Introduction to Calculus

Contents

1 Introduction to Calculus 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Origin of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 The Two Branches of Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Secant and Tangent Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4 The Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.1 Definition of the Derivative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.2 Rules for Calculating Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Applications of Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.1 Rates of Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5.2 Tangent Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.5.3 Graphing Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.4 Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

A Answers to All Exercises 31

2
Chapter 1

Introduction to Calculus

1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Origin of Calculus
The development of Calculus by Isaac Newton (1642–1727) and Gottfried
Wilhelm Leibnitz (1646–1716) is one of the most important achievements in
the history of science and mathematics.
Newton is without doubt one of the greatest mathematicians of all time.
In his efforts to find a mathematical method that could explain universal
gravitation, he devised what he called the method of fluxions. Today we call
it differential and integral calculus.
Newton was a private and secretive man, and for the most part kept his
discoveries for himself. He did not publish much, and the majority of his
works, like his famous Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica, had to
be dragged out of him by the persistence of his friends.
It is now well established that Newton and Leibnitz developed their own
form of calculus independently, that Newton was first by about 10 years but
did not publish, and that Leibnitz’s papers of 1684 and 1686 were the earliest
publications on the subject.
If you are interested in finding out more about Newton and Leibnitz, or
the history of mathematics in general, consult the following website:

http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history

3
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

1.1.2 The Two Branches of Calculus

There are two basic geometric problems that call for the use of calculus:

• Finding the slope of the tangent line to a curve at a given point.

• Finding the area between a curve and the x-axis for a ≤ x ≤ b.

6 6

.
.. ............................
... .......... ...
........... .
. ......................
...
. . ....................
P ...
.. ...
....
.......................
........
r
.
.................. ................................
..
.
..
.
..
. R
.........................
.
........
........
........
- -
a b
What is the slope of the tangent at P ? What is the area of the region R?

We will examine the close relationship between the slope problem and the
problem of determining the rate at which a variable is changing as compared
to another variable. The portion of calculus concerned with this problem
is called differential calculus. It relies on the concept of the derivative of a
function. You will eventually see that the derivative of a function is defined
in terms of a more fundamental concept – the concept of a limit.
The area problem is related to the problem of finding a variable quantity
whose rate of change is known. The part of calculus concerned with these
ideas is called integral calculus and will not be covered here. It is studied in
first year calculus.
1.2. SECANT AND TANGENT LINES 5

1.2 Secant and Tangent Lines

Consider two points P (x1 , y1 ) and Q(x2 , y2 ) on the graph of y = f (x). The
line joining these two points is called a secant line and has a slope given by
y2 − y1
mP Q = .
x2 − x1

.
. ................ secant line
Q....t..........
y2 ....
....
.....
....
.
.... ..
..
.
....
.... . ........ tangent line
.....
.... .
....... ...............
........
..... ...........
. ..

P.......t.................................................
...
. ..

y1 .............. . . .. ....
................................................................
......
.
.
...

....... ... ...... ...

........ ....
....... ...
........ ....
-
........ ....
x1 x2

Figure 1.1: Secant line joining P and Q and tangent line at point P .

If we let h = x2 − x1 , then

x2 = x1 + h and y2 = f (x2 ) = f (x1 + h).

The slope of the secant line joining P and Q is then

f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )
mP Q = .
h
Let’s now imagine that point Q slides along the curve towards point P .
As it does so, the slope of the secant line joining P and Q will more closely
approximate the slope of a tangent line to the curve at P . We can in fact
define the slope of the tangent line at point P as the limiting value of mP Q
as point Q approaches P .
As point Q approaches P , the value of h = x2 − x1 approaches zero. The
slope of the tangent line at P is then

f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )
mtan = lim
h→0 h
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Note that we cannot evaluate the limit

f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )
lim
h→0 h

by simply setting h = 0 since this would lead to a fraction where both the
numerator and denominator are zero and we know that this is undefined.
For a particular function f , we will be able to overcome this difficulty by
using algebra to factor an h from the numerator to cancel it with the h in the
denominator. The resulting limit can then be evaluated by setting h = 0.

Example 1. Consider the function f (x) = x2 .

(a) Compute the slope of the secant line joining the points (2, 4) and (3, 9).

(b) Compute the slope of the secant line joining (2, 4) and (2 + h, f (2 + h))
for h 6= 0.

(c) Compute the slope of the tangent line at the point (2, 4).

(d) Sketch a graph of the function and the tangent line at x = 2.

Solution: The slope of the secant line joining the two points P (x1 , y1 ) and
Q(x2 , y2 ) is given by
y2 − y1
msec = . (1.1)
x 2 − x1

(a) Using (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = (3, 9) gives

9−4
msec = = 5.
3−2

(b) We use equation (1.1) with (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 4) and (x2 , y2 ) = (2+h, f (2+h))
to get
f (2 + h) − 4
msec = .
(2 + h) − 2
1.2. SECANT AND TANGENT LINES 7

Since f (2 + h) = (2 + h)2 , we have

(2 + h)2 − 4
msec =
h
(4 + 4h + h2 ) − 4
=
h
4h + h2
=
h
h(4 + h)
=
h
= 4 + h.
(c) To find the slope of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = x2 at the
point (2, 4), we use
f (x1 + h) − f (x1 )
mtan = lim
h→0 h
with x1 = 2. Since we found that
f (2 + h) − f (2)
= 4 + h,
h
then
f (2 + h) − f (2)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
= lim (4 + h)
h→0
= 4.
The slope of the tangent line to the curve at x = 2 is then equal to 4.
(d) Here is a graph of y = x2 and the tangent line at x = 2.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Example 2. Find the slope of a line tangent to y = 2x2 − 5x at x = 1.

Solution: We use
f (x + h) − f (x)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
2
with x = 1 and f (x) = 2x − 5x. Since

f (1 + h) = 2(1 + h)2 − 5(1 + h) and f (1) = 2(1)2 − 5(1) = −3,

then
2(1 + h)2 − 5(1 + h) − (−3)
mtan = lim
h→0 h
2
2(1 + 2h + h ) − 5 − 5h + 3
= lim
h→0 h
2 + 4h + 2h2 − 5 − 5h + 3
= lim
h→0 h
2
2h − h
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2h − 1)
h→0
= −1.

The slope of the tangent line is then equal to −1.

-1 0 1 2 3

-2

-4

Figure 1.2: Graph y = 2x2 − 5x and the tangent line at x = 1.

1.2. SECANT AND TANGENT LINES 9

Exercises 1.2

1. Consider the function f (x) = 2x2 + 1.

(a) Compute the slope of the secant line joining the points (1, 3) and
(2, 9).
(b) Compute the slope of the secant line joining the points (1, 3) and
(1 + h, f (1 + h)) for h 6= 0.
(c) Compute the slope of the tangent line at the point (1, 3).
(d) Sketch a graph of the function and the tangent line at x = 1.

2. Find the slope of the tangent line to y = f (x) at the indicated point.

(a) f (x) = −2x2 , (3, −18).

(b) f (x) = 5x2 − 3x + 2, (2, f (2)).
(c) f (x) = x3 , (−2, f (−2)). Hint: (a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

1.3 Limits
In section 1.2, we computed limits without saying much about limits. The
method we used doesn’t cover all possible cases. In this section, we will look
at limits in more detail.
Let us consider the following piecewise-defined function
(
2x + 1 if x 6= 2,
f (x) =
3 if x = 2.

This function is made up of two parts. One part is the line y = 2x + 1 with
the point (2, 5) deleted. The other part is the single point (2, 3).

....
.....
6
.....
.....
.....
5 ...
.....
b .
....
.
..

.....
.....
.....
3 .
..
.....
.
......
. r
.....
.....
.....
..
......
.
..
.....
.....
.....
..... -
..
......
.
..
.....
.....
2
.....
.....
..
......
.
..
.....
.....
.....
.....
..
......
.
...
.....

Figure 1.3: Graph of the piecewise-defined function y = f (x).

As the values of x approach 2, the values of y = f (x) approach 5, but

f (x) can never be 5 since that is where the “hole” is. The number 5 is not
in the range of f (x), but f (x) does have values which get arbitrarily close to
the value 5.

x 1.9 1.99 1.999 1.9999 2 2.0001 2.001 2.01 2.1

y = f (x) 4.8 4.98 4.998 4.9998 3 5.0002 5.002 5.02 5.2

Table 1.1: Table of values for the piecewise-defined function y = f (x).

We then say that f (x) approaches the value 5 as x approaches 2, or that

the limit of f (x) as x goes to 2 is equal to 5.
1.3. LIMITS 11

Symbolically we write this as

lim f (x) = 5.
x→2

Notice that it is not saying that f (2) = 5 (in fact f (2) = 3), it says that the
values of f (x) approach 5 as x approaches 2.
For a function f , the expression

lim f (x) = L
x→a

means that the values of the function f (x) approach the number L as the
values of x approach a from both directions. Notice that we are not interested
in what happens at x = a.
If there is no number L that the function f approaches as x approaches
a, then we say that the limit does not exist.
For example, consider the function f (x) = 1/x2 . As the values of x
approach 0, the values f (x) become arbitrarily large. Therefore

1
lim does not exist.
x→0 x2

For “well-behaved” functions (e.g. polynomials), we can evaluate limits

by direct substitution.

Example 1. Consider the polynomial function p(x) = 2x3 − 5x + 1, then by

direct substitution we get

lim p(x) = lim (2x3 − 5x + 1) = 2(2)3 − 5(2) + 1 = 7.

x→2 x→2

x2 − 2x + 1
Example 2. For f (x) = , by direct substitution we get
3x + 6
x2 − 2x + 1 32 − 2(3) + 1 4
lim f (x) = lim = = .
x→3 x→3 3x + 6 3(3) + 6 15

However, direct substitution does not always work and we will need to
simplify the expression before we can substitute.
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Example 3. Evaluate
x2 + x − 2
lim .
x→1 x−1
Solution: If we substitute x = 1, we get values of zero for both the numerator
and the denominator. We eliminate this problem by factoring the numerator.

x2 + x − 2 (x − 1)(x + 2)
lim = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 (x − 1)
= lim (x + 2)
x→1
=1+2
= 3.

Example 4. Evaluate √ √
x− 3
lim .
x→3 x−3
Solution: If we substitute x = 3, we get values of zero for both the numerator
and the denominator. Rationalizing the numerator eliminates this problem.
√ √ √ √ √ √ !
x− 3 x− 3 x+ 3
lim = lim ·√ √
x→3 x−3 x→3 x−3 x+ 3
(x − 3)
= lim √ √
x→3 (x − 3)( x + 3)
1
= lim √ √
x→3 x+ 3
1
=√ √
3+ 3
1
= √ .
2 3
1.3. LIMITS 13

Exercises 1.3
1. Consider (
3x + 1 if x 6= 1,
f (x) =
2 if x = 1.

(a) Sketch the graph of y = f (x).

(b) Compute lim f (x).
x→0
(c) Compute lim f (x).
x→1

x3 − 1
2. Consider f (x) = .
x−1
(a) Complete the following table:
x 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01
y = f (x)
(b) Guess what lim f (x) is.
x→1
(c) Compute lim f (x) algebraically.
x→1

3. Compute the following limits.

√ √
2 x2 − 5x + 6 x− 2
(a) lim (x − 4x − 1). (b) lim . (c) lim .
x→3 x→2 x−2 x→2 x−2
3x3 − 4x x3 + 3x2 − 4 x2/3 − 4
(d) lim . (e) lim . (f) lim 1/3 .
x→0 x2 + x x→1 x−1 x→8 x −2
1
x2 + 2x − 3 2+h
− 12 2x3 − 16
(g) lim 2 . (h) lim . (i) lim .
x→1 3x + 5x − 2 h→0 h x→2 x − 2

4. True or False?
x2 − 4 0
(a) lim = .
x→2 x − 2 0
x2 − 4
(b) If f (x) = and g(x) = x + 2, then f (x) = g(x).
x−2
x2 − 4
(c) If f (x) = and g(x) = x + 2, then lim f (x) = lim g(x).
x−2 x→2 x→2
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

1.4 The Derivative

1.4.1 Definition of the Derivative
For the function f (x) = x2 , the slope of the tangent line at x is different for
different choices of x. Indeed, the slope of the tangent line at an arbitrary
point x, denoted here by mtan (x), is

f (x + h) − f (x)
mtan (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h) − x2
2
= lim
h→0 h
(x2 + 2xh + h2 ) − x2
= lim
h→0 h
2xh + h2
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (2x + h)
h→0
= 2x.

The tangent line at any point (x, y) on the graph of y = x2 has a slope equal
to 2x.
For a function f , we call the function which gives the slopes of all tangent
lines, the derivative of f . The derivative of x2 is then equal to 2x.

Definition 1. The derivative of a function f at x, denoted by f 0 (x), is

defined by
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
provided the limit exists. If the limit exists at x = x0 , we say that the
function f is differentiable at x0 .

For a function y = f (x), a number of notations are commonly used for

the derivative. They include

dy df
f 0, f 0 (x), y0, y 0 (x), , , Dx f.
dx dx
It is a good idea to learn all these different notations.
1.4. THE DERIVATIVE 15

Example 1. Compute the derivative f 0 (x) for f (x) = x3 .

Solution: Since f (x + h) = (x + h)3 = x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 , we have
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0 h
(x + h)3 − x3
= lim
h→0 h
(x + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ) − x3
3
= lim
h→0 h
3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3
= lim
h→0 h
= lim (3x + 3xh + h2 )
2
h→0
2
= 3x .
Thus, for f (x) = x3 , f 0 (0) = 0, f 0 (1) = 3, f 0 (−2) = 12.
√
Example 2. Find the derivative of f (x) = x.
Solution: We start as in the previous example.
f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim
h→0
√ h
√
x+h− x
= lim
h→0 h
√ √ √ √ 
x+h− x x+h+ x
= lim ·√ √
h→0 h x+h+ x
h
= lim √ √
h→0 h( x + h + x)
1
= lim √ √
h→0 x+ x+h
1
= √ .
2 x
√
Thus, for f (x) = x, f 0 (4) = 14 , f 0 (9) = 61 , f 0 (10) = 2√110 .
√
Notice that f (x) = x is defined at x = 0 (f (0) = 0) but the derivative
does not exist at x = 0. The derivative f 0 (x) is defined only if x > 0. For
example f 0 (−5) is not defined.
16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Exercises 1.4.1

1. Compute the derivative of the following functions by using the defini-

tion. No shortcuts!
1
(a) f (x) = 4x2 − 2x. (b) f (x) = 2x3 + 5. (c) f (x) = .
x
√ x
(d) f (x) = x4 . (e) f (x) = x + 1. (f) f (x) = .
x+1

2. Given f (x) = 1/(x − 1), compute the derivative of f (x) at x = 5,

denoted by f 0 (5), using each of the following methods.

(a) One-Step-Method: Substitute 5 for x in the formula of the deriva-

tive, i.e., use f (5) and f (5 + h) rather than f (x) and f (x + h).
(b) Two-Step-Method: First determine f 0 (x) using the definition. Then
evaluate the derivative at x = 5.

3. On a graph of y = f (x), what does f 0 (2) represent?

1.4.2 Rules for Calculating Derivatives

We will now provide a list of rules by which derivatives can be calculated
without having to use the formal definition

f (x + h) − f (x)
f 0 (x) = lim .
h→0 h

Constant Function Rule.

For the constant function f (x) = k, we have f 0 (x) = 0.

Constant Multiple Rule.

For any constant k, if f (x) = k · g(x) , then f 0 (x) = k · g 0 (x).

Linear Function Rule.

If f (x) = mx + b, then f 0 (x) = m, the slope of the line y = mx + b.

Sum Rule.
0
f (x) + g(x) = f 0 (x) + g 0 (x).
1.4. THE DERIVATIVE 17

In section 1.4.1 we used the definition of derivative to show that

if f (x) = x2 , then f 0 (x) = 2x,

if f (x) = x3 , then f 0 (x) = 3x2 .

These two results are particular cases of the following.

Power Rule.
For any number n, if f (x) = xn , then f 0 (x) = nxn−1 .

The power rule √also works if n is a fraction or a negative number. For

example, if f (x) = x = x1/2 , taking n = 1/2 we get

1 1 1 1
f 0 (x) = x1/2−1 = x−1/2 = 1/2 = √
2 2 2x 2 x

This agrees with what we found in example 2 of section 1.4.1.

Example 1. If f (x) = 6x5 , f 0 (x) = (6 · 5)x4 = 30x4 by the Power Rule and
the Constant Multiple Rule.

Example 2. If f (x) = x7 + 6x5 , f 0 (x) = 7x6 + 30x4 by the Sum Rule.

Example 3. Compute f 0 (3) for f (x) = 1/x.

Solution: Since f (x) = 1/x = x−1 , the power rule with n = −1 gives

1
f 0 (x) = (−1)x−1−1 = −x−2 = − .
x2
Thus, f 0 (3) = − 19 .

Example 4. Compute f 0 (2) for f (x) = 2x5 − x4 + 5x3 − 6x2 − 3x + 7.

Solution: Using all the above rules we have

f 0 (x) = (2 · 5)x4 − 4x3 + (5 · 3)x2 − (6 · 2)x − 3 + 0

= 10x4 − 4x3 + 15x2 − 12x − 3.

Thus, f 0 (2) = 10(24 ) − 4(23 ) + 5(22 ) − 12(2) − 3 = 121.

18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Exercises 1.4.2

1. Compute the derivative of the following functions.

(a) f (x) = 7x5 + 5x + 1 (e) h(x) = (2x3 + 5)2

x2 x 4
(b) p(x) = − (f) V (r) = πr3
9 3 3
1 1 1
(c) g(x) = 1 + + 2 (g) s(t) = s0 + vt + at2
x x 2
(d) f (x) = (3x + 1)(2x − 3) (h) f (x) = (x + 1)3

2. Evaluate the following.

x3 √
(a) f 0 (2); f (x) = . (c) g 0 (1); g(x) = 2 x + 3x2 .
6
(b) s0 (2); s(t) = −5t4 + t − 1. (d) f 0 (−1); f (x) = 3/x.

1.5 Applications of Derivatives

1.5.1 Rates of Change
Let’s begin by recalling some familiar ideas about motion. Recall that
distance
distance = rate × time or rate = .
time
We wish to make this more precise.
If s = s(t) corresponds to the position of an object at time t, the slope of
the secant line joining two points on the curve s = s(t) corresponds to the
average velocity of the object.
If the object has position s1 at time t1 and s2 at time t2 , then the average
velocity over the time interval ∆t = t2 − t1 is defined by

change in position ∆s s(t2 ) − s(t1 ) s2 − s1

v̄ = = = = .
change in time ∆t t2 − t1 t2 − t1

As ∆t → 0, the average velocity over the time interval with endpoints t1

and t2 = t1 + ∆t should provide an increasingly accurate measure of the
instantaneous velocity at time t1 .
1.5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 19

In fact, we define the instantaneous velocity at time t1 as

s(t1 + ∆t) − s(t1 )

v(t1 ) = lim
∆t→0 ∆t
whenever the limit exists. This simply states that the derivative of the posi-
tion function with respect to time is the instantaneous velocity function.

Example 1. An object moves along a straight line so that its position in

meters is given by
s(t) = t3 − 6t2 + 9t
for all time t in seconds.

(a) Find the average velocity of the object between t = 2 and t = 5 seconds.

(b) Find the instantaneous velocity of the object as a function of time.

(c) Find the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 seconds.

(d) When is the object at rest?

Solution: (a) The average velocity between t = 2 and t = 5 is given by

s(5) − s(2) (53 − 6(52 ) + 9(5)) − (23 − 6(22 ) + 9(2))

v̄ = = = 6.
5−2 3
The average velocity is then v̄ = 6 m/s.
(b) The instantaneous velocity of the object as a function of time is

v(t) = s0 (t) = 3t2 − 12t + 9.

(c) The instantaneous velocity at t = 2 seconds is then

v(2) = 3(22 ) − 12(2) + 9 = −3 m/s.

(d) The object is at rest when its instantaneous velocity is zero. To find
when the object is at rest we have to solve v(t) = 0. Since,

v(t) = 3t2 − 12t + 9 = 3(t2 − 4t + 3) = 3(t − 3)(t − 1)

we conclude that the object is a rest at t = 1 and t = 3 seconds.

20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

In general for a curve y = f (x),

The slope of the secant line joining two points on the curve gives
the average rate of change of y with respect to x.

The slope of the tangent line at a point (x0 , y0 ) on the curve

gives the instantaneous rate of change of y with respect to x
at x0 .

In other words, the derivative f 0 (x0 ) represents the instantaneous rate

of change of y with respect to x at x0 . That is true no matter what the
variables x and y represent.

Example 2. A balloon in the shape of a sphere is being inflated. Find an

expression for the instantaneous rate of change of the volume with respect
to the radius. Evaluate this rate for a radius of 2 m.

Solution: Recall that the volume of a sphere of radius r is given by

4
V = πr3 .
3
The instantaneous rate of change of the volume with respect to the radius is
then
4
V 0 (r) = (3πr2 ) = 4πr2 .
3
For r = 2, we find

V 0 (2) = 4π(22 ) = 16π ≈ 50.27 m3 /m.

1.5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 21

Exercises 1.5.1
1. The position of a car at t seconds is given by s = 10 + 5t + 20t2 meters.
Find the instantaneous velocity as a function of time.
2. An object is dropped from the observation deck of the CN tower so
that its height in meters is given by
h(t) = 447 − 4.9t2
where t is measured in seconds (we are neglecting air resistance.)
(a) What is the average velocity between t = 1 and t = 2 seconds?
(b) What is the instantaneous velocity at t = 2 seconds?
(c) When will the object hit the ground?
(d) What is the velocity of the object when it hits the ground?
3. A bushfire spreads so that after t hours, 80t − 20t2 acres are burning.
What is the growth rate of the burning area, (the rate of change of the
acreage that is burning with respect to time) when t = 1.5 hours?
4. A circular oil spill is increasing in size. Find the instantaneous rate of
change of the area A of the spill with respect to the the radius r for
r = 100 m.
5. Population growth (the rate of change of population size with respect
to time) is proportional to the population size P . Write the latter
statement as an equation involving derivative.
6. The reaction of the body to a dose of medicine can often be represented
by an equation of the form
 
2 C M
R=M −
2 3
where C is a positive constant and M is the amount of medicine ab-
sorbed in the blood.
If the reaction is a change in blood pressure, R is measured in mil-
limeters of mercury. If the reaction is a change in temperature, R is
measured in degrees, and so on.
Find R0 (M ). (This derivative is called the sensitivity of the body to
the medicine.)
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

1.5.2 Tangent Lines

Recall that the slope of the tangent line mtan to a curve y = f (x) at some
point (x1 , y1 ) is given by the derivative of f evaluated at x1 .

mtan = f 0 (x1 )

..
...
.
. . .. ............ tangent line
. ...
P .. ..
. ...........................
.......
y1 .
.................. ..................................r......
..
..
..
.

..........................
.
........
........
........
-
x1

Figure 1.4: Tangent line at point (x1 , y1 ).

Knowing the slope and the coordinates of the given point, we can find
the equation of the tangent line.
Example 1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve y = x2 at
the point (3, 9).
Solution: The derivative of f (x) = x2 is f 0 (x) = 2x. The slope of the tangent
line at x = 3 is then
m = f 0 (3) = 2(3) = 6.
If we know one point (x1 , y1 ) and the slope m of a line, we can use the
point-slope formula
y − y1 = m(x − x1 )
to find the equation of the line.
In our case we use m = 6 and (x1 , y1 ) = (3, 9) to get

y − 9 = 6(x − 3) = 6x − 18.

The equation of the tangent line is then y = 6x − 9.

Example 2. Find all points on the graph of f (x) = 2x3 − 3x2 − 12x + 20
where the tangent line is parallel to the x-axis.
1.5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 23

Solution: A line is parallel to the x-axis if and only if its slope is zero. We
then have to find all values of x for which f 0 (x) = 0.
Here we have

f 0 (x) = 6x2 − 6x − 12 = 6(x2 − x − 2) = 6(x − 2)(x + 1).

The tangent line is then parallel to the x-axis at x = 2 and x = −1.

Exercises 1.5.2

1. Find the equation of the tangent line to y = x3 at the point (2, 8).

2. What is the equation of the tangent line to the graph of f (x) = 4x − x4

when x = −1.

3. Find a point on the curve y = x2 +4x−6 where the slope of the tangent
line is 6.

4. Find all points on the curve y = x3 where the tangent line is parallel
to the line y = 12x + 5.

5. The normal line to a curve at a point P is defined as the line through

P that is perpendicular to the tangent line at that point.

(a) Sketch the graph of f (x) = x2 − 1.

(b) Find the slope of the tangent line to the graph at the point (1, 0).
Show the tangent line on your sketch.
(c) Show the normal line to the graph at the point (1, 0) and find the
equation of this normal line. Hint: Two lines are perpendicular if
the product of their slope is −1.

6. Find the equation of the normal line to the curve y = x3 − 3x + 1 at

the point (2, 3). (see question 5.)

7. Find the value of the constant k if y = 2x is a tangent line to the curve

y = x2 + k.
24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

1.5.3 Graphing Polynomials

Consider the graph of the function in the picture below.
y
6
.
..
.. . ...
. ........
..........................
..
...
....
.
...
...
....
....
...
....
..r....
..
...........
..
..

..
...
...
...
...
.. . . . ................................P
.
... .
......
...... .....
......
.....
- x

Figure 1.5: Graph of an increasing function with a tangent line at P .

We see that as x increases (from left to right) the y values also increase.
We say that the curve is increasing. We also note that any tangent line to
the curve will have a positive slope where the function is increasing. Since
the derivative of a function determines the slope of the tangent line, we can
conclude that:

A function is increasing on an interval if and only if its

derivative is nonnegative at all points on the interval.

A similar reasoning shows that:

A function is decreasing on an interval if and only if its

derivative is nonpositive at all points on the interval.

Therefore, by analyzing the sign of the derivative, we get information

about where the function is increasing and where it is decreasing. This
information is very useful if we want to sketch the graph of the function.

Example 1. Consider the function f (x) = x3 + x. Since

f 0 (x) = 3x2 + 1 > 0 for all x,

the function is always increasing.

1.5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 25

What happens at points where the derivative is zero? Three cases could
occur as shown in the following pictures.

........q.......
6.. .
... ..
6 6
..
...
... .. .. .. ...
... ....
..
.... ..... ... ... .......
.
.q.....
.....
......q... . . .....
- - -
c c c

Figure 1.6: Three possible cases for f 0 (c) = 0.

The curve can have a local minimum (lowest point of a “valley”), a

local maximum (highest point of a “hill”), or none of these.
For a function f , if f 0 (c) = 0, we say that the graph of f has a critical
point at the point (c, f (c)). The number c is called a critical number.
An analysis of the sign of the derivative near a critical number will tell if
it corresponds to a local maximum, local minimum, or none of these.
For a critical number c, i.e., a value where f 0 (c) = 0
• If the derivative is negative just to the left of c and positive just to the
right of c, then there is a local minimum at x = c.
• If the derivative is positive just to the left of c and negative just to the
right of c, then there is a local maximum at x = c.
Example 2. Consider the function f (x) = x3 − 12x + 5. We have
f 0 (x) = 3(x2 − 4) = 3(x − 2)(x + 2).
The critical numbers are x = 2 and x = −2. Let’s look at the sign f 0 (x).
(−∞, −2) (−2, 2) (2, +∞)
(x + 2) − + +
(x − 2) − − +
f 0 (x) + − +
f (x) ↑ ↓ ↑
We conclude that x = −2 corresponds to a local maximum and x = 2 to
a local minimum. Note that the function f is increasing (↑) on the intervals
(−∞, −2) and (2, +∞), and decreasing (↓) on the interval (−2, 2).
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Guidelines for Sketching the Graph of a Polynomial.

1. Check for symmetry.
(a) f (x) = f (−x) =⇒ graph of f is symmetric about the y-axis.
(b) f (x) = −f (−x) =⇒ graph of f has symmetry through the origin.
2. Find the x and y intercepts.
3. Find all critical points, i.e., all points where the derivative is zero.
4. Construct a sign table and determine where the function is increasing
and decreasing.
5. Identify all local maxima and minima.
6. Use the above information to sketch the graph.
Exercises 1.5.3
1. Follow the guideline to sketch the graph of the following functions.
(a) f (x) = x3 − 3x2 + 4.
(b) f (x) = x3 (4 − x).
(c) f (x) = 3x5 − 5x3 .
(d) f (x) = x2 (2 − x2 ).
2. Sketch the graph of y = f (x) consistent with the following information.
Identify all the roots, local maximum and local minimum.

(−∞, −4) (−4, −2) (−2, 0) (0, 3) (3, 5) (5, +∞)

f (x) − + + − − +
f 0 (x) + + − − + +

x −5 −2 3 6
y = f (x) −2 3 −3 4

3. True of False? For a polynomial f .

(a) If f 0 (c) = 0, then f has a local maximum or minimum at x = c.
(b) If f has a local maximum at x = c, then f 0 (c) = 0.
(c) If f has a local minimum at x = c, then f 0 (c) = 0.
1.5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 27

1.5.4 Optimization
Optimization is concerned with finding maximum or minimum of a function.
The only points where a function can attain its maximum or minimum over
an interval are at critical points or at the endpoints of the interval.
In the figure below, over the interval [a, b], the minimum is attained at
the critical number x = c, and the maximum at the endpoint x = a.

y
6 .s
. ...
...
... ..............
... .. .. ......
... .. ...
... . .s
... ..
... .. .
.....s...
- x
a c b

Figure 1.7: Maximum attained at x = a. Minimum attained at x = c.

Guidelines for Solving Optimization Problems

1. If possible draw a picture.

2. Locate the quantity to be optimized (let’s call it Q).

3. Find an equation linking Q and another variable (say x) of the problem.

4. Find the derivative Q0 (x).

5. Find all critical numbers, i.e., solve Q0 (x) = 0.

6. Test to see if the critical numbers correspond to local maxima or minima

of Q by studying the signs of the derivative.

7. If the admissible values of x are restricted to a closed interval a ≤ x ≤ b,

check whether the maximum or minimum value of Q is at one of the
two endpoints x = a or x = b.

Let’s now look at examples that illustrate this.

28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

Example 1. Of all pairs of positive numbers whose product is 100, which

one has the smallest sum?
Solution. Let x and 100/x be the pair of numbers. We want to minimize
their sum
100
S =x+ .
x
Differentiating gives
100
S 0 (x) = 1 − 2 .
x
0 2
Solving S (x) = 0 gives x = 100 which implies x = ±10. Since we want
positive numbers, we only keep x = 10. The other number in the pair is then
100/10 = 10.
Do we have a minimum or a maximum? The sign of the derivative around
the critical number x = 10 will tell us.
(0, 10) (10, +∞)
0 2
S (x) = 1 − 100/x − +
S(x) ↓ ↑
This indicates that x = 10 corresponds to a minimum. The pair whose
product is 100 having the smallest sum is then (10, 10).
Example 2. A catering service will serve a particular dinner on its menu
to groups of between 20 and 50 people. For groups of size 20, the price for
the meal is 12 dollars per person. For each additional person beyond 20, the
price per person is reduced by 20 cents. What group size provides the service
with maximum revenue?
Solution: Let N = 20 + x denote the group size. Since the group size is
between 20 and 50, we consider 0 ≤ x ≤ 30.
Since the price per person is $12 for x = 0 (N = 20) and is reduced by 20
cents for each additional person, then the price per person is p = 12 − 0.2x.
Since the revenue R corresponds to the price per person times the number
of persons, we have
R = p · N = (12 − 0.2x)(20 + x) = 240 + 8x − 0.2x2 .
We then have to maximize R = R(x) over the interval [0, 30]. We find the
derivative and the critical numbers.
R0 (x) = 8 − 0.4x = 0 =⇒ x = 20.
1.5. APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 29

By studying the sign of the derivative around the critical number x = 20, we
conclude that it corresponds to a local maximum.
x R(x)
(−∞, 20) (20, +∞)
0 240
R0 (x) = 8 − 0.4x + −
20 320 ← MAX
R(x) ↑ ↓
30 300
We then conclude that a maximum revenue of $320 is obtained for x = 20,
i.e., a group size of 40.
Example 3. A farmer wants to construct a rectangular pen next to a barn,
that is 60 feet long, using all of the barn as part of one side of the pen. Find
the dimensions of the pen with the largest area that the farmer can build
using 300 feet of fencing material.
Solution: Let’s draw a picture first.
60 feet
qqq qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq-
qqqqqqqqq
qqq qqq
qq Barn q x -
qqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqqq
6 6

y Pen y

?
 -?
60 + x

The area of the pen is: A = (60 + x)y. To maximize the area, all fencing
material should be used, therefore
(60 + x) + x + 2y = 300 =⇒ x + y = 120.
We then have to maximize A(x) = (60 + x)(120 − x) over 0 ≤ x ≤ 120.
Expanding, we get
A(x) = (60 + x)(120 − x) = 7200 + 60x − x2 .
Solving A0 (x) = 0 gives
A0 (x) = 60 − 2x = 0 =⇒ x = 30.
Studying the sign of the derivative around the critical number x = 30, we
conclude that x = 30 corresponds to a local maximum.
30 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION TO CALCULUS

x A(x)
(−∞, 30) (30, +∞)
0 7200
A0 (x) = 60 − 2x + −
30 8100 ← MAX
A(x) ↑ ↓
120 0
If x = 30, then y = 120 − x = 90. The dimensions of the pen that
maximize the area are then 900 × 900 .

Exercises 1.5.4
1. The sum of the base and the height of a triangle is 20 cm. Find the
dimensions for which the area is maximized.
2. Repeat example 3 above with 400 feet of fencing material available.
3. A fence is to be built to enclose a rectangular area of 5000 m2 . The fence
along three sides is to be made of material that costs 5 dollars/m. The
material for the fourth side costs 15 dollars/m. Find the dimensions of
the rectangle that will allow the cheapest fence to be built.
4. Determine the radius and height of a cylinder with a volume of 100 cm3
and with the smallest possible surface area (including top and bottom).
5. An egg ranch has 120 chickens, each of which produces 250 eggs per
year. If fewer chicken are squeezed into the chicken coop, the result-
ing extra space will induce the remaining chickens to increase their
egg production. Specifically, for each chicken removed, the remaining
chickens will each produce 5 more eggs per year. How many chickens
should the ranch accommodate in order to maximize the total yearly
egg production?
6. An open-top box is to be made by cutting away congruent squares
from the corners of a 12 × 12 sheet of cardboard. How large should the
squares be to maximize the volume of the box?
7. What are the dimensions of an open box with square base and volume
32 cm3 , that minimize the surface area of the outside?
Appendix A

Answers to All Exercises

Section 1.2 (page 9)

1. (a) 6 (b) 4+2h (c) 4

4
(d)
2

-2 -1 0 1 2 3

2. (a) -12 (b)17 (c) 12

Section 1.3 (page 13)

...
6 ...
....
....
a
....
....
....
...
...
.... q
....
....
1. (a) .
...
....
.
- (b) 1 (c) 4
.
....
....
...
......
....

x 0.99 0.999 1.001 1.01

2. (a) (b) 3 (c) 3
y = f (x) 2.97 2.997 3.003 3.03
1
3. (a) −4 (b) −1 (c) √
2 2
(d) −4 (e) 9 (f) 4 (g) 0 (h)− 14

31
32 APPENDIX A. ANSWERS TO ALL EXERCISES

(i) 24
4. (a) False (b) False (c) True

Section 1.4.1 (page 16)

1. (a) 8x − 2 (b) 6x2 (c) − x12 (d) 4x3 (e) 2√x+1 1
(f) 1
(x+1)2
0
2. f (5) = −1/16
3. f 0 (2) represents the slope of the tangent line at x = 2.

Section 1.4.2 (page 18)

1. (a) f 0 (x) = 35x4 + 5 (b) p0 (x) = 29 x − 13 (c) g 0 (x) = − x12 − x23
(d) f 0 (x) = 12x − 7 (e) h0 (x) = 12x2 (2x3 + 5) (f) V 0 (r) = 4πr2
(g) s0 (t) = v + at (h) f 0 (x) = 3(x + 1)2
2. (a) 2 (b) −159 (c) 7 (d) −3

Section 1.5.1 (page 21)

1. v = 5 + 40t
2. (a) −14.7 m/s (b) −19.6 m/s (c) 9.55 s (d) −93.6 m/s
3. 20 Acres/h 4. 200π m2 /m
0
5. P (t) = k P (t) 6. R0 (M ) = CM − M 2

Section 1.5.2 (page 23)

1. y = 12x − 16 2. y = 8x + 3 3. (1, −1) 4. (2, 8), (−2, −8)
... 6 .. ... 6 ...
... . ...
.. ...
..
...
...
... .. .
...
....
5. (a) ... .. (b)
...
... ..
... mtan = 2
..
...
... .
...
... .. ...
..
.. .
.
..... ..... - ...
...
....
..... .......
...
....
-
..... ..
.............

... 6 .
... ...
... ... ..
... ......
... ......
...
............. ......
....

(c)
...
... .......... .
...
....
.
Normal line: y = − 12 x + 1
...
... .......... - .. 2
....
..... .......... ........
..............
....
..
...

6. y = − 19 x + 29
9
7. k = 1
 33

Section 1.5.3 (page 26)

1.

5
25
4

3 20

2 15

(a) 1 (b) 10
-2 -1 0 1 2 3
5
-1

-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

-3 -5

2 1

1 0.5

(c) -2 -1 0 1 2 (d) -2 -1 0 1 2

-1 -0.5

-2 -1

2. Any graph with roots at x = −4, 0, 5, local maximum at x = −2,

local minimum at x = 3, increasing on (−∞, −2) and (3, +∞), decreasing
on (−2, 3), and passing through the given points is a correct answer.
3. (a) False (b) True (c) True

Section 1.5.4 (page 30)

1. Base and height are 10 cm
2. x = 55, y = 115. Dimensions:
p 1150 × 1150
3. 50 m × 100 m 4. r = 3 50/π, h = 100/(πr2 )
5. 85 chickens 6. Squares are 2 × 2
7. The box is 4 cm × 4 cm × 2 cm