α Area 1-2-5-6-1
QR α Area 4-3-5-6-4
Wnet = (QS-QR) = Area 1-2-3-4-1 enclosed by the cycle.
The capacity of the steam plant is expressed alternatively as heat rate and steam rate.
- Steam flow rate is the rate of steam flow (kg/h) required to produce unit work output
(kW)
Therefore steam rate= 1/(WT-WP)…….(kg/kJ).((1kJ/s)/kW)
= 1/(WT-WP)……(kg/kWs)
Steam Rate = 3600/ (WT-WP)……..(kg/kWh)
- The cycle efficiency also expressed alternatively as heat rate which is the rate of heat
input (QH ) required to produce unit work output (kW)
Heat rate= 3600QH/ (WT-WP)

= 3600/ ηRankine……….(kJ/kWh)
Work ratio= φδW/Positive work
= (WT-WP)/WT
WR = [(h2-h3)-(h1-h4)]/ (h2-h3)

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Comparison of Carnot and Rankine cycles

- Carnot cycle has the maximum possible efficiency for the given limits of temperature.
But it is not suitable in steam power plants. Fig a, b, c shows that Rankine and Carnot
cycles on the T-S diagram.
- The reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine, the constant temperature heat
rejection in the condenser and the reversible adiabatic compression in the pump
are similar characteristics features of both the Rankine and Carnot cycle.
- But whereas the heat addition process in the Rankine cycle is reversible and at
constant pressure, in the Carnot cycle it is reversible and isothermal.
- In fig a & c , QR is same in both the cycles, but since QS is more, ηCarnot> ηRankine
- The two Carnot cycles in fig a & b have same thermal efficiency
Therefore in fig. b also ηCarnot> ηRankine
But the Carnot cycle cannot be realized in practice because the pump work is very large.
- Whereas in a & c it is impossible to add heat at infinite pressures and at constant
temperature from 1c to 2, in b it is difficult to construct the quality at 4c , so that
isentropic compression leads to a saturated liquid state.
Some More Discussion and Comparison between Carnot and Rankine Cycle.
- Rankine cycle has higher specific workout put them Carnot between same temperature
limits.
- Rankine transfer provides high rate of heat transfer in boiler and condenser.
- Heat supplied at constant temperature in Rankine cycle is less than Carnot cycle.
- ηCarnot> ηRankine.

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Mean Temperature of heat addition

Fig: Mean Temperature of Heat Addition

- In the Rankine cycle, heat is added reversibly at a constant pressure but at infinite
temperature.
Let Tm1 is the mean temperature of heat addition, so that area under 1s & 2 is equal to
the area under 5-6.
Heat added Qs=h2-h1s=Tm1 (S2-S1s)
Therefore Tm1 = mean temperature of heat addition
= (h2-h1s)/(S2-S1s)
Heat rejected, QR = h3s-h4
=T3 (S2-S1s)
ηRankine =1-(QR/QS)
=1-[T3 (S2-S1s)]/[Tm1(S2-S1s)]
=1-(T3/Tm1)
Where T3 is the temperature of heat rejection.
As T3 is lowered for a given Tm1, the higher will be the efficiency of the Rankine
cycle.
- But the lowest practical temperature of heat rejection is the ambient temperature T0
i.e. ηRankine = f(Tm1) only

Effect of pressure & temperature on Rankine cycle performance

Or
Method of improving the efficiency of the Rankine cycle
Or
Effect of operating condition on Rankine efficiency

1). Increasing the average temperature at which heat supplied.

2). Increasing or decreasing the temperature at heat rejected

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This can be achieved by following methods:

- Reducing the Condenser Pressure
- By Super Heating
- Increasing the Boiler Pressure
Condenser pressure:

Fig (a): the effect of lowering the condenser for on the ideal Rankine cycle.
- Thermal efficiency of the cycle can be improved by reducing the condenser pressure,
I lowers the temperature of the steam and thus the temperature at which heat is
rejected.
The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle efficiency is
illustrated on T-S diagram in fig a.
- In the above fig it is seen that pressure reduces from P4 to P41, since it increases the
Wnet areas.
- Also it increases heat input from ‘1 to 2’ to ‘11 to 2’.
But this increase is very small.
Thus overall effect of lowering the condenser is an increase in thermal efficiency of the
cycle.
Superheating:

Fig b. the effect of superheating the steam to higher temperatures on the ideal
Rankine cycle.

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Without increasing the boiler pressure, steam temperature can be increased by

superheating process.
The effect of superheating on the performance of vapour power cycles is illustrated
on a T-S diagram.
The hatched portion on this diagram represent the increase in the network. The total
area under the process curve 2-21 represents the increase in the heat input.
Thus both the network and heat input increases as a result of superheating the steam
to a high temperature.
The overall effect is an increase in thermal efficiency.
Superheating the steam to higher temperature has another very desirable effect:
It decreases the moisture content of the steam, and hence it improves the turbine
blade life and it increases the quality (the quality at state 31 is higher than the state 3).
Boiler pressure:

Another way of increasing the average temperature during the heat addition process is to
increase the operating pressure of the boiler, which automatically raises the temperature at
which boiling takes place.
This, in turn, raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam
and thus raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle.
The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the performance of vapour power
cycle is illustrated on T-S diagram.
Notice that for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and
moisture content of steam at the turbine exit increases.
This undesirable side effect can be converted by reheating the steam.

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Actual Vapour cycle [deviation of actual Vapour power cycle]:

Fig ‘a’ deviation of actual Vapour power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle.
Fig ‘b’ the effect of pump and turbine.
The actual Vapour power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle, as shown in
the fig ‘a’.
As a result of irreversibilities in various components mainly because of fluid friction
and heat loss to the surroundings.
Fluid friction causes pressure drop in the boiler, the condenser and the piping
between the various components.
As a result, steam leaves the boiler at a lower pressure. Also the pressure at the
turbine inlet is lower than that at the boiler exit due to pressure drop in the connecting pipes.
The pressure drop in the condenser is usually very small.
To compensate these pressure drop, the water must be pumped to sufficiently higher
pressure which requires the larger pump and larger were input to the pump
The other major source of irreversibility is the heat loss from the steam to the
surrounding as the steam flows through various components.
To maintain the same level of network output, more heat needs to be transferred to
the steam in the boiler to compensate for these considered heat losses. As a result cycle
efficiency decreases.
As a result of irreversibilities, a pump requires a greater work input, and a turbine
produces a smaller work output.
Under ideal conditions, the flow through these devices are isentropic. The deviation
of actual pump and turbines from the isentropic ones can be accounted for by utilizing
isentropic efficiency defined as,

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ℎ −ℎ
𝜂𝑃 = 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 /𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 = ℎ 1𝑠 − ℎ4
1𝑎 4

ℎ −ℎ
𝜂𝑇 = 𝑊𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 /𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 = ℎ2 − ℎ3𝑎
2 3𝑠

Reheat Rankine Cycle (Rankine Cycle with Reheat)

We know that efficiency of ravine cycle could be increased by increasing by
increasing steam pressure in the boiler and super heating the steam.
But this increases the moisture content of the steam in the lower pressure stages in the
turbine which may lead to erosion of the turbine blade
Therefore Reheat cycle has been developed to take advantage of the increased pressure of
the boiler adding the excessive moisture of the steam in the lower pressure stage.
In the reheat Rankine cycle, steam after practical expansion in the turbine is transferred to
the Reheater then after feed back to the low pressure turbine for the expansion.
Process involved in Rankine Cycle with Reheater:
Process 1-2: Heat addition in the boiler.
2-3: heat addition in the Super heater
3-4: Work output from high pressure turbine
4-5: Heat addition in the Reheater.
5-6: Work output from the low pressure turbine.
6-7: Heat rejection in the condenser.
7-1: Work supplied to the pump.
Qs= (h3-h1) +(h5-h4)
QR= h6-h7
WT= (h3-h4)+(h5-h6).
WP= h1-h7
ηRankine =Wne t/Qs =Qs-QR /QS = 1-QR/Qs
=1- (h6-h7 )/(h3-h1)+(h5-h4)
Steam rate = 3600/( WT-WP) Kg/KWh
Since higher Reheater pressure is used, WP work is appreciable.

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