2.1 Subgrade Soil

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Contents

2.0 Introduction

2.1 Soil survey and Investigations

2.1.1 Depth of investigation


2.0 Subgrade Soil
2.1.2 Testing Frequency
2.2 Essential Laboratory Tests
2.2.1 Particle size distribution test
2.2.2 Water content

Black cotton soil: expansive clay 2.2.3 Atterberg limit or consistency limit
2.2.4 Soil compaction
2.2.5 CBR test & swell
2.2.6 Resilient modulus test
2.3 Soil classification
2.3.1 AASHTO classification system

Zeleke D. 2.3.2 Unified soil classification system(USCS)

zeladamtie@gmail.com 2.4 Problematic soils

Feb, 2022 1 2

Introduction Desirable Properties of subgrade soil


Soil:
• The performance of a road is significantly affected by the characteristics of the sub-
• is the un-aggregated or un-cemented deposits of mineral and/or organic particles or
grade. In highway construction the ff properties are expected from sub grade soil.
fragments covering large portion of the earth's crust.
i. It should remain stable i.e.,
• Consists mainly of mineral matter formed by (as a resultant of) – good strength (enough strong to resist shear failure & permanent deformation) & stiffness (to
– physical disintegration or chemical decomposition of the rocks brought about by minimize vertical deflection ) in adverse loading and climatic conditions.

wind, water, temperature, pressure or by plant or animal life. • Stronger and stiffer materials provide a more effective foundation for the riding surface and

• The properties of soil differ depending upon the type of soil and amount of water will be more resistant to stresses from repeated loadings and environmental conditions.

contained by them. The presence of small amount of water in a soil, acts as an


ii. It should be incompressible.

adhesive agent while higher amounts as a lubricating agent. – Soil used in embankment should be incompressible. This will prevent differential

• Based on the individual grain size of soil particles, soils have been classified as settlement in the sub grade and thus failures. To achieve incompressibility, the soil used

gravel, sand, silt, and clay. in sub grade is compacted or stabilized adequately.

• is the most important foundation and construction material for pavement structures. iii. It should have good drainage properties.

– Foundation material for all pavements as – Good drainage is essential to avoid excessive retention of moisture by the soil and to

• undisturbed in-situ/natural sub grade material or reduce the potential frost action.
iv. Under sever conditions of water, soil should not swell.
• transported and reworked embankment material (Borrow).
– Minimum variation in volume will ensure minimum variation in differential expansion and
– Construction material for pavement structures either
thus differential strength value, i.e. volume stability (no/minimum shrink / swell
• in its natural form (sand and gravel) or
characteristics with change in moisture content).
• in a processed form as stabilized layer.
v. It should be easily compactable.
♥ Moisture and dry density influence the engineering behavior of a soil mass.
3 – This will ensure higher dry density and strength under a particular type and amount
4 of
♥ Soil investigation is, thus, an integral part of the location, design and construction of highways.
compaction.
Cont’d 2.1 Soil Surveys and Investigations
Many pavement failures could be traced to insufficient consideration
• Site investigation is an integral part of the location, design and construction of a
given to the natural sub-grade material, especially in the case of
road and provides essential information on
problematic soils.
– the alignment soil characteristics, construction materials availability, Topography,
The identification of the subgrade soil is of paramount importance and half land use and land cover, traffic survey, Hydrological surveys, Environmental issues
the solution towards the mitigation measures. (including climate) & socio-political considerations.
Road failures in the form of wavy surface, corrugations, rutting, and • Soil survey for highway purposes involve
shoving in bituminous roads and phenomena of soil pumping, blowing, – the exploration of the soils along the highway routes and
and consequent cracking of cement concrete roads, are due to poor sub – the identification of suitable soils for use as sub base and fill materials.
grade soil conditions. • In selecting the alignment for a new highway:

– The 1st step is normally to define a number of conceivable (possible) corridors


between the end termini of the road.

– The 2nd step is to select the best corridor for the proposed road and define
within it one or more different alignments.

• These alignments are compared, and a final selection is made for design
purposes. The process involves continuous searching and selecting, using
increasingly more detailed knowledge of sub grade soils at each decision-
making stage.

5 6

Cont’d Cont’d
• The results of soil investigation provide pertinent information about soil Before a field investigation is carried out at the site, preliminary
and rock for a decision on one or more of the following subjects. information regarding soil condition can be obtained from :
 Selection of roadway alignment
i. Geological and agricultural soil maps. These often indicate the
 Decision of the need for sub grade or embankment foundation treatment
types of soil or geological formation that cover the area being
 Investigation of slope stability in cuts and embankments
investigated.
 Location and design of ditches and culverts
ii. Aerial photographs. Terrain information visible on air photos can
 Selection and design of the roadway pavement
be used for identification of most of the common bedrock types
 Location and evaluation of suitable borrow and construction materials, and
associated residual soils, transported soils, and organic soils.
 Design of foundations for bridges and other structures
• Information captured during the site investigation is used by the design engineer to prepare iii. Satellite images. Satellite images are employed as a supplemental
and refine the detailed engineering design. This information is usually captured within a to air photos or as a substitute for air photos for geological studies
series of documents that are prepared by the design engineer, initially for consideration by
and soil investigations.
the client and ultimately to develop the tender and draft contract documents. These
documents would normally include separate volumes dealing with the following design iv. Area reconnaissance. Reconnaissance survey aids in securing broad
aspects: understanding of soil conditions and associated engineering problems that may
– Alignment Survey and Geometric Design; Traffic and Traffic Loading; Materials and Sub grade be encountered. The visual examination of vegetation cover, roadway cuts, and
Design; Pavement Design; Hydrology, Drainage and Water Crossings; Ground Stability and
valleys in the area can give clue. The depth of water level in adjacent wells
Geotechnical Design; Environmental (EIA); Social and Complementary Activities; and
may indicate the elevation of the groundwater table.
Engineer’s Cost Estimate.
7 8
Cont’d
 Field investigations and sample collection for laboratory tests are
commonly carried out by the following four methods:
• Geophysical methods (seismic or electrical).
– The seismic refraction method:
• relies on the principle that the velocity of sound in soils and rocks is Metal
different for different materials. It is particularly useful in predicting the Rods
depth to bedrock.
– The electrical resistivity:
• mainly depends on the content of clay minerals, moisture content, and
type and concentration of electrolyte in the soil-water. An increasing content
of clay, water or electrolyte causes decreasing the resistivity of soils.

• Test pits or trenches: suitable for shallow depths only to sample soils and
rocks and register soil profiles.

• Hand augers: suitable for shallow depths only to obtain disturbed or


mixed samples of soils.
Blade
• Boring test holes and sampling with drill rigs: the principal method for
detailed soils investigations.
9 10

2.1.1 Depth of investigations Cont’d


• The depth of test pits and borings should in no case be less than 1.5m below the
• It is always required to plan and conduct soil surveys in a proposed sub grade level unless rock material is encountered.
manner that examines sub grade materials according to their • The engineer in charge of planning the investigations should make every effort to

suitability in load bearing layers within the zone of the design locate the test pits (along the alignment as well as within the lateral extent of the
anticipated excavation) in order to optimise the representativity of the material
depth as shown in Table 2-1 .
excavated from the test pit.
– The design depth is the depth from the finished road level to the
• A preliminary vertical alignment may be required at the time of the soil survey in
depth that the load bearing strength of the soil no longer has an order to ensure that soil samples are actually taken at levels that fall within the
effect on the pavement’s performance in relation to traffic loading. design depth of the road.

• Properties of soil below the design depth may indirectly affect • For ordinary work, it is quite sufficient to go to a depth of about:
– 3m below the proposed foundation level in areas of cut &
pavement performance, but are generally unrelated to traffic
– 3m below the existing ground in areas of fill.
loading.
• investigations in cuttings deeper than 3m could be impractical and special
equipment may have to be required. If possible, postponement of sampling until the
time of construction should be considered under such conditions.
Table 2-1. Design depth (Tanzania Pavement Design manual, 1999)
Design depth (m)
Road type General Heavy traffic roads
requirements (> 0.2  106 standard axles )
Paved trunk roads 0.8 1.2
Other roads 0.6 1.0
11 12
Cont’d 2.1.2 Testing Frequency
Table: Typical material depth by road category, (ERA, 2013)
• As a standard guideline, at least one representative soil sample should
Road Category Material Depth (mm)
DC 7 & DC 8 1000 - 1200
be collected per kilometer of the proposed roadway alignment, with
High volume roads
DC 5 & DC 6 800 - 1000 more frequent samples where there are significant changes in soil type.
DC 3 & DC 4 800
Low volume roads  Significant changes are those which affect the general classification of the
DC 1 & DC 2 700

• For the stronger subgrades, especially Class S4 and higher (CBR 9-14% and more) soils as well as their bearing strength (CBR).

the depth check is to ensure that there is no underlying weaker material which • For highways pavements,
could lead to detrimental/harmful performance.
– testing sites are generally placed at 100m to 5 km (generally 300m)
• When required, investigations should be extended to below design depth to detect
problems that need special considerations such as along the centreline of the proposed alignment.

– presence of problem soils, – Midway between the centre line stretches, additional boreholes 30m
– unfavourable sub grade conditions, and away from the centreline both in its left as well as right side.
– features associated with slope and embankment stability.
• Spacing in specific locations may be increased where the sub grade
• If necessary, sub surface investigation is carried out using field or in-place testing
techniques. common methods of field or in-place testing used exhibits a fair degree of homogeneity, and conversely be decreased

– Standard penetration test : to evaluate the strength of soils, and where variations become evident, or when problem soils or design
– piezometer installation: to measure water table depth. problems are encountered.
13 14

Cont’d Cont’d
• Identification tests include Atterberg limits and gradation of 1. When only classification tests are required (Grading and Atterberg limits), the
following masses of field samples are recommended depending on the maximum
particles larger than 75m.
particle size.
Maximum particle size Minimum sample mass
Table 2-2: Sampling Frequency (ERA, Site Investigation Manual, 2001)
(mm) (Kg)
5 5
Investigation stage Test description Frequency of 40 20
cumulative sampling 75 120
Feasibility/Preliminary Identification 1 Km
CBR 2 – 5 Km Further details may be found, for instance, by referring to AASHTO T86.

Final Identification 0.5 Km 2. When a compaction test and a single CBR test are required in addition to
CBR 1 Km classification tests: a minimum mass of sample of 20 Kg – 40 Kg is
recommended, depending on the methods used for the compaction test (i.e. the
• Table 2-2: gives a recommended sampling frequency and the
size of the mod). The method to be used depends on whether or not the majority
corresponding tests which may be altered depending on the variations in
of the particles are smaller than 5 mm.
soil types along the alignment. Note: the methods for compaction and CBR provide the replacement of oversize fraction.
• The recommended approximate quantity (mass) of sample required may 3. When additional CBR tests are required (e.g. for series of CBR with 3 or 6 molds),
be determined by verifying the tests required and referring to Table a 5 – 10 Kg additional mass of sample is recommended for each additional mold
below. It is simpler, and generally preferable, to retrieve in the field each required depending on the size of particles as indicated in item 2 above.
4. If treatment tests are contemplated, an additional 50 Kg – 100 Kg is
sample large enough to conduct all required tests in the laboratory.
recommended depending on the particle size.
15 16
Cont’d 2.2 Essential Laboratory Tests
• The subgrade soil must possess sufficient strength and stiffness to
provide adequate support for the pavement structure and associated
traffic load, without shear failure or excessive deformation.

• Owing to the fact that


– the nature of stresses imposed on pavements (transient loads of short duration)
and their relatively lower magnitude:

• shear strength of the soil is not normally anticipated to be a critical factor in


pavement thickness design.

• The elastic properties (E,) of the subgrade soil are the major foundation
parameters needed (assuming normal traffic loading regimes). However, these
are relatively complex properties to measure and bearing in mind the
variability of soils within relatively short distances, it may not be economically
feasible to use them directly to evaluate subgrade properties.
– Hence, if pavements are to be designed empirically based on past
performance/experience records or fundamentally using the elastic theory
(analytical methods), relatively simple test procedures are required, the result of
which can be related by experiment to the structural properties.
17 18

Cont’d Grain Size Analysis/ Particle Size Distribution Test


(AASHTO T88)
• In specifications for testing of soils reference is frequently
made to the standard methods of testing such as • Gradation test:
– is conducted in order to obtain the maximum size and the grain size
– British Standards (BS),
distribution of particles in the soil.
– American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), and
– it is expressed in terms of particles by weight finer than specified sizes.
– American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
• The distributions of particle sizes in soils is important in road engineering as the
(AASHTO).
value of many properties, such as
• To a large extent the same type of methods are used all over the world.
– internal friction, voids content, wear resistance and permeability, density or
Tests on soil samples compactibility, strength/stability are depend on the gradation.
 For new road alignments, the following tests shall normally be • The particles in soil may range from
conducted, as a minimum, on the collected soil samples: • granular fractions:
1. Grain Size Analysis (AASHTO T88)  boulders and cobbles - >75mm in size,

2. Atterberg Limits (AASHTO T89, T90)  Gravels 75 – 4.75mm in size;

3. Moisture Content (AASHTO T265)  Sand – 4.75 – 0.075mm to

• fine fractions: which are too small to measure directly


4. Compaction Test (AASHTO T180)
 silt – 0.075mm – 0.002mm &
5. CBR Test and swell (AASHTO T193)
 clay - < 0.002mm and colloids - <0.001mm in size).
6. Resilient Modulus Test (AASHTO T 307 -99 (2003)
19 20
Cont’d Cont’d
Particle Size Distribution Test i. Sieve analysis:
i. Gradation test (sieve Analysis):
– This method involves shaking of a known weight of soil sample through a stack
• is carried out for Coarse grained soil (soil particles > 0.075 mm).
of sieves that have progressively finer mesh from top to bottom.
• Coarse grained soil: consist of a matrix of either gravel or sand in which more than
– The particle diameter in this screening process is the maximum particle
50% by weight of the soil is retained on the 75 micron (μm) sieve. These may contain
fine-grained soil but the percentage by weight of the fine-grained portion is less than dimension to pass through the square hole of a particular mesh size.

50%. – Prior to conducting sieve analysis the soil must first be oven-dried. All lumps are
ii. Sedimentation tests (Hydrometer test): then broken into smaller particles.

• is conducted for Fine-grained soils (soils having a particles diameter < 0.075mm).  In the case of cohesive soils, breaking the lumps into individual particles may
• Fine-grained soils: are those having 50% or more by weight of material that pass the not be easy. In this case, the soil may be mixed with water to make slurry and
75 μm sieve. The fines are either inorganic or organic silts and/or clays.
then washed through the sieve, the process is thus known as wet sieving.
• are relatively complex (for site laboratories) and the properties of the silt and clay
• The sample of soil is placed on the topmost sieve and the nest of sieves,
fraction for road projects are generally assessed by plasticity tests.
with a pan placed below the stack, is then placed on a vibrator (sieve
• Depending on the sample at hand, different types of gradation tests may be carried out:
shaker) and shaken.
a. Dry Sieve Analysis: for pure coarse or granular materials with out fines (silt and
• The soil retained on each sieve is determined separately, after oven-drying
clay).
if it is a wet-sieving process.
b. Wet sieve analysis: with/without sedimentation test on the fine fractions (for
mixture of coarse and fine grained soils) and hydrometer analysis (for fine grained • The results are plotted on a graph produce gradation curve. A gradation

soils). curve is drawn by plotting the percentage finer (%age of passing) on


21 22
ordinate against the particle sizes on abscissa.

Cont’d Cont’d
• to draw the grading curve, follow the ff steps
– Taking/Assuming a total mass of sample = M
i. Determine the mass of soil on each sieve, Grain-Size Analysis
Sieve Mass
% % 100
Example: M1, M2, …, Mn and Mp (mass retained in the pan). Size, in Retained,
Retained Pass
mm g 90
ii. Determine the cumulative mass retained above each sieve.
63 0.00 0.00 100.00 80
e.g. For the 4th sieve, cumulative mass retained = M1+ M2+M3+M4
50 0.00 0.00 100.00
70
iii. Determine the percent mass retained on each sieve,% 37.5 0.00 0.00 100.00

Percent Pass, %
60
(M1+M2+M3+M4) 25 3474.00 24.10 75.90
e.g. For the 4th sieve, % mass retained = *100
ΣM 19 6199.00 50
43.00 32.91
iv. Calculate the percent of soil passing each sieve (percent finer). 12.5 3057.00 40
21.20 11.70
e.g. For the 4th sieve, i.e., 100 – (% mass retained for 4th sieve) 9.5 838.00 5.81 5.89 30

 After the percent finer of each sieve is calculated, the results are plotted on a 4.75 613.00 4.25 1.64 20
graph of percentage of particles finer than a given sieve as the ordinate versus 0.075 190.00 1.32 0.32 10
the logarithm of particle sizes.
PASS 46.00 0.32 0.00 0
 Log scale is used for the abscissa since the ratio of particle sizes from the 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Total 14417.00 Sieve-Size, mm
largest to the smallest in a soil can be greater than 104 .
% Retained = *100
23 24
Cont’d Sieve Analysis Cont’d

Sample: sand

Sieve Mass Grain-Size Analysis


% % Cumulative
Size, in Retained, 100
Retained Pass % Retain
mm g
90
12.5 0.00 0.00 100.00
9.5 2.00 80
0.22 99.78
4.75 74.00 8.06 91.72 8.28 70

2.36 319.00 34.75 56.97 43.03


60

Percent Pass, %
1.180 203.00 22.11 34.86 65.14
50
0.600 115.00 12.53 22.33 77.67
0.300 73.00 85.62 40
7.95 14.38
0.150 35.00 3.81 10.57 89.43 30

0.075 29.00 3.16 7.41 20


PASS 68.00 7.41 0.00
10
Total 918.00 FM 3.69
0
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
Sieve-Size, mm

From the grading curve, you can determine D10, D30, D60 and
25 later Cu and Cc. these coefficients help in soil classifications!
26

Cont’d Cont’d
ii. Sedimentation Analysis/ Hydrometer Analysis:
– Since there is a technical limitation on the size of sieves that could be practically attained,
sieve analysis cannot be used for fine-grained soils because of their extremely small particle
size.

• The common way of obtaining particle size distribution for such soils is the hydrometer
test. This is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in water.

– It involves mixing a small amount of soil into a suspension and observing how the suspension
settles in time. The particles will settle at different velocities, depending on their shape, size,
and weight, and the viscosity of the water.

– When a hydrometer is lowered into the suspension it will sink until the buoyancy force is
sufficient to balance its weight. ASTM Soil Hydrometers
– It is thus possible to calibrate the hydrometer such that it reads the density of the Mechanical Analysis Stirrer
suspension at different times.

– The test is conducted in the laboratory by first taking a small quantity of oven dried soil,
usually 50 or 100gm and thoroughly mixing it with distilled water in a glass cylinder called
sedimentation cylinder capable of accommodating 1litre of suspension.
– Sodium hexametaphosphate is generally used as a dispersing agent.
– The volume of dispersed suspension is then increased to 1000ml by adding distilled water.
The glass cylinder is then repeatedly shaken and inverted before being placed at a constant
temperature. A hydrometer is placed in the glass cylinder and a clock is simultaneously
started. At different times the hydrometer value is read.
– Lastly based on the earlier established formula you can determine the percentage finer of
fine rain soils. 27 28
Cont’d Cont’d
• The particle size distribution is identified as:

i. Well-Graded Soil:
• A soil containing an assortment of particles with a wide range of grain sizes (i.e.,
soil contains a good representation of all particle sizes from largest to smallest)
– Quantified by Good interlock and low permeability. Well graded with an
excess of fines
– has the following merits: Higher shear strength, Higher density, Reduced Compressibility,
Uniform
Higher stability, Higher Bearing Capacity, Low permeability
material
(Same
ii. Poorly-Graded Soil: size )

• is known as a uniformly graded soil and it is defined as a soil containing particles Well graded material
(Good range of sizes)
having a limited range of sizes (almost the same sizes of particles).
Well graded with
– Quantified by Few points of contact, poor interlock (shape dependant), and high some clay
permeability.
Gap graded material
iii. Gap graded soil: (Certain sizes missing)

• is known as a poorly graded soil and it is defined as a soil containing particles of


varying sizes with intermediate particle sizes missing. Or
– can be either a well graded or poorly graded soil lacking one or more intermediate
sizes within the range of the gradation.

– Such soils give lower density and lower strength. The gradation curve of a poorly graded
soil show steps indicating an excess of certain particle sizes, and a deficiency of others.

– Quantified by only limited sizes, good interlock, and low permeability. 29 30

Significance of Particle size distribution Exercise

• Based on the gradation test results shown below for the soil
 Engineering classification of soils.
sample collected from the field:
 Selection of the most suitable soil for construction of – State & quantify the types of soils in the sample?

– Draw the particle size distribution curve?


– roads, airfields, dams and other embankments.
– Determine the coefficient of uniformity and curvature?

 To predict the seepage through soil (although • What do you conclude about the soil based on Cu & Cc results?

permeability tests are more generally used) Sieve No. & size Soil retained on each sieving, gm
No. 4 (4.75mm) 25.87

 To predict the susceptibility to frost action. No. 10 (2mm) 56.3

No. 20 (0.85mm) 133.42

 Selection of most suitable filter material. No. 40 (0.425mm) 167.85

No. 60 (0.25mm) 64.68

No. 200 (0.075mm) 44.18


pan 4.9

31 32
Moisture Content or Water Content (AASHTO T265) Causes of change in moisture content
• The engineering properties of a soil, e.g. strength and deformation characteristics, • Moisture content of subgrade soil changes due to a number of causes. They can be
depend to a very large degree on the amount of voids and water in the soil.
enumerated as;
• The water content:
• is defined as the weight of water contained in a soil sample compared with the – Seepage of water into the subgrade from higher ground adjacent to road.
oven-dry weight of the sample. Or
• Is the amount of water present in the voids of a soil in its natural state. – Rise or fall in the level of water table.

Moisture (%) =
mass of water
mass of oven dried sample
*100 Or w =
(W1 − W2)
(W2 − WC)
∗ 100 – Percolation of water into the subgrade through cracks on the road surface of through
Where: previous road surface.

w = Moisture content of the soil, percent – Transfer of moisture to or from lower soil layers by suction.
W1 = mass of container and moist soil, gm
– Transfer of moisture either to or from soil in the verges as a result of difference in
W2 = mass of container and oven dried soil, gm
WC = mass of container ,gm moisture content.
• The common range of moisture content for most soil is 20 - 40%.
– Transfer of water vapour through the soil.
• Oven dried soil has zero percent moisture and the soils which appear dry (i.e., air
dried soil) often have 2 - 3% moisture content. • The net result of the change in the moisture contents of the subgrade soil is

Can number #1 #2 #3 – the decrease in the stability and consequent settlement of the subgrade, which causes either total
Empty Can weight, W1 6.8 6.9 6.6 or partial failure of the road structure.
Weight of Can with wet soil, W2 9.5 10.2 10.1
Weight of Can with dry soil, W3 8.7 9.5 9.45 • At situations where frequent changes in the moisture content of the soil are encountered, design of a
Water Content,% suitable subsoil drainage system is necessary. For this purpose, it is essential
0.42 0.27 0.23
w = (W2 - W3)/(W3 - W1)*100
– to know the soil type and thickness of various layers, the position of water table if it is close to
Water Content,(%) = (0.42+0.27+0.23)/3 = 30.61 33 34
formation and the position of the seepage zones.

Atterberg limits Or Consistency Limits Cont’d


• Atterberg limits define the moisture contents (water levels) at which the soil
• The physical properties; stiffness or consistency of a fine grained soils,
changes from one state to another. These include the liquid limit (LL), the plastic limit
especially of clays differ very much at different water content.
(PL), and shrinkage limit (SL).
– A clay may be almost in a liquid state, or it may show plastic behavior – They are determined by tests carried out on the fine soil Fractions passing the
or may be stiff depending on the moisture content. 0.075mm or 0.425mm (No. 40) sieve.

• Soils containing clay exhibit a property called plasticity. – They are important limits of engineering behavior because they facilitate the
comparison of the water content of the soil with those at which the soil changes
– Plasticity is the ability of a material to be moulded (irreversibly
from one state to another.
deformed) with out fracturing. This behavior is unique to clays and
1) Liquid Limit (WL or LL):
arises due to the electrochemical behavior of clay minerals.
 It is the moisture content at which a soil changes from plastic state to liquid
• Atterberg in 1911 proposed a series of tests, mostly empirical, for the state.
determination of the consistency properties (states) of fine grained soils.  At this limit, the soil possesses a small value of shear strength, losing its ability to
The physical and mechanical behavior of fine-grained soils is linked to flow as a liquid.

four distinct Consistency states: • Liquid limit (AASHTO T89): defined as the minimum water content at which the soil will
start to flow under the application of a standard shearing force (dynamic loading).
– solid, semisolid, plastic solid, and viscous liquid in order of increasing water
 The moisture content at which 25 blows of Cassagrande apparatus closes a standard groove cut
content. in the soil paste along a distance of 12.7 mm  13mm.

• The consistency of a soil means its physical state with respect to the The higher LL - the poorer the Engineering Property.

moisture content present that time. Clay flows like liquid when w (%) > LL.
35 36
Cont’d Cont’d
2) Plastic Limit (wP or PL): 3) Shrinkage Limit (wS or SL):
– It is the moisture content at which a soil changes from semi-solid – It is the moisture content at which a soil changes from solid state to
state to plastic state. Thus, this is the minimum water content at semi-solid state.

which the change in shape of the soil is accompanied by visible  Shrinkage limit (AASHTO T92): is the maximum moisture content after

cracks, i.e., when worked upon, the soil crumbles. which further reduction in water content does not cause reduction in
volume.
 Plastic limit (AASHTO T90): measure of toughness – the moisture
 It is the lowest water content at which a clayey soil can occur in a
content at which the soil begins to fracture when rolled into a 3mm
saturated state.
diameter thread.
 At certain point during drying process, air begins to enter the soil mass and
 The moisture content at which a soil can be rolled into threads of the volume decrease becomes appreciably less than the volume of water lost.

3mm diameter without cracking and crumbling.  The shrinkage limit is not given much importance since it is not used in

 Lowest water content where the clay is still plastic or A minimum soil classification.

water content at which the soil remains in a plastic state.  The soils which show higher shrinkage upon drying also swell more upon
wetting and are known as expansive soils.
Plastic limit = *100  Expansive soils are very dense and hard in dry state due to very high
!" shrinkage stresses

37 38

Cont’d Determination of Liquid Limit


Plasticity Index (PI):
 Range of water content over which the soil remains deformable (in plastic Run 4 Tests: 2 for > 25 blows and 2
Water content,% for < 25 blows.
state) or it is the range of moisture through which a cohesive soil behaves as
Plot Number of Blows (N) on Log Scale.
a plastic material.
Draw best fit line based
 Range of water content in which a soil remains in a plastic stage.
on data points as
Or WL shown @ step 3: and
Plasticity Index(P.I ) = Liquid Limit(L.L.) – Plastic Limit( P.L), (%)
give the equation of
drawn line. E.g. if the
– The value of PI gives an idea about the clay content in a soil. Higher PI value
drawn line is linear, the
indicates higher clay content. equ. Will be in the form
of y = mx + b
• Border line water contents, separating the different states of a fine • LL is w @ N = 25
grained soil

Figure. Consistency limits of soils


# $%&
Liquid index, LI = > used to reflect the properties of the natural soil.
%'
where, wn = the natural moisture content of the soil
39 40
Determination of LL & PL Cont’d
Lift LL device with crank
at constant rate. Count Liquid Limit (LL) test Plastic Limit (PL) test
No. of blows to close
groove 12.7mm. No. of blows 34 24 17 - -
Container No. B A C AD AE
Mass of wet soil + Container (gm), W1 44.33 41.39 41.73 20.67 20.76
Mass of Dry soil + Container (gm), W2 37.23 34.83 35.17 19.92 19.93
Mass of water (gm), W3 = W1 - W2 7.1 6.56 6.56 0.75 0.83
Mass of container (gm), W4 22.06 20.89 21.93 17.2 17.05
Mass of Dry soil (gm), W5 = W2 - W4 15.17 13.94 13.24 2.72 2.88
46.80 47.1 49.5 27.6 28.8
Moisture Content, %, W
Average PL 28.2
this part is taken for LL W1 − W2 ()
Fill LL device 2/3 test after dried in an oven. • Moisture Content (%) , w = W − W *100 = (* *100
high with wet soil Cut groove with tools 2 4
Assemble/collect components
& soil. Mix soil & water. • PL (%) is the average moisture content for plastic limit test = 28.2%
When soil crumbles
Roll on PL device until and 3mm diameter is 50.00
3mm diameter roll is achieved, you are at
achieved. PL. take water y = -0.1521x + 51.605

Moisture content, %
content. 49.00
Roll wet soil to ellipsoidal No. Blows MC
mass with hands. 24 47.95 48.00
25 LL %
47.00
34 46.43

46.00
Interpolated value using:
1. Excel function: trends 45.00
The Crumbled sample made 2. Manual computations 10 15 20 25 30 35
dried and Used to measure
moisture content for plastic Liquid Limit (LL) 48% No. of blows
limit determination.
Assemble/collect components Run 4 Tests. Average 41 water Plastic Limit (PL) 28% 42
& soil. Mix soil & water. content for 4 tests = wP = PL Plasticity Index (PI) 20%

Cont’d
Compaction Test or Moisture - Density relationship (AASHTO T180)
• Consistency limits and the plasticity index are used in the identification and
• Compaction of soil:
classification of soils.
– the process by which the soil particles are artificially rearranged and packed
• Soils having high values of LL and PI are poor as subgrades/engineering materials.
together into a state of closer contact by mechanical means in order to
i.e., Soils with a high LL and high PI can take up and loose large quantities of
decrease its porosity (air voids) and thereby increase its dry density (unit
moisture.
weight).
– Losing moisture means increase in strength but also loss in volume (shrinkage).
• The test has run applying a fixed amount of compaction energy to a soil at various
 Both the LL and PL depend on the type and amount of clay in the soils, and they
water contents.
are the indicators of a problem soil.
• Why do we need a denser soil?
• In soils having same values of LL, but with different values of plasticity index;
– Higher soil strength, less settlement, lower permeability, reduces liquefactions
– it is generally found that rate of volume change and dry strength increases and potential, reduced wear and erosion.
permeability decreases with increase in plasticity index.
• From the dry density - water content
• In soils having same values of plasticity index but different values of LL, curve, we can determine two quantities;
– it is seen that compressibility and permeability increase, & dry strength a) The maximum dry density, and

decreases with increase in LL. b) The optimum water (moisture) content at


which this maximum dry density is achieved
• Soils with high PI exhibit large amount of shrinkage & swell, and can
therefore cause large damage to structures, buildings and roads.

• Soils that cannot be rolled to a thread at any water content are termed as Non-
Plastic (NP).
43 44
• Plasticity index for sands is zero.
Field Compaction Equipment Cont’d
Compacting Equipment
• Compaction equipment used in the field can be divided into two:
• The choice of compaction equipment is wide. Most equipment is available in
i. the equipment used for spreading the material to the desired layer or Equipment several sizes (dead weights).
lift thickness, and • Compactors may be self-propelled or pulled by a tractor. The most common type of
ii. the equipment used to compact each layer of material. compactor is the self-propelled, smooth steel-wheeled roller.

Spreading Equipment – The slow-moving roller: acts on the soil with ‘static’ loads. It can be used for
compacting all types of soil, i.e. gravel and sand as well as clay.
• Spreading of the material to the required thickness is done by bulldozers
– The steel-wheeled roller: may be equipped with devices for vibrating the
and motor graders. Several types and sizes of graders and dozers are
wheels. The vibration imposes pulsating stresses in the soil. This reduces the
now available on the market. The equipment used for any specific project will
friction between the soil particles and results in a highly effective and deep
depend on the size of the project.
compaction, particularly in gravel and sand. If the vibration is turned off, the

• A typical motor grader is roller can be used as a traditional, static roller, a fact which makes the

shown in Figure below. vibratory, steel-wheeled roller a very versatile item of compaction equipment.
Smooth wheel roller
1. A smooth wheel or drum roller: used for
finish rolling of subgrade material and can be used
for all types of soil material except rocky soils.

45 46
Motor Grader

Cont’d Factors affecting Compaction


2. The rubber-tired roller: used for both granular and cohesive • The dry density (unit weight) that can be obtained by compaction varies with the
water content, the compactive effort applied to the soil, and the nature of the soil.
materials. 2. Rubber -tired roller i. The effect of water content on compaction
3. The sheepsfoot roller: used – The shearing resistance to relative movement of the soil particles is large at low water

mainly for cohesive soils. contents. As the water content increases, it becomes relatively easier to disturb the soil
structure, and the dry density achieved with a given compactive effort increases. However if
the dry density is plotted against the water content for a given compactive effort, it will be
seen that the dry density reaches a peak, after which any further increase in water content
4. Tamping foot rollers (similar results in a lower dry density.

with the sheeps foot): used ii. The effect of variations in compactive effort
– Both the maximum dry density and the optimum water content are found to depend on the
mainly for compacting fine-
compactive effort used. Compactive effort is a measure of the mechanical energy imposed on
grained soils. the soil mass during compaction (energy per unit volume). Increasing the compactive effort
increases the maximum dry density, but reduces the optimum water content. The air void
5. Hand-operated tampers, etc.
ratio at the peak density remains very much the same. It may be seen that, at high water
3. Sheepsfoot roller
contents, there is little to be gained by increasing the compactive effort beyond a certain
point.
iii. The effect of soil type on compaction
– The highest dry densities are produced in well-graded coarse-grained soils, with smooth
rounded particles. Uniform sands give a much flatter curve, and a lower maximum dry density.
Clayey soils have much higher optimum water contents, and consequently lower maximum dry
densities. The effect of increasing the compactive effort is also much greater in the case of
47 48
Hand-operated tampers clayey soils.
Cont’d Methods of running compaction test
1. Laboratory compaction test
Note that a line joining – The soil sample is first air dried and sieved usually through the 4.75-mm (No. 4 or 19mm
the peak points of the sieve) sieve, mixed thoroughly with water and then compacted in layers.
density curves would be
– The mass of the compacted sample is measured, and a sample of it is taken to dry for the
approximately parallel to
Well graded gravel
the ZAV curve. This is purpose of determining water content.
due to the fact that most – More water is then added to the soil, and it is compacted again. This procedure is repeated
soils at their maximum
density still contain until the density decreases/fails.
Well graded sand
about 2-3% air. • For most soil types, the maximum dry density is achieved at particular moisture content, the so-

• It is normally desirable to called optimum moisture content. Because of the moisture-density relation, water must be added
compact the soil to the to dry soils and overly wet soils must be aired before compaction.
Inorganic Silt and very fine sands maximum degree.
• The degree of compaction • However,
attainable varies with soil.
• The degree of compaction is a – in dry areas, where it is difficult to provide the large amount of water needed to bring the
function of moisture content water content of a dry soil to the optimum level, it may be better to compact the soil in the
& the compactive effort used.
Clays with low plasticity dry state rather than adding an insufficient amount of water to the soil.

– In rainy weather, it may be necessary to replace an overly wet soil with more suitable
Clays with high plasticity material or stabilize the wet soil with lime.

• The greater the permeability, the easier it is to expel air from the soil.

– This Soil type partly explains why gravel and sand can usually be compacted to a greater
density than clay.

– In well-graded soils, the smaller particles may fill some of the voids between the larger
Note : 1 g/cm³ = 9.81 kN/m³
particles. Well-graded soils, therefore, can achieve a greater density than uniformly graded
Figure: Compaction Curve for a Range of Soil Types 49 50
soils.

Cont’d Cont’d
Laboratory compaction test methods include: • The higher the compaction energy, the lower the optimum water content
i. Standard compaction test and the higher the dry density.
ii. Modified (Heavy) compaction test • The dry density is the density of the soil with the water removed.

Table : Standard and Modified compaction tests

Standard Compaction Modified Compaction Test


Items Test (AASHTO T99) (AASHTO T180)
Diameter of mold (mm) 101.6/152.4 101.6/152.4
Height of sample (mm) 117 117 The maximum dry
Number of lifts (the soil placed in 3/5
3 5 density obtained in
layers)
Number of blows per lift/layer 25/56 25/56 the modified test
Weight of Hammer, Kg 2.5 4.5
Diameter of end face of hammer
51 51
is higher than that
(mm)
Hammer Free fall height (mm) 305 457 obtained in the
Net volume of mold (cm3) 944/2124 944/2124
standard test and
• If coarser grains are to be included in the test, a larger mold 15 cm in diameter occurs at lower
with a volume of 2124 cm3 is used. With these coarse materials, the number of optimum moisture
blows per layer is increased to 56 (from 25) to maintain the same compactive content.
OMC
OMC
effort. This compactive effort was originally chosen by Proctor to approximate the
effort provided by construction rollers.
Note : 1 g/cm3 = 9.81 kN/m3
Figure : Modified Proctor Test Curve (Dry Density vs. Moisture Content)
51 52
Cont’d Cont’d
2. Field density test a) Destructive method:
• Since the compactibility of soils varies considerably, the construction • The most common methods applied for measuring field densities are the sand cone

requirements for roads are usually specified as a percentage of the maximum dry and the nuclear density gauge.

density found in a laboratory compaction test for each soil type encountered on the i. The core-cutter method: is the simplest method.
project.  This method can be used only on cohesive soils free from coarse-grained material.

 It involves driving a hollow metal cylinder, which has a cutting edge, into the soil to
• For example: a project specification (contract document) might require that the
remove an undisturbed sample on which dry density and moisture content
soil be compacted to 95% of the maximum dry density found by the standard
determinations can be made.
compaction test.
ii. The sand replacement methods:
 Quality control of compaction on a construction project involves conducting
 This is commonly used method in which a sample of compacted material is dug out of
standard field compaction tests on each different soil type after compaction, a test hole in the soil layer being checked.
and comparing the results with the laboratory maximum density value for the  The dry mass of the soil removed and the volume of the hole are measured.
soil, to ascertain if the specifications have been met.  The field dry density equals the dry mass divided by the volume originally occupied by
 If the maximum dry density from the test was 2000 kg/m3 at an optimum water content the sample.
of 11%, the required field density would be 95% of 2000, or 1900 kg/m3. The moisture  The basic method used to measure the volume of the hole is a sand-cone apparatus.
content of the soil should be as close as possible to 11%, which reduces the required
 In the sand replacement methods (With the sand-cone apparatus), the volume of the
compactive effort (for example, number of passes of the roller).
test hole is obtained from the mass of loose sand required to the fill the hole.
 Field density test methods
V = Ws/s
a) Destructive methods.
Where, V = volume of test hole
b) Nondestructive methods. Ws = the weight of a standard dry sand
53 s = of known unit weight required to fill the test hole is measured 54

Cont’d Cont’d
Determination of Field dry density by Sand replacement methods b) Nondestructive method:
i. The nuclear method:
No.
a) Caliberation test: to determine the bulk density of sand test 1 trial 2 trial 3
Volume of calibrating container, V (cm³) 1000 1998 1008 • Is the quick and nondestructive method of measuring the in
1

2 Weight of cylinder + sand (before pouring), W1 (gm) 7476 7476 7476 situ density and moisture content of the compacted soil.
3 mean weight of cylinder + sand (after pouring), W2 (gm) 5610 5609 5608
• Using the nuclear equipment, the density is obtained by
4 mean weight of sand in cone of pouring cylinder, W3 (gm) 436 428 433
measuring the scatter of gamma radiation by the soil
5 weight of sand to fill the calibrating container, Wa = (W1 - W2 - W3) (gm) 1430 1439 1435

Bulk density of sand, s = Wa/V (gm/cm³) 1.43 0.72 1.42 particles since the amount of rays is proportional to the bulk
6
Average Bulk density of sand (gm/cm³) = 1.19 density of the soil.
b) Field density test: to determine the Dry density of soil trial 1 trial 2 trial 3
• The moisture content is also obtained by measuring the
7 Weight of wet soil from the hole (Ww), (gm) 2000 1992 2010
scatter of neutrons emitted in the soil due to the presence of
8 weight of cylinder + Weight of sand (after pouring) (W4), (gm) 5596 5602 5610

weight of sand in excavated hole (Wb = W1 - W4 - W3), (gm) 1444 1438 1430
hydrogen atoms.
9

10 volume of sand filling the excavated hole, Vh = Wb/s , (cm³) 1212.1 1005.6 1000 • The detector in the nuclear equipment measures the amount
11 in-situ Bulk density of wet excavated soil, b = (Ww/Vh), (g/cm³) 1.65 1.98 2.01
of rays and the neutrons that passes through the soil, and
12 water content (w), % 13.62 14.08 13.92
thus the density and the moisture content can be calculated.
13 Dry density, d = (b/(1+w/100)) , gm/cm³ 1.45 1.74 1.76

Average Dry density, d = (1.74 + 1.74 + 1.76)/3 1.65 gm/cm³

55 56
Compaction tests Compaction Test
Apparatus:
Molds, Manual rammer, Extruder, Balance, Drying oven, Mixing pan,
Trowel, #4 sieve, Moisture cans, Graduated cylinder, Straight Edge.

Taking Samples for moisture


content determination.
57 58

Cont’d Cont’d
• It can be seen from typical moisture - density relationship that for any compactive
• The relationship for practically all soils takes the form shown in
effort, the dry density of a soil will vary with its water content.
Figure below.  The zero-air void curve shown in Figure below – At low moisture content, the soil is dry and stiff to compress the particles. As
is the theoretical moisture-density curve for a water is added the particles get lubricated by water film and is easy to
saturated soil (where volume of voids filled with compress the soil mass. Thus, the density increases and the air content
air is 0% (zero-air voids) or degree of saturation decreases as the water fills the voids and compacted.
S=100%). This curve is usually not attained in
• The moisture content at which maximum dry density is obtained is known as
the field, since zero-air void cannot be attained.
optimum moisture content (OMC).
Points on the curve may be calculated by
• At moisture content higher than the OMC, the air and water in the soil mass tend
 wGs to keep particles apart and prevent compaction.
d 
1  wG s • The dry density at higher moisture contents than OMC, thus, decreases and the
total voids increase.
where,
• The distance between the zero-air void (ZAV) curve and the test moisture-density
d = dry density of soil,
curve is an indication of the amount of air voids remaining in the soil at different
w = density of water = 1000kg/m³ = 1gm/cm³
moisture contents.
Gs = specific gravity of soil particles
w = moisture content of soil. • The farther away a point on the moisture-density curves is from the ZAV curve, the
more air voids remain in the soil and the higher is the likehood of expansion or
swelling if the soil is exposed to water. Swelling of such soil can be reduced by
Figure . Typical moisture-density relationship for soils 59 compacting at higher moisture content. 60
Cont’d Effect of compaction
Standard / Modified Proctor Test Calculations • The following are the important effects of compaction:
Weight of rammer, Kg 4.89 kg/ 2.6 kg specific gravity of a soil)
Amount of compaction Heavy(by 5 layers) or (Light ( by 3 layer)) Volume of mold (Vm) 944 cm³ i. Compaction increases the dry density of the soil, thus increasing its shear
Types of soil
strength and bearing capacity through an increase in frictional
Material retained on 19mm sieve, %
Passing 19mm & retained on 4.75mm sieve, % characteristics.
Passing 4.75mm sieve, %
Trial No. 1 2 3 4 5 ii. Compaction decreases the tendency for future settlement of soil, and
Mass of mold (gm) W1 1440 1440 1440 1440 1440 iii. Compaction brings about a low permeability of the soil.
Mass of mold + compacted soil (gm) W2 3177 3310 3438 3416 3311
Volume of mold (cm³) V 943.95 943.95 943.95 943.95 943.95 • Over compactions of soils
Weight of wet compacted soil (gm) W3 = W 2 - W 1 1737 1870 1998 1976 1871
– Soils can experience over-compaction if the compactor makes too many passes over it.
Wet Unit weight (gm/cm³)  1.84 1.98 2.12 2.09 1.98
Dry Unit weight (gm/cm³) d = /(1+ (w/100)) 1.77 1.85 1.90 1.84 1.67 – Soils can experience over-compaction if the compactor/roller will increase in weight i.e., too
much energy is applied.
Weight of Empty Can (gm) W4 10.7 10.74 11.92 12.51 11.49
Weight of Can + Wet soil (gm) W5 51.35 71.2 75.66 65.59 68.83 – Soils can experience over-compaction if the compacting layer thickness decreased
Weight of Can + Dry soil (gm) W6 49.9 67.31 69.19 59.28 59.77 maintaining the same roller and number of passes.
Weight of water (gm) Ww 1.45 3.89 6.47 6.31 9.06 • Disadvantages of over compaction:
Weight of dry soil (gm) Wds 39.2 56.57 57.27 46.77 48.28
– If too much energy is applied, the soil can shift and move, breaking down the compaction
Moisture content (%) w = (Wwater/Wdry soil)*100 3.70 6.88 11.30 13.49 18.77
previously accomplished (poses a risk of fracturing granular soils), and create cracks in the
Maximum Dry Density MDD 1.90 gm/cm³ Standard or Modified compaction test
underlying compacted material. The result can be fracturing or breaking up the soil
1.95 y = -0.0029x2 + 0.0591x + 1.5939
Optimum Moisture Content OMC 11.30 %
1.90 particles so that the soil composition actually changes (i.e., a decrease in density which
Dry Density, gm/cm³
1.85
+,- .,/01-2 implies the reduction of soil strength).
Dry density = 5 1.80
3$( ) 1.75
677
1.70
• How to determine the Degree of compaction in the field?
Moisture content, 1.65
%=
(Mass of water /Mass of dry soil)*100
0.00 5.00 10.00 15.00 20.00 61 – Degree of compaction = (field dry density/Lab. maximum dry density)*100 62
Moisture content, %

Exercise California Bearing Ratio (CBR)


(AASHTO T193)
• The table shows results obtained from a standard AASHTO
• CBR test was developed by the California Division of Highway in the 1930s, as
compaction test on six samples, 101.6 mm diameter, of a soil to
– a method of classifying and evaluating the strength of sub grade soil and other
be used as fill for a highway. Determine the maximum dry pavement materials for the design and construction of flexible pavements.

density and the optimum moisture content of the soil. • The CBR test :
– denotes a measure of resistance to penetration of a soil or flexible pavement

Moisture Content, material, of standard plunger under controlled density and moisture conditions.
Sample Weight Compacted soil,
– Is an empirical test, it has been the most common strength test conducted on soils
No. W (gm) w (%)
and other unbound road making materials. Empirical tests measure the strength of
1 1886.944 4
the material and are not a true representation of resilient modulus.
2 1991.271 6.1
• The basic principle in CBR test is
3 2086.523 7.8
– causing a cylindrical plunger of 50mm diameter to penetrate into the soil or
4 2122.812 10.1
pavement component material (which is compacted at a MDD and OMC as specified))
5 2072.917 12.1
to be tested at a rate of 1.25 mm/minute and readings of the applied load are taken
6 2027.558 14
at appropriate intervals of penetration 0.25mm or 0.5mm up to a total penetration of
usually not more than 7.5 mm but may be up to 12.5mm.

– The loads required causing 2.54mm and 5.08mm penetration of the plunger in the
soil / material tested are recorded.

63 64
Cont’d Cont’d
• The CBR value of the subgrade material tested is expressed as a percentage of CBR Laboratory test Apparatus:
i. Loading machine: a motorized loading machine or a compression testing machine of
standard load value in a standard material (hard crushed stone aggregates, which minimum loading capacity 5000kg is fitted with a cylindrical penetration plunger of diameter
50mm to enable the plunger to penetrate into the test specimen at constant rate of
is considered an excellent base course material).
1.25mm/minute.
– The standard load values: Were determined by conducting a large number of 1. A calibrated proving ring with dial gauge or load cell is fitted to the loading machine to
measure the load values applied on the penetration plunger at different penetration
tests on different types of crushed stones and adopting the average value of values.
2. A dial gauge to read up to 0.01mm is attached between the penetration plunger and a
the test, at the respective penetration levels of 2.54 mm and 5.08 mm. fixed datum of the testing machine to measure the penetration of the plunger.

Standard Load Values on crushed stone aggregates for specified penetration values ii. Cylindrical moulds: a hollow metal cylinder of inner diameter 150mm and a height of 175
Standard Loads, KN mm for placing the CBR test specimen.
Compaction Method applied
2.54mm 5.08mm iii. Spacer disc: a spacer dis of 148mm dia. and 47.7mm thickness to be placed at the bottom
AASHTO T99 – standard / light 2.5kg rammer 6.9 10.3 of the mould so that a test specimen of height 127.3mm and volume 2250 cm³ could be
obtained.
AASHTO T180 – modified / heavy 4.5kg rammer 13.34 19.9
iv. Compaction rammer: the test spacemen is prepared by dynamic compaction to obtain the
specified density using either a light rammer (2.6kg) or heavy rammer (4.89kg).
• The CBR test is generally carried out in:
v. Swell / Expansion measuring apparatus: a perforated disc with adjustable stem, metal
– the laboratory either on remoulded or undisturbed soil specimen placed in test tripod and provision to fix a dial gauge to measure the expansion of the specimen during
soaking.
mould using a motorized testing machine under controlled condition.
vi. Metal /surcharge weights: annular metal disc of circular shape with 53mm dia. Circular
– the field for the evaluation of in-place/situ strength of the prepared subgrade.
hole or slotted weights, each disc weighing 2.5 kg, to serve as a surcharge weights i.e., to
• Apparatus is also available to carry out in situ CBR tests in the field on simulate the pavement thickness imposed on the subgrade soil.

exposed subgrades, subbases, and bases. vii. Miscellaneous accessories: test sieves of size 19mm and 4.75 mm, tray, mixing bowl,
• The test is simple and has been extensively investigated for field correlations of straight edge, soaking tank, filter paper, drying oven, moisture content containers with lid,
weighing balances, measuring jar, and displacer disc of diameter 148mm and height 50mm for
flexible pavement thickness requirement. 65 66
preparing specimens by static compaction methods.

Cont’d Cont’d
CBR test procedures
1. Preparing test specimen in the laboratory:
• Use only Material
– passing 19 mm for heavy compaction (4.54kg), 5.5kg granular & 4.5 - 5kg fine
Load cell/Proving
Dial guage to ring for load reading grained soil required, and
measure Penetration
– passing 4.75 mm sieve for light compaction (2.5kg rammer)
Penetration
piston or plunger • Total mass of 5kg dried sample which passes sieve size 20mm with pre-determined
50mm dia.
OMC & MDD was taken.
Surcharge weight • the specimen will be either remolded or undisturbed specimens obtained from the
147 mm dia.
Mold of inner
field which is Compacted in standard CBR mold.
Soil sample dia 150mm
– The test soil samples may be prepared at the specified dry density value either

Base plate • By dynamic (compaction by rammer) or

• By static (compaction by loading machine) compaction methods.

• Normally CBR specimens are prepared in three molds at varying compaction


Pedestal of testing machine efforts of : 10, 30 and 65 blows/layer. Each layer compacted in 3 or 5 layers as
standard and modified respectively.

• Samples should be mixed thoroughly at moisture content close to optimum.


67 68
Fig: CBR test machine • Determine the dry densities for each of the 3 mold specimens.
Cont’d Cont’d
2. Penetration test:
 Apply a load by cylindrical metal plunger of 50mm diameter:
 Based on climatic conditions of the site: Immerse specimen in water for four days
– To penetrate specimen at a rate of 1.25mm per minute.
before test to get saturated condition as in the case of field.
 Take reading of applied load at interval of penetration of 0.5/0.25mm from 0.0 up to
– Soak the CBR mold specimen for 4 days (96hrs) before penetration (testing)
12.5mm penetration depth.
o To design for worst case scenario
– CBR value from Load – penetration curve
o to simulate the worst moisture condition of the pavement / subgrade soil
that may occur in the field. Unit load carried by the soil at defined penetration level
CBR, % = *100
– In dry areas, where saturation of subgrade is unlikely, lower soaking period
Unit load carried by standard crushed stone at the abve penetration level

(1day) may be used.  Finally plot resistance verses penetration graph, then correct if needed and

 Load sample with min. 5kg annular weight surcharge load: To represent/ simulate calculate the value of CBR at 2.54/2.5 mmm and 5.0/5.08mm pen. depth.

estimated weight of the top pavement layer (sub base/ base) on the subgrade • The CBR corresponding to 2.54mm penetration is normally greater than that at

material tested. 5.08mm pen., and is accepted as the CBR of the soil.

 Measure the amount of swell due to soaking. • AASHTO T193 test procedure stipulates that, if the CBR at 5.08 mm pen. is greater
than that at 2.54mm pen., the entire test should be repeated on a fresh sample.
i. Expansion ratio: % of swelling and water absorption (%)
.9 $ .: – If the 5.08 mm pen. CBR in the repeat test is still greater, then it is accepted as
% of swelling = *100
;
the CBR of the soil.
Where, di = initial dial gauge reading before soaking, mm
df = final dial gauge after soaking, mm
3. Determination of moisture content from the soil sample
<=>?@A BC <DA=E DFGBEF=H HIE>J? GBDK>J?
water absorption on soaking, (%) = *100
LE?>JDM <=>?@A BC A@= GN=O>P=J 69 70

Cont’d Cont’d
• Load vs. penetration curve or Stress – Strain Curve Typical CBR Curves for various Materials:
i. Plot the applied unit load (resistance to penetration) against the penetration 1) Curve for Standard Material (standard crushed materials)
(strain) on normal scale. 2) Curve Requiring NO Correction

ii. Correction of the stress-strain curve required if the curve starts with a concave 3) Curve Requiring Correction
upward shape – for each specimen CBR Curve for Standard Crushed Material
• Obtain new corrected values by shifting the zero reading for the strain and read

Load or Penetration Resistance, KN


corresponding unit load values at 2.54 mm and 5.08mm from the corrected
curve. Or

• When this happens the curve must be corrected by drawing a tangent at the Test 1 Correction
point of greatest slope and then transposing the axis of load so that zero NOT Required
penetration is taken as the point where the tangent cuts the axis of penetration

iii. Determine CBR values by dividing the corrected loads at 2.54 and 5.08mm with the
Test 2 initial penetration
corresponding standard load values as; Correction Required

Corrected Unit Load carried by specimen


CBR (%) = *100
Standard Load for crushed rock aggregates
Test 2
penetration To correct first make a straight
Correction

CBR (%)2.54 mm =
Unit load for 2.54 mm penetration in test specimen
*100
Required line on a proposed points.
Unit load for 2.54mm penetration in standard crushed rock

Unit load for 5.08 mm penetration in test specimen


CBR (%)5.08mm = *100
Unit load for 5.08 mm penetration in standard crushed rock 0 2.5 5.1
Penetration of plunger, mm
71 72
Figure : Typical Load – Penetration Curve
Cont’d Cont’d
• Subgrade: • The following points should be noted with the subgrade classes defined in Table above:
– No allowance for CBRs below 3% has been made because, from
– Subgrades in Ethiopia are inherently variable and reflect the country’s diverse
geology, topography, soil type, climate and drainage conditions. • both a technical and economic perspective, it would normally be inappropriate to
lay a pavement on soils of such poor bearing capacity. Moreover, the measurement
– assessment as the foundation layer for the pavement structure is one of the most
of the bearing strength of such soft soils is generally most uncertain and CBRs
important factors, in addition to traffic loading, in determining pavement thickness
below 2% are of little significance. For such materials, special treatment is
design, composition and performance.
required.
– The purpose of subgrade evaluation is therefore to estimate the support that the
– The use of Class S2 (3 – 4% CBR value) soils as direct support for the pavement
subgrade will provide to the pavement during its design life.
• should be avoided as much as possible. Wherever practicable, such relatively poor
• Subgrade Classification
soils should be excavated and replaced, or covered with an improved subgrade.
– Subgrades are classified on the basis of the laboratory soaked CBR tests on samples
– Class S6 (> 30 % CBR Value) covers
compacted to 97% AASHTO T180 compaction. Samples are soaked for four days or
• all subgrade materials having a soaked CBR greater than 30% and which comply with
until zero swell is recorded.
the plasticity requirements for natural sub-base. In such cases, no sub-base is required.
• On this basis, the soaked CBR is used to assign a design subgrade class. The
• The result of incorrect subgrade classification can have significant effects, particularly
structural catalogue given in ERA manual requires that the subgrade strength for
for poorer subgrade materials with CBR values of 5% and less.
design be assigned to one of five strength classes reflecting the sensitivity of
– If the subgrade strength is seriously overestimated (i.e., the support is actually weaker
thickness design to subgrade strength.
than assumed), there is a high likelihood of local premature failures and unsatisfactory
Table: Subgrade classes (ERA, 2013) performance.

Subgrade class S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 – Conversely, if the subgrade strength is underestimated (i.e., the support is stronger than

Design CBR,% 2 3-4 5-8 9 - 14 15 - 29 30+ assumed), then the pavement structure selected will be thicker, stronger and more
73 expensive than necessary. 74

Design Subgrade CBR Cont’d


• The strength of subgrade soils is dependent on the type of soil, density, and moisture • Graphical methods
content. 1. Arrange and tabulate the No. of test Vs. CBR value in ascending order.
• The design CBR of the subgrade soil, therefore, should be evaluated at the moisture 2. Graph the number of test (as X – axis) Vs. CBR % (as Y-axis).
content and density representative to the subgrade condition during the service time of the
3. Determine d value i.e., d = 0.1(n-1), where, d is the distance from origin
pavement structure.
(first test point) to 90%-ile value of design CBR value.
– For wet or moderate climatic zones and where the ground water influences the
4. Interpolate and find the Design CBR value i.e., d Vs. CBR (%).
subgrade moisture content, the CBR test is carried out after 4 days of soaking.

• A road section for which a pavement design is undertaken should be subdivided into
Example 1: take a CBR value of 9,14,12,11,6,9,8,9,12 and determine Design CBR values?

subgrade areas where the subgrade CBR can be reasonably expected to be uniform, i.e. 16
No. of CBR values in Design CBR determined by
without significant variations. test ascending order 14 • Manual interpolation
1 6 • Excel: using trend function
– Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous subgrade conditions is carried out by

CBR ,%
2 8 12
desk studies on the basis of geology, pedology, drainage conditions and topography, and 3 9
considering soil categories which have fairly consistent geotechnical characteristics (e.g. 4 9 10
5 9
grading, plasticity, CBR). n = 9 tests
6 11 8
7 12 7.6 %
d = 0.1*(n – 1)
– Usually, the number of soil categories and the number of uniform subgrade areas will not = 0.8
8 12 6
exceed 4 or 5 for a given road project. 9 14
4
• The design subgrade CBR value for homogenous section is
d = 0.1(n-1)
– usually taken as the 90 %-ile value of the CBR test results. 2
• n = number of CBR value tests
– the CBR value that 90 % of all test values in the section are equal to or greater than.
carried out on each section of 0
• Design subgrade CBR value can be determined by
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
the road.
– Graphs using d value; [d = 0.1(n – 1)] No. of tests
– Cumulative Percentiles (statistical parameters) • d = the distance where 90%-ile Figure: Design CBR as the 90 % -ile value
75 90%-ile = 7.6 % 76
– Determination of CBR using plasticity index value of Design CBR determined. CBRdesign = 8%
Example 2 Cont’d
Determine the bulk densities , moisture content and dry densities for the
CBR test Penetration Data - Example 2 (cont’d)
given Molding Condition of CBR test Specimen and Determine the CBR
Proving Ring Factor (KN/Division) = 0.02422 or = 24.22N/division
values at 2.54 and 5.08mm penetration.
10blows 30blows 65blows
Molding Condition for CBR Specimen – heavy compaction Penetr Proving ring Load Corrected Proving ring Load Corrected Proving ring Load Correcte
ation Dial Gauge (KN) CBR Dial Gauge (KN) CBR Dial Gauge (KN) d CBR
Number of Blows 10 blows 30 blows 65 blows (mm) Reading Reading Reading
(Division) (Division) (Division)
Weight of wet soil + mould (g), w1 10170 10222 10533
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Weight of mould (g), w2 6750 6429 6395
0.64 19 0.5 59 1.4 98 2.4
Weight of wet soil (g), w3 3420 3793 4138
1.27 35 0.8 97 2.3 157 3.8
Volume of mould (cm3), w4 2124 2124 2124
1.91 58 1.4 124 3 189 4.6
Bulk density of soil (g/cm3) ,  or w5 = (w3/w4) 1.61 1.79 1.95
Dry density of soil (g/cm3) , d = /(1+ w/100) 2.54 75 1.8 13.6 153 3.7 27.9 212 5.1 38.5
1.26 1.40 1.53
3.18 86 2.1 172 4.2 235 5.7
Moisture Content
3.81 97 2.3 191 4.6 258 6.2
Weight of wet soil + container (g), w6 225.60 232.80 206.50
4.45 105 2.5 210 5.1 281 6.8
Weight of oven dry soil + container (g), w7 181.20 188.06 166.10
5.08 110 2.7 13.5 229 5.5 27.6 305 7.4 37.1
Weight of container (g), w8 20.30 24.60 18.70
7.62 139 3.4 270 6.5 363 8.8
Weight of moisture (g), w9 = w6 - w7 44.40 44.74 40.40
10.2 165 4 306 7.4 421 10.2
Weight of dry soil (g), w10 = w7 - w8 160.90 163.46 147.40
Moisture Content (%),w = (w9 / w10 )*100 27.59 27.37 27.41
77 78

Cont’d Cont’d
CBR PENETRATION DATA (Ans) Do you think that Correction for stress-strain curve Required ?

Proving Ring Factor = 0.02422KN/DIV = 24.22 N/DIV


12.0
10blows 30blows 65blows
Penetration Proving Proving ring
Proving ring
mm ring Dial
Load in Corrected Dial Gauge Load in Corrected
Dial Gauge
Load in Corrected
10.0
Gauge CBR ,% CBR ,%
Reading
KN Reading KN KN CBR ,%
Reading (Div)
(Div)
(Div) 8.0 • If the MDD is 1.51g/cc,

Load (KN)
0.00 0 0.0 0 0.0 0 0.0
0.64 19 0.5 59 1.4 98 2.4
6.0 and OMC is 25.5%,
1.27 35 0.8 97 2.3 157 3.8
i. what will be the CBR
1.91 58 1.4 124 3.0 189 4.6 4.0
2.54 75 1.8 13.6 153 3.7 27.9 212 5.1 38.5 values at 93%, 95%
3.18 86 2.1 172 4.2 235 5.7 2.0 and 100% compaction
3.81 97 2.3 191 4.6 258 6.2
4.45 2.5 5.1 6.8 levels ?
105 210 281 0.0
5.08 110 2.7 13.5 229 5.5 27.6 305 7.4 37.1 0.00 2.54 5.08 7.62 10.16
7.62 139 3.4 270 6.5 363 8.8
Penetration (mm)
10.2 165 4.0 306 7.4 421 10.2
Stress-Strain curve

79 80
Cont’d
Example - 3
3-point CBR plot @2.54mm penetration
45 • For the given CBR laboratory test data of section 41+000
No. of DD CBR (%)
Blows (g/cm3) 2.54 mm 5.08 mm – 47+500, determine Design CBR value.
40
10 1.26 14 13
1.53, 39
30 1.40 28 28 35 Chainage CBR at 95%
65 1.53 39 37 Km Depth MDD
30

CBR (%)
41+000 20-100 7
1.40, 28
41+500 20-100 6
Compaction DD
25
42+000 20-100 8
Level, % (g/cm3) CBR2.54 mm
20 42+500 20-100 7
93% 1.40 28 43+000 20-100 9
15 1.26, 14
95% 1.43 30 SEC-3 43+500 20-100 12

100% 1.51 37 10 44+000 20-100 8


1.25 1.35 1.45 1.55 44+500 20-100 8
Using the given MDD 1.51g/cm³: Dry Density(g/cc) 45+000 20-100 14
Dry Density For 93%, 95% &100% compaction level calculated as 45+500 20-100 8
• 0.93*1.51= 1.40 46+000 20-100 17

• 0.95*1.51 = 1.43
46+500 20-100 9
47+000 20-100 8
• 1*1.51 =1.51
therefore, the corresponding CBR value 28, 30, 37 are found from the above graph or 47+500 20-100 8
81 82
Can be determined using interpolation either by excel or manual computation.

Cont’d Exercise 1
Example 2: solution
• assume the following are the CBR test results of sub grade soil
Soaked CBR frequency curve data data measured from the field. compute the design CBR values.
Sec III : km 41+000 to km 47+500
13 = 100%
13 = ?
CBR,% Category Frequency Percentile stations CBR (%)
>> ? = 100%
6 >6 13 100% 0+000 - 0+060 13
13 = 100% 0+60 - 0+100 5
7 >7 11 85% 0+100 - 0+140 14
11 = ?
8 >8 5 38% >> ? = 85% 0+140 - 0+200 12
0+200 - 0+260 15
9 >9 3 23% 0+260 - 0+300 9
13 = 100%
12 >12 2 15% 0+300 - 0+320 8
y = 90%
11 = 85 % 0+320 - 0+400 7
14 >14 1 8%
0+400 - 0+480 8
17 >17 0 0% y = 11.6  12% 0+480 - 0+520 6
0+520 - 0+660 12
 Design CBR value is 12%
0+660 - 0+720 13
0+720 - 0+840 7

83 84
Exercise 2 Resilient Modulus Test (AASHTO T 307 -99 (2003)

• CBR tests were conducted on two specimen of a • The resilient modulus, MR,
– is the ratio of the repeated deviator stress d to the recoverable axial
soil. Determine the CBR value of the soil if 100
strain r .
divisions of the load dials represents 210kg load in
– is a subgrade material stiffness test.
the calibration chart of the proving ring.
• The resilient modulus (MR) of subgrade soil is the elastic modulus

Load dial readings (divisions) obtained from repetitive load test that simulates the actual pavement
penetration, mm
Specimen No. 1 Specimen No. 2 loading. A material’s resilient modulus (MR) is actually an estimate of its
0.0 0 0
modulus of elasticity (E).
0.5 10 1
1.0 18 2 – The Modulus elasticity (E): is stress divided by strain (e.g., the slope of
1.5 26 3
the stress-strain plot within the linear elastic range) for a slowly applied
2.0 33 7
2.5 38 15 load.
3.0 42 25 – The Resilient modulus (MR): is stress divided by strain for rapidly
4.0 48 35
5.0 55 42 applied loads – like those experienced by pavements.
7.5 67 50  Although they measure the same stress – strain relationship, the
10.0 75 58
load application rates are different, thus resilient modulus is
12.5 80 65
considered an estimate of elastic modulus.
85 86

Cont’d Cont’d
• It is well known that most paving materials are not elastic but experience
some permanent deformation after each load application. However, if the
Stress Distribution in Pavement Layers load is small compared to the strength of the material and is repeated for a
Beneath a Moving Wheel Load. large numbers of times, the deformation under each load repetition is nearly
completely recoverable and proportional to the load and can be considered
as elastic.

• A triaxial device equipped for repetitive load condition is used to carry out
resilient modulus test.

• The test may be conducted on all types of unbounded pavement materials


ranging from cohesive to stabilized materials.

• The resilient modulus of asphalt mixtures can also be determined by the


repeated load application in tensile test. However this test is not available in
most cases and hence some recommendations are made to correlate the
CBR values with the resilient modulus.

• The asphalt Institute recommends the following approximate relationships in


their design method: MR (MPa) = 10.35 X CBR value

87 88
Cont’d Cont’d
• At the initial stage of load applications, there is considerable Generally, Resilient modulus of soil:
permanent deformation (Plastic strain).  Determines the resilient modulus of untreated fine grained

• As the number of repetitions increases, the plastic strain due to soils simulating stress of moving load.

each load repetitions decreases.  Conducted in Triaxial cell – repeated axial deviatoric stress.
• After 100 to 200 repetitions, the strain is practically all  Triaxial is used mainly for research including:
recoverable.  Dams

 High embankment roads

 Foundations of structures

 Slope stability
Correlations:  Soil in saturated/drained condition
MR (psi) = 1491 (CBR)0.684
Note:
• Mr is a measure of stiffness
• CBR is a measure of strength
(load at failure)
Figure. Strains under repeated loads
89 90

Resilient Modulus Test 2.3 Soil classification


• Soils are variable engineering materials !!

• The engineering characteristic of a soil mass depends on the proportion of these two
groups of soils (coarse and fine), and is governed by the one which dominates.

• A soil classification system

– is meant to provide a language of communication between Engineers.

– is a system of ‘labeling’ soils which would convey the same meaning universally, and
show similar behavior. However, a soil classification does not eliminate the need for
detailed soil investigations and testing for engineering properties.

• The purpose of soil classification system is to group soils with similar properties or
attributes.

• As a means of obtaining general behavior, soils are systematically categorized on the basis
of some common characteristics obtained from

– visual inspection/description and laboratory tests.

• Various soil classification systems are in use throughout the world in different areas of
study. In highway engineering, soils are classified by conducting relatively simple tests on
disturbed samples:

– to serve as a means of identifying suitable materials and

– predicting the probable behavior when used as subgrade or subbase material.

• Tests Required:
91 92
– Grain-size analysis, Liquid Limit, and Plastic Limit
Cont’d AASHTO Classification System
• The most commonly used classification systems for highway purposes • AASHTO Soil Classification system is based on:
are – The Gradation (particle size distribution), and

i. the American Association of State Highway and Transportation – Atterberg limit (plasticity characteristics such as LL & PI)

• Soils are categorized into seven groups, A-1 through A-7, with several subgroups.
Officials (AASHTO) Classification System:
• The system has been described by AASHTO as
 Most widely and exclusively used for highways and airfields.
– a means for determining the relative quality of soils for use in embankments, subgrades,
 groups soils into categories having similar load carrying capacity and
subbases, and bases.
service characteristics for pavement sub-grade design.
• To evaluate the quality of a soil as a highway sub-grade material, one must also
 in most cases of site investigation in Ethiopia, the AASHTO classification incorporate a number called the group index (GI) with the groups and subgroups of the soil.
system is recommended. This was to establish the relative ranking of a soil within a subgroup or a group.
• GI is dependent on:
ii. the Unified Soil Classification System (USCS):
1. Percentage of the soil passing the No. 200 (0.075 mm) sieve.
 Most widely used to classify soil for use in foundation & dam engineering.
2. Liquid limit, LL
 is based on identifying soils according to their textural and plastic 3. Plasticity Index, PI.
characteristics, and on their grouping with respect to behaviour.
• The group index (GI) can be determined as:
• Soils seldom exist in nature separately as
GI = (F200 - 35) [0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F200 - 15)(PI - 10)
– sand, gravel, or any other single component. They are usually found as mixtures where,
with varying proportions of particle sizes. Each component part contributes its – F = % of soil particles passing 0.075 mm (No.200) sieve in whole number
characteristics to the soil mixture. The USCS is based on those characteristics – LL = liquid limit expressed in whole number, and
that control how the soil behaves as an engineering material. 93 – PI = plasticity index expressed in whole number. 94

Cont’d Cont’d
 Rules related to interpreting the GI are: Table: AASHTO soil Classification System
• If the equation yields a negative value, GI is taken as zero.
• The group index calculated from the equation is rounded off to the
nearest whole number (e.g. GI = 3.4 is rounded off to 3; GI = 3.5 is rounded off to 4).

• There is no upper limit for the group index.


• The group index of soils belonging to groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5,
and A-3 (F <= 35% , PI < 15, therefore GI –ve) will always be zero.
• When the group index for soils belonging to groups A-2-6 and A-2-7 is
calculated, the partial group index for PI should be used,
i.e., GI = 0.01(F200 - 15)*(PI - 10)
• The quality of performance of a soil as a sub-grade material is inversely proportional
to the group index.
GI - Value Evaluation as subgrade material
0-1 Good
2-4 Fair
5-9 Poor
10 – 20 Very Poor

• If the fine fraction of the soil have a index of plasticity (PI) of PIA-7-5  LL - 30
• Generally, as the GI of a soil increases its value as subgrade material decreases.95 • 10 or less it is referred to silty soil, and 96
• 11 or more it is referred to clayey soil.
PIA-7-6  LL - 30
Cont’d Cont’d
• The group is then designated using the GI value.
– Granular soils fall into classes A-1 to A-3.
• A-1 soils consist of well-graded granular materials,
• A-2 soils contain significant amounts of silts and clays, and
• A-3 soils are clean but poorly graded sands.
– Fine soils fall into classes A-4 to A-7.
• A-4 soils cover non-plastic or moderately plastic soils,
• A-5 contains similar material to Group A-4 but high LL.
• A-6 soils are typical plastic clays exhibiting high volume change between wet and dry
states.
• Group A-7 covers plastic clays, having high values of LL and PI and show high volume
change.

 In general, according to the AASHTO system of classification, the suitability of a soil


deposit for use in highway construction can be summarized as follows.
i. Soils classified as A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3
• can be used satisfactorily as subgrade or sub base material if properly drained. In
addition, such soils must be properly compacted and covered with an adequate thickness
of pavement for the surface load to be carried.
ii. Materials classified as A-2-6, A-2-7, A-4, A-5, A-6, A-7-5, and A-7-6
• will require a layer of sub base material if used as subgrade. If these are to be used as
embankment materials, special attention must be given to the design of the
embankment.
iii. Generally, as the GI of a soil increases its value as subgrade material decreases.
Fig: AASHTO soil Classification System • For example, a soil with a GI of 0 (an indication of a good subgrade material) will be
97 98
better as a subgrade material than one with GI of 20 (an indication of a poor subgrade material).

Example 1: AASHTO CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM Example 2


• The following data were obtained for a soil sample
• A sample of inorganic soil has the following grain size characteristics.
Sieve No. Percent Passing
Size (mm) % passing
4 98
10 93 2.0 (No. 10) 95
40 87 0.075 (No. 200) 75
100 77
200 69
The liquid limit is 56 %, and the plasticity index 25 %. Classify the soil according to the

• Plasticity tests AASHTO classification system and state whether this material is suitable in its
• LL = 48 %, PL = 26 % natural state for use as a subgrade material.
• Determine the classification of the soil and state whether this material is suitable Solution
in its natural state for use as a subbase material. Percent of fine grained soil = 75
GI = (69 – 35)[0.2 + 0.005(48 - 40)] + 0.01(69 – 15)(22 - 10) = 14.6  15 (Very Poor)
Group Index, GI = (F200 - 35)*[0.2 + 0.005(LL - 40)] + 0.01(F200 - 15)*(PI - 10)
i. Since the percent passing No. 200 sieve is 69, the soil must be a Silt-Clay material.
= (75 - 35)*[0.2 + 0.005(56 - 40)] + 0.01(75 - 15)*(25 - 10)
ii. The LL is 48%, therefore it should fall either in A - 5 or A - 7 category.
= 0.2 x 40 + 0.005 x 40 x 16 + 0.01 x 60 x 15
• The PI = LL - PL = 22 > 10, so it must be a A - 7 soil.
= 20.2
• In this case, LL - 30 = 18;
On the basis of percent of fine-grained soils, liquid limit and plasticity index values, the
• PI > (LL - 30); Therefore the soil can be classified as a A-7-6 (15) material.
soil is either A-7-5 or A-7-6.
Conclusion: Unsuitable as a subbase material in its natural state
Since (LL - 30)= 56 - 30 = 26 > PI (25), the soil classification is A-7-5(20).
99 Conclusion: Unsuitable as a subgrade material! 100
Example 3 Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
• The results of the particle size analysis of a soil are as follows
• Originally developed by Casagrande (1948) during World War II intended for use

Sieve size % passing in airfield construction.

No. 10 100 • USCS has been modified in 1952 to make it applicable in foundations, Dams and
No. 40 80 other construction.
No. 200 58 • The fundamental premise used in the USCS system is:
• The LL and PI of the minus No. 40 fraction of the soil are 30 and 10 respectively.
– the engineering properties of any coarse-grained soil (< = 50% passes sieve
Classify the soil by the AASHTO system and state whether this material is suitable
No. 200) depend on particle size distribution, whereas those for a fine-
in its natural state for use as a subbase material.
grained soil (> 50% passes sieve No. 200) depend on its plasticity.
Solution
• In this system of classification, material that is retained in the 75mm (3 in.) sieve
• Since 58% of the soil is passing through the No. 200 sieve, it falls under slit clay is recorded but only that which passes is used for the classification of the
classification – that is , it falls under group A - 4, A -5, A-6, or A-7. sample.
• Proceeding from left to right, it falls under group A-4. • Soils are designated by letter symbols with each letter having a particular
GI = (F200 – 35) (0.2 + 0.005(LL – 40)) + 0.01(F200 – 15)(PI – 10) meaning.
= (58– 35) (0.2 + 0.005(30– 40)) + 0.01(58 – 15)(10 – 10)
• Criteria for USCS:
= 4.6
a. Grain size
=5
b. Cu , Cc
So, the soil will be classified as A - 4(5)
Conclusion: Unsuitable as a subbase material in its natural state. c. Plasticity (Plasticity chart)
101 102

Cont’d Cont’d
• Coarse-grained soils: Soils with more than 50 percent particles retained on  200 sieve (i.e. < Fine-grained soils:
50% passing through 200 sieve). The coarse-grained soils are subdivided into: • Soils with less than 50 percent particles retained on the No. 200 sieve.
• Gravels (G): soils having more than 50 percent of their particles larger than 4.75 mm (i.e.,
• are subdivided into clays (C) or silt (M) based on based on a plasticity chart plotted PI
retained on No. 4 sieve), and
versus LL of the soil from which a dividing line known as the "A" line separates the more
• Sands (S): more than 50 percent of their particles smaller than 4.75 mm (i.e., passed
clayey materials from the silty materials. The equation of the “A” line is
through No. 4 sieve).
PI = 0.73(LL – 20)
Main Soil Sym Subgroup (based on Symb
grain size distribution Classification Group
Type bols ols • Soils that fall below the “A” line are silty soils, whereas those with plots above the "A”
and the nature of the
fine particles in G, S)
symbols line are clayey soils.
• Well-graded W GW: well graded gravel • Organic clays are an exception to this general rule since they plot below the "A" line.
• Poorly-graded P GP: Poorly-graded Gravel
Gravel G Silty M GM: sandy gravel

• The organic, silty, and clayey soils are further divided into two groups,
• Clayey C GC: clayey gravel
• Well-graded W SW: Well-graded sand – one having a relatively low LL (L) and the other having a relatively high LL (H).
• Poorly-graded P SP: Poorly-graded sand
Sand S • Silty M SM: Silty sand • The dividing line between high LL soils and low LL soils is arbitrarily set at 50%.
• Clayey C SC: Clayey sand
Main Soil Symbol Subgroup (based on grain
size distribution and the
Symb Classification Group
• A gravel or sandy soil is divided as well graded(W) or poorly graded (P), depending on the values of Type s nature of the fine ols symbols
particles in M, C, O & Pt)
two shape parameters known as coefficient of uniformity, Cu, and coefficient of curvature, Cc given
M • LL < 50% L ML: silts with low Plasticity
as: Silt H
D 60 ( D 30 ) 2 D60 = grain diameter at 60% passing • LL > 50% MH: silts with high plasticity
C u  Cc  D30 = grain diameter at 30% passing C LL < 50% L CL: clays with low plasticity
D 10 D 10  D 60 Clay

H
D10 = grain diameter at 10% passing • LL > 50% CH: clays with high plasticity
• Accordingly, O • LL < 50% L OL: organic with low plasticity
Organic • LL > 50% H OH: organic with high plasticity
– gravels are described as well graded if Cu is above 4, and Cc is between 1 and 3.
103 104
– Sands are also described as well graded if Cu is above 6, and Cc is between 1 and 3. Peat Pt Pt : peat high clayey soil
Cont’d The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

Table: Unified Soil Classification System


Main Soil Symbol Subgroup (based on Symbo Classification Group symbols
Type s grain size distribution ls
and the nature of the
fine particles in G,
S,M, C, O & Pt)

G • Well-graded W GW: well graded gravel


• Poorly-graded P GP: Poorly-graded Gravel
Gravel • Silty M GM: sandy gravel
• Clayey C GC: clayey gravel
S • Well-graded W SW: Well-graded sand
• Poorly-graded P SP: Poorly-graded sand
Sand • Silty M SM: Silty sand
• Clayey C SC: Clayey sand
M • LL < 50% L ML: silts with low Plasticity
Silt • LL > 50% H MH: silts with high plasticity
C • LL < 50% L CL: clays with low plasticity
Clay • LL > 50% H CH: clays with high plasticity
O • LL < 50% L OL: organic with low plasticity
Organic • LL > 50% H OH: organic with high plasticity
Peat Pt Pt : peat high clayey soil

105 106

Cont’d
2.4 Problematic soils
• In general, the following are the main engineering characteristics of coarse grained
soils A1 to A3: • Soils which can cause foundation problems and decrease the
– very good foundation material for supporting structures and roads; performance of roads are common in many parts of Ethiopia. These soils
– very good embankment material;
are collectively called problem soils and comprise among others;
– the best backfill material for retaining walls;

– May settle under vibratory loads or blasts; – Expansive


– Dewatering may be difficult in open-graded gravels due to high permeability; – Collapsible and compressible, and
– Generally not expansive.
– Dispersive soils.
• The engineering characteristics of inorganic silts (A-4 and A-5) are:
– Relatively low shear strength, Relatively low permeability, and Difficult to compact. • The identification of such soils is crucial during site investigation so that
• In general, the engineering characteristics of inorganic clays (A-6 and A-7) are the appropriate designs can be established at the outset.
following: • Failure to recognize problem soils at the design stage could result in claims and
– Generally possess low shear strength; overruns if identified later during construction or detrimental impact on the long
– Plastic and compressible; term performance of the road.
– Can lose part of shear strength upon wetting;
• Low strength soils, soils with CBR design < 3% (<2% in dry climatic zones) require
– Can lose part of shear strength upon disturbance;
special treatment that may include one or more of the following
– Can shrink upon drying and expand upon wetting;
– Remove and replacement of soils
– Generally very poor material for backfill;

– Generally poor material for embankments; – Stabilization (chemical and mechanical)


– Can be practically impervious; – Rising of the vertical alignment to increase soil cover and thereby redefine the
– Clay slopes are prone to landslides. 107 108
design depth within the structure.
Cont’d Cont’d
1. Expansive soils: • Recommended Treatment of expansive soils
– Avoid expansive clay area by realignment.
– Expansive soils are typically black cotton soils / clayey soils that undergo large
– Treat the expansive clays (with lime)
volume changes in direct response to moisture changes in the soil.
– Avoid or minimize exposure of subgrade / embankment to moisture fluctuation by various methods
• Expansive Soils • by means of blanketing the embankment layer-with good gravel layer of about 30cm

– Characterized by high plasticity: LL >55 and PI > 32 and high shrinkage limit (SL) • Use Replacement method: using suitable backfilling material is the most common and fairly
economical and reliable method
– High % CBR Swell: > 3%
– Mostly occurs in flat plains – alluvial deposits- so Raising the road level / using embankment
– Very low strength when saturated, CBR below 3 but very high strength when dry
material/ by at least 1.5meter is recommended to separate the pavement layers from the
– Identified by their Swell potential
zone of high moisture fluctuation.
• Low expansive, Intermediate expansive, and High expansive potential – Replace the top 600mm layer of the expansive clay soil if high embankment construction is
– The swell potential is manifested on site by wide and deep cracking of the subgrade not possible,
– visually identifiable. Main cause is volume changes due to moisture fluctuation in – Provide French drain to lower the high water table and cut off such as plastic sheets
the subgrade vertically to intercept horizontal movement of water not to enter into embankment

– Considered Very poor foundation material(A very low bearing capacity when wet) – Provide berms at foot of embankments –to separate the embankment from the flood plain -
and construct the side ditches away from road embankments, at least 3m away from toe of
– It causes heaving, wide cracks, and excessive deformations to the road pavement
embankment
when exposed to moisture fluctuation (Variable and seasonal moisture distribution)
– In swampy / marshy grounds, natural soil cover is commonly characterized by highly
– Existing near the road alignment, which create a difficulty in locating any
expansive and compressible clay
associated natural gravels for sub-bases and bases on.
• use dump rock fill or granular material as pioneer layer in marshy / swampy areas to subdue the
swelling effect of the expansive soil and also to provide a working platform for compaction of

109 first layers of embankments 110

Cont’d
2. Collapsible soils:
– are generally described as soils that undergo a relatively significant, sudden and
irreversible decrease in volume upon wetting.

– These types of soils predominantly consist of silt and sand with some clayey material.

 Deposits of collapsible soils are usually associated with regions of moisture deficiency,
such as those in arid and semi-arid regions.

3. Dispersive soils:
– Soils in which the clay particles detach from each other and from the soil structure without
a flow of water and go into suspension, are termed dispersive soils.

– tend to develop in low-lying areas with gently rolling topography and relatively flat slopes.
Their environment of formation is also characterized by an annual rainfall of less than 850
mm.

– have low natural fertility. Often, they are calcareous with a PH value of about 8. Suspicion of
their presence is indicated by the occurrence of erosion gullies and piping.

• In Ethiopia, dispersive soils exist in the rift valley, the southern and eastern lowlands, and Afar,
Somali and Tigray regions. Isolated occurrences of these soils can also be found in other parts

Questions ?
of the country.

– It is difficult to identify dispersive soils using conventional engineering index tests such as
Atterberg limits, gradation or compaction characteristics. Chemical properties can
determine the dispersion potential of soils by measuring the dissolved sodium in the pore
water.
111 112

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