Chapter | - Introduction A mechanical vibration is the motion of a particle or a body which oscillates about a position of equilibrium. Most vibrations in machines and structures are undesirable because of the increased stresses and energy losses which accompany them. They should therefore be eliminated or reduced as much as possible by appropriate design. The analysis of vibrations has become increasingly important in recent years owing to the current trend toward higher-speed machines and lighter structures. There is every reason to expect that this trend will continue and that an even greater need for vibration analysis will develop in the future. The analysis of vibrations is a very extensive subject to which entire texts have been devoted. Our present study will therefore be limited to the simpler types of vibrations, namely, the vibrations of a body or a system of bodies with one degree of freedom ‘A mechanical vibration generally results when a system is displaced from a position of stable equilibrium. The system tends to return to this position under the action of restoring forces (either elastic forces, as in the case of a mass attached to a spring, or gravitational forces, as in the case of a pendulum). But the system generally reaches its original position with a certain acquired velocity which carries it beyond that position. Since the process can be repeated indefinitely, the system keeps moving back and forth across its position of equilibrium. The time interval required for the system to complete a full cycle of motion is called the period of the vibration. The number of cycles per unit time defines the frequency, and the maximum displacement of the system from its position of equilibrium is called the amplitude of the vibration. When the motion is maintained by the restoring forces only, the vibration is said to be a free vibration. When a periodic force is applied to the system, the resulting motion is described as a forced vibration. When the effects of friction can be neglected, the vibrations are said to be undamped. However, all vibrations are actually damped to some degree. If a free vibration is only slightly damped, its amplitude slowly decreases until, after a certain time, the motion comes to a stop. But if damping is large enough to prevent any true vibration, the system then slowly regains its original position. A damped forced vibration is maintained as long as the periodic force which produces the vibration is applied. The amplitude of the vibration, however, is affected by the magnitude of the damping forces.References: Beer F. P. et. al., Vector Mechanics for Engineers - Dynamics 9th ed., (McGraw-Hill Book Companies, Inc., 2010) Bottega W. J., Engineering Vibrations, (Taylor & Francis Group. 2006) Inman D. J., Engineering Vibration, (Pearson Education, Inc. 2008)Introduction ME 416 — Vibration Engineering Introduction * Mechanical Vibration - motion of a particle or a body which oscillates about a position of equilibriumCategory * Degrees of Freedom * Based on applied forces * Based on restrictive forces * Degrees of FreedomCategory * Degrees of Freedom 1. Single Degree of Freedom (SDOF) - requires a single point on the system to define its configuration or state 2. Multi Degree of Freedom (>1 degree) — requires a multiple point on the system to define its configuration or state Category * Degrees of Freedom 1. Single Degree of 2. Multi Degree of Freedom Freedom* Based on applied forces Category * Based on applied forces i: Free Vibration — the motion is maintained by the restoring forces only . Forced Vibration — periodic force is applied to the system* Based on restrictive forces Category * Based on restrictive forces 1. Undamped ~ effects of friction can be neglected 2. Damped - motion will slowly decreases until, after a certain time, the motion comes to a stop. There is a force stopping the motion.ereChapter Il - Free Vibration Spring-Mass Model Consider a body of mass m attached to a spring of constant k. Since at the present time we are concerned only with the motion of its mass center, we will refer to this body as a particle. When the particle is in static equilibrium, the forces acting on it are its weight W and the force T exerted by the spring, of magnitude T = k6,, where 5: denotes the elongation of the spring. We have, therefore, W = k6,.. Suppose now that the particle is displaced through a distance x», from its equilibrium position and released with no initial velocity. If xm has been chosen smaller than dst, the particle will move back and forth through its equilibrium position; a vibration of amplitude xm has been generated. Note that the vibration can also be produced by imparting a certain initial velocity to the particle when it is in its equilibrium position x = 0 or, more generally, by starting the particle from any given position x = xo with a given initial velocity vo Equikbrium To analyze the vibration, let us consider the particle in a position P at some arbitrary time t. Denoting by x the displacement OP measured from the equilibrium position O (positive downward), we note that the forces acting on the particle are its weight W and the force T exerted by the spring which, in this position, has a magnitude T = k(5.: + x). Recalling that W = k6.t, we find that the magnitude of the resultant F of the two forces (positive downward) is F = W - k(Sst + x) = -kx. Thus the resultant of the forces exerted on the particle is proportional to the displacement OP measured from the equilibrium position. Recalling the sign convention, we note that F is always directed toward the equilibrium position O. Substituting for F into the fundamental equation F = ma and recalling that a is the second derivative x” of x with respect to t, we write mx” + kx = 0. Note that the same sign convention should be used for the acceleration x” and for the displacement x, namely, positive downward. The motion is called a simple harmonic motion. It is characterized by the fact that the acceleration is proportional to the displacement and of opposite direction. We can verify that each of the functionsx,=sin(/k/mt) and x2=cos(./k/m t) satisfies the differential equation. These functions, therefore, constitute two particular solutions of the differential equation. The general solution is obtained by multiplying each of the particular solutions by an arbitrary constant and adding. Thus, the general solution is expressed as x = Cyx + Cox2 = Cy sin(k/mt) + C2 cos(/k/m t) We note that x is a periodic function of the time t and does, therefore, represent a vibration of the particle P. The coefficient of t in the expression we have obtained is referred to as the natural circular frequency of the vibration and is denoted by wy. We have wy = Vk/m. Substituting for yk/m into equation, we write x =C;sinw,t + Cz,COSW,t. This is the general solution of the differential equation x" + W,2x = 0 which can be obtained from previous by dividing both terms by m and observing that k/m = «,”. Differentiating twice both members of Eq. (19.5) with respect to t, we obtain the following expressions for the velocity and the acceleration at time t: v =x’ = Cy@p COS Wat — CoWp SiN Opt and a=x" = Co)? sin w_t — C2@p? COS Wnt. From here we will have the value for period T as T = 27/wy, The number of cycles described per unit of time is denoted by f, and is known as the natural frequency of the vibration. We write fy = 1/T = w,/2m. The unit of frequency is a frequency of 1 cycle per second, corresponding to a period of 1s. In terms of base units the unit of frequency is thus 1/s or s™. It is called a hertz (Hz) in the SI system of units. It also follows from previous equation that a frequency of 1 s* or 1 Hz corresponds to a circular frequency of 2n rad/s. In problems involving angular velocities expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm), we have 1 rpm = 1/60 s-1 = 1/60 Hz, or 1 rpm = (2n/60) rad/s. Simple Pendulum ma 7nay Ww Most of the vibrations encountered in engineering applications can be represented by a simple harmonic motion. Many others, although of a different type, can be approximated by a simple harmonic motion, provided that their amplitude remains small. Consider, for example, a simple pendulum, consisting of a bob of mass m attached to a cord of length L,which can oscillate in a vertical plane. At a given time t, the cord forms an angle u with the vertical. The forces acting on the bob are its weight W and the force T exerted by the cord. Resolving the vector ma into tangential and normal components, with mat directed to the right, i.e., in the direction corresponding to increasing values of 8, and observing that at a; = La = 16", we write EF, = ma;, —W sin = mL". Noting that W = mg and dividing through by mL, we obtain 8” + g/L sin = 0. For oscillations of small amplitude, we can replace sin @ by 8, expressed in radians, and write 0” + g/L = 0. Comparison with equation from spring-mass model shows that the differential equation is that of a simple harmonic motion with a natural circular frequency w, equal to (g/L)'/*. The general solution of the equation can, therefore, be expressed as @ = C, sin Wat + Cz COS Wnt, where the value obtained for «wn, we get the following expression for the period of the small oscillations of a pendulum of length L, T = 21/0 = 2x JL/g Free vibration of rigid bodies The analysis of the vibrations of a rigid body or of a system or rigid bodies possessing a single degree of freedom is similar to the analysis of the vibrations of a particle. An appropriate variable, such as a distance x or an angle 8, is chosen to define the position of the body or system of bodies, and an equation relating this variable and its second derivative with respect to t is written. If the equation obtained is of the same form as spring-mass model or simple pendulum, if we have x" + w2x =0 or 0” + w20 =0 the vibration considered is a simple harmonic motion. The period and natural frequency of the vibration can then be obtained by identifying w, and substituting its value into as the previous equation. In general, a simple way to obtain one of differential equation is to express that the system of the external forces is equivalent to the system of the effective forces by drawing a free-body-diagram equation for an arbitrary value of the variable and writing the appropriate equation of motion. We recall that our goal should be the determination of the coefficient of the variable x or 8, not the determination of the variable itself or of the derivative x" or 8”. Setting this coefficient equal to w2, we obtain the natural circular frequency, @», from which T and f, can be determined. The method we have outlined can be used to analyze vibrations which are truly represented by a simple harmonic motion, or vibrations of small amplitude which can be approximated by a simple harmonic motion.Sample Problem 1. A 30-Ib block is supported by the spring shown. If the block is moved vertically downward from its @ equilibrium position and released, determine (a) > the period and frequency of the resulting motion, > 20 Ibfin (b) the maximum velocity and acceleration of the block if the amplitude of its motion is 2.1 in. > 30 Ib 2. Asimple pendulum consisting of a bob attached to a cord oscillates in a vertical plane with a period of 1.3 s. Assuming simple harmonic motion and knowing that the maximum velocity of the bob is 15 in./s, determine (a) the amplitude of the motion in degrees, (b) the maximum tangential acceleration of the bob. 3. A uniform plate with a side 2b, is __ suspended in a hinge as shown in the | figure. For small oscillations of the plate, /, determine the equation for natural | circular frequency. Note: Mass moment of inertia transfer formula, | new Im = Im + md? | 4. A cylinder of weight W and radius r is suspended from a looped cord as shown. One end of the cord is attached directly to a rigid support, while the other end is attahced to a spring of constant k. Determine the natural circular frequency and period of the vibration of the cylinder.Exercise Problem 1) Determine the maximum velocity and maximum acceleration of a particle which moves in simple harmonic motion with an amplitude of 0.2 in. and a period of 0.15. 2) A particle moves in simple harmonic motion. Knowing that the amplitude is 300 mm and the maximum acceleration is 5 m/s’, determine the maximum velocity of the particle and the frequency of its motion. Ib and is attached to a spring of constant k = 4 Ib/in. If end B of the rod is depressed 0.4 in. and released, determine (a) the period 4 Cen 3) The uniform rod shown weighs 15 7 s of vibration, (b) the maximum velocity of end B. 4) A simple pendulum consisting of a bob attached to a cord of length | = 800 mm oscillates in a vertical plane. Assuming simple harmonic motion and knowing that the bob is released from rest when @ = 6°, determine (a) the frequency of oscillation, (b) the maximum velocity of the bob.References: Beer F. P. et. al., Vector Mechanics for Engineers - Dynamics 9th ed., (McGraw-Hill Book Companies, Inc., 2010) Bottega W. J., Engineering Vibrations, (Taylor & Francis Group. 2006) Inman D. J., Engineering Vibration, (Pearson Education, Inc. 2008)Free Vibration ME 416 — Vibration Engineering Free Vibration * Spring-Mass Model * Simple Pendulum * Free Vibration of Rigid Bodies* Spring-Mass Model Spring-Mass Model Ys =0 = @ equilibrium o W-T-0 butt 5, Wo key =0 Wm beeSpring-Mass Model Spring-Mass Model Ye =m, W-Tema bul? = Kn, +2) — @ vibration W~Rbe, 4) =n 4 W kbp kx = 14 @ euibroura W = hb, 3 nix= me mathe =0 wherea my" =k =0Spring-Mass Model +) p= my WoT ma but =i(5q 1x) W XSq1x)=ma Wo kbp kx = ma @ equeltbrivm W= hove ix = m0 — @ vibration Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients Second Orde Liner Dileental Equations eth conan coco: andomenal {oluions Wrontion sence and Unione of oa the ‘racers pation solos homie car pon con of rd Ener quo Tah hater we wil study oa dita egos of te snarl + poy + a= 80.Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients Second Order Liner Dilerental Equations ‘Second one ne ‘econ fdr Inths hater nee fonmtelow- now Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients Second Order Linear Differential Equations ‘con fdr eet ed tec congrats Ins hater we wateHomogeneous Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients * Homogeneous linear differential equation mx" +kx =0 * In terms of differential operator D (mp? +k)x=0 * The auxiliary or characteristic equation ma? +k =0 * Solving forthe rootA —— Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation with Constant Coefficients * The root is imaginary root. k ast|oi m * Therefore: mx" + kx =0 x=C,sin{ |—t}]+C,cos| |—t m mSpring-Mass Model +) p= my WoT ma but =i(5q 1x) W XSq1x)=ma Wo kbp kx = ma @ equeltbrivm W= hove ix = m0 — @ vibration Spring-Mass Model * General equation 1 = Cy sin LC, cone L OnSpring-Mass Model Spring-Mass ModelSpring-Mass Model Natural Circular Frequency Spring-Mass Model ax Period 7-2Spring-Mass Model " se Frequency f Spring-Mass Model Natural circular frequency «, = yk/m —the length of one cycle of the curve Natural frequency * — The number of times the sine wave goes through a complete cycle in the space of 1 second 10Spring-Mass Model * General equation SIN @qt | Cy COSOqE x=A sin(w,t + >) Spring-Mass Model Phase Angle Amplitude 11Spring-Mass Model * Amplitude a= yer +," — the distance from the middle value or line running through the graph up to the highest point. 18 * Phase Angle # = tan™'— 1 —the angular displacement of a sinusoid from a reference point or time Spring-Mass Model x =A sin(wpt +p) x = A(sinw,t cos p + cos w,t sin) x = (Acos ) sinw,t + (A sing) cos yt x —Cysina,t + C, cosant C=Acsd = G = Asing 12Spring-Mass Model x=A sin(w,t + p) x = A(sinayt cos + cos w,t sine) (Acos§) sina,t + (Asing) cos a,t x C, sin @_t + C, COSOnt Cy =Acsd = G = Asing G2 +O? =A? cos? p+ A? sin? g Gy? +? = A? (cos? p+ sin? 6) G? +.6;7 = (cos? g + sin? p) = A (eos? p-+sin2gy? C2 tata 24Ge Az ar+ Spring-Mass Model x=A sin(ont +) (sin a, cos + cos, t sin) x = (Acos $) sinw,t + (Asin) cos wt x Cysinw,t + C; cosont C=Aasd = Asing G _ Asing G Acs & _Asing fond seer tane = tan" 13Spring-Mass Model * Amplitude A= fo?+e" yo + Ge * Phase Angle X= A sin(w,t + 9) CG xa Cysinaye +6, cosa, ed oa tant Spring-Mass Model * Position/distance X—Csinw,t +6, cose,t * velocity P= 2" = C0, COS, — Ce, SIN Wgt * acceleration @ =x" = —Cyu,? sin wat — Cy, C05 dat 14Spring-Mass Model * maximum velocity Umar = A(@n) * maximum acceleration @max = A(wn)? * Simple Pendulum 15Simple Pendulum — @ vibration/swinging -W7sind = may -mgsind =meq op= le vg sin 0 hla @ very small angled <1 sin@ = 9&cos? =1 bu, =6" Simple Pendulum * Natural circular frequency o, = Vai * Period 2n re * Natural frequency _ 16Simple Pendulum * Position/distance s=70 8 =C,sina,t +C, cos wat a * velocity @=6' = C0, cosw,t — Ge, sin ot * acceleration = 8" = Cor, * Free Vibration of Rigid Bodies 7Free Vibration of Rigid Bodies Set appropriate variable Choose position of equilibrium Establish differential equation Determine the natural circular frequency x— sina, + C, cosw,,t vx = Cia COs aint — CoA si a -C,a,7 sin wt — C0, cosa,t 0 —C, sincrnt + C2 608 nt = Cay, C08 gt — to, SiN gt =C,w,7 sin o,f — C0,2 cost Free Vibration of Rigid Bodies * New equation to use so) Mate * At pivot point Ine = 14 md? 18ere 19Chapter Ill - Equivalent Systems In many applications the motion of a certain point of the system is of primary concern, and a single type of motion is dominant. For such cases certain simplifications may be made that allow us to approximate a higher degree of freedom system by a lower degree of freedom system, say a single degree of freedom system. Such simplifications shall be demonstrated in this section. Simplifications of this type approximate one type of motion (the lowest mode) of the many possible motions of discrete multi-degree of freedom systems and continuous systems. Thus, even if such a representation adequately represents a particular mode, it cannot capture all possible motion. Therefore, such approximations are only suitable for applications where the motion that is captured by the simplified model is dominant. Results of simplified models may be compared with those of multi-degree of freedom and continuous systems as they are studied in full in subsequent chapters of this text. The concept of equivalent systems will be introduced via several examples. In these examples, an equivalent stiffness is determined from a static deflection of a continuous system such as an elastic beam or rod. Since the inertia of the structure is neglected, such models are justifiable only when the mass of the beam or rod is much smaller than other masses of the system. Extension/Contraction of Elastic Rods Elastic rods possess an infinite number of degrees of freedom. Nevertheless, if the mass of the rod is small compared with other masses to which it is attached, and if we are interested only in the motion of a single point, say the unsupported end, the elastic rod may be modeled as an equivalent elastic spring as discussed below. Consider a uniform elastic rod of length L, cross-sectional area A, and elastic modulus E. Let x correspond to the axial coordinate, and let the rod be fixed at the end x = 0 as shown in Figure 1.6. Further, let the rod be subjected to a tensile force of magnitude Fy applied at the end x = L, as indicated. If u(x) corresponds to the axial displacement of the cross section originally located at x then, for small axial strains e(x), the strain and displacement are related by €(x) = du/dx. @ uo ©) - QUE. The constitutive relation for an elastic rod in uniaxial tension/compression is o (x) = Ee (x), where o is the axial stress in the rod. It follows from two equations that the resultant membrane force, N(x), acting over the cross section at x is given by N(x) = o(x)A = EA du/dx. Consideration of the L A,equilibrium of a differential volume element of the rod yields its governing equation as EA d*u/dx’ = n(x) where n(x) represents a distributed axial load. For the present problem n(x) = 0, and the boundary conditions for the rod of figure above are stated mathematically as u(0) = 0, EA du/dx|x=L = Fo. Integrating Eq. (1.4), with n(x) = 0, imposing the boundary conditions (1.5), and evaluating the resulting expression at x = L gives the axial deflection of the loaded end, A,, as A, = Fol/AE. Rearranging the equation then gives the relation Fo = kA, where k = EA/L. The equation Fy = kA, may be seen to be the form of the constitutive relation for a linear spring. Thus, if we are only interested in the motion of the free end of the rod, and if the mass of the rod is negligible, then the elastic rod may be modeled as an equivalent spring whose stiffness is given by the previous equation. In this way, the continuous system (the elastic rod) is modeled as an equivalent single degree of freedom system. The Cantilever Beam Consider a uniform elastic beam of length L, cross-sectional area moment of inertia | and elastic modulus E that is supported as shown in Figure 1.7a. Let the beam be subjected to a transverse point load of magnitude PO applied on its free end, and let A, correspond to the deflection of that point as indicated. Suppose now that we are only interested in the motion of the point of the beam under the load, and that the inertia of the beam is negligible compared with other masses that the beam will ultimately be connected to. If we wish to construct an equivalent single degree of freedom system for the beam then we must seek a relation between the applied load and the load point deflection of the form Py = kA, where the parameter k is an equivalent stiffness. That is, we wish to treat the beam as an equivalent elastic spring of stiffness k as shown in Figure 1.7b. To find k, let us consider the static deflection of the beam due to the applied point load. If w(x) corresponds to the deflection of the centerline of the beam at the axial coordinate x, then we know from elementary beam theory that the governing equation for the transverse motion of an elastic beam subjected to a distributed transverse load of intensity q(x) is of the form El(d'w/dx") = q(x), where q(x) = 0 for the case under consideration. The boundary conditions for a beam that is clamped at the origin and loaded by a point load at its free end are w(0) = dw/dx|x=0, El(d’w/dx’)|x=L = 0, El(d°w/dx*) | x=L = -Po.(a) (b) El |. | —— Integrating El(d‘w/dx") = q(x), with q(x) = 0, imposing the boundary conditions and evaluating the resulting solution at x = L gives the load point deflection A, = w(L) = (Po/El)(L’/3). Solving the equation for Po gives the relation Pg = kA, where k = 3EI/L’. We have thus found the equivalent stiffness (ie. the stiffness of an equivalent spring) for a cantilever beam loaded at its free edge by a transverse point load. We shall next use this result to establish mathematical models for selected sample structures. The Simply Supported Beam We next construct an equivalent single degree of freedom system for a simply supported beam subjected to a transverse point load applied at the midpoint of the span. The equivalent stiffness of this structure can, of course, be found by solving the equation subject to the appropriate boundary conditions. However, we shall use the equivalent stiffness of the cantilever beam, as a shortcut to establish the equivalent stiffness of the present structure, as was done earlier for the modeling of side-sway of a single story building. Toward this end, let us consider a simply supported beam of length { = 2L and bending stiffness El, and let the beam be subjected to a transverse point load of magnitude Qo = 2P, applied at the center of the span as shown in figure. Consideration of the differential beam element on the interval —dx/2 < x < dx/2 shows that the problem is equivalent to that of half of the structure on 0 b0" a @ very small angle (0 < 6 = 10°) sind = 6,cos a0 = £50" S50" +90 =0 3 Or T b i 24 al <== > 2) ——| —_| fe‘A cylinder of weight W and radius r is suspended from a looped cord as shown. One end of the cord is attached directly to a rigid support, while the other end is attahced to a spring of constant k. Determine the natural circular frequency and period of the J J vibration of the cylinder. @equilibrium 2 T,=T = kb +0 IM, = 0 2 =A -hQr) + Wo) =0 T; T+T,-W=0 —T,(2p) + Wf) = 2% -W=0 -2%,+W=0 A 2h =W 2h =W since Ty = k&se since Ty = k8ge 2kdgp = W + Dkbye = W @ vibration Tz = kee + 5) +0 DM, = Ta =T,(2r cos 8) + W(r cos 0) = (Emr? +mr?)a K (se + 6)(2r 05 8) + Wr cos 8) = (mr? + mr?) a = k6ge(2r cos 8) ~ k6(2r cos) + W(r cos) = (mr? + mr?).a 2kb g(r €088) ~ 2k6(r cos 6) + W(r.c056) = (Emr? + mr?) aq; since 2kbye = W =W(r-cos 6) ~ 2k6(r cos 8) + Wr cos 6) = (mr? + mr?) —Hi(-c050)— 2k5(r cos 0) + Wereosd)= (Zmr?)a; since 5 = 2rsind =2k(2r sin 8)(r-c0s 0) = (Zmr?) a @ very small angle: sin@ = 6,cos@ = -2k(2r0)(r) = (mr!) « —4kr? = (Zmr?) a; —4ky46 = (Zim?) a 4k9 = (2m) a]; 6" +9 =0 [8k a om